Three Basic AC Circuits

Root Mean Squared (rms)

Root Mean Squared (rms) means we square a set of values, find the average of these squared values, and
then take the square root of the average. Now:
cos2 + sin2 = 1, for all .
This means the average value of cos2 or sin2 is 0.5 over one complete cycle. The rms value for these
functions is then the square root of 0.5 giving:
The rms value of cos = 0.50.5 ~ 0.7071 over one complete cycle.
The rms value of sin = 0.50.5 ~ 0.7071 over one complete cycle.
One can also find the average values of functions and their squares using numerical integration. There is a
program named lc01000.prg associated with this document. If you are viewing this document in Physics
Toolkit's browser, then you can run the program by clicking the Start Editor link in the left frame of the
browser. This will open this document in Editor. Read the Message Box that appears when the document
is loaded.
If you are using another browser then:
1. Download the world.zip file using the Download World link in the left frame of your browser.
2. Run editor.exe in the world folder.
3. Use the File - Open menu item to open lc01000.htm.
The program numerically calculates the area and average value of cos, cos2 and the product cossin
for = 0 to 2 (one complete cycle). It then divides the area by 2 to get the average value of a function
over a complete cycle. You can select the function you wish to evaluate by changing the function value in
the program. The calculation for a function, f, is:
average value = (1/2)f
Results are:
The average value of cos over one complete cycle is zero.
The average value of cos2 over one complete cycle is 0.5.
The average value of cossin over one complete cycle is zero.
Three Basic AC Circuits
Batteries provide a constant voltage and if we connect a resistor to a battery, then the current will be
constant. We call this direct current (DC). If we rotate a loop in a magnetic field with constant angular

frequency, as we did when studying Faraday's and Lenz's Laws, then the voltage and current will not be
constant. The voltage and current will have sinusoidal functions and we call this alternating current (AC).
The figure below shows an AC voltage source connected to a resistor.

Figure 1. An AC voltage source, v, is connected to a resistor,

R, causing current, i, to flow in the circuit. In the following
discussions, we will use lower case letters, v and i, for the
instantaneous voltages and currents in the circuit. Upper case
letters, V and I, will represent the rms values of the voltages
and currents. Now, v is sinusoidal and we will write it as:
v = vmcos(t)
Here:
= 2f is angular frequency with SI units of rad/s.
f is the frequency in Hz.
t is time with SI units of s.
vm is the amplitude of the voltage with SI units of volts.
v is the instantaneous voltage at any time, t, with SI units of volts.
Using Ohm's Law we have:
i = v/R = (vm/R)cos(t) = imcos(t)
Here, im, is the amplitude of the current with SI units of amps. Notice that i and v are in phase. Also:
vm = imR
Now, we'll represent the rms voltage using an upper case V and the rms current using an upper case I.
Then:
V = 0.7071vm and I = 0.7071im
Multiplying both sides of our previous result by 0.7071 gives:
0.7071vm = 0.7071imR
And:
V = IR at 0o

This means the rms voltage is related to the rms current by the resistance. The angle tells us the current
and voltage are in phase.
The instantaneous power delivered to the resistor is the product of the instantaneous voltage and the
instantaneous current.
P = iv = vmimcos2(t)
The average value of cos2 over a complete cycle is 0.5. This gives an average power dissipated in the
resistor as the product of the rms voltage and the rms current.
Pave = IV = (0.7071vm)(0.7071im) = 0.5vmim
Notice that the average power is half of the instantaneous maximum power delivered to the resistor. So,
for an AC circuit we can write the average power dissipated in a resistor in terms of the rms current, rms
voltage and resistance.
Pave = VI = V2/R = I2R

Figure 2. An inductor, L, is connected to an AC voltage

source, v = vmcos(t). Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law we
have:
vL = v
L(di/dt) = vmcos(t)
di/dt = (vm/L)cos(t)
i = [vm/(L)]sin(t) = imsin(t)
vm = imL
Notice that the current is a sine function and the voltage is a cosine function. The current and voltage are
not in phase. We say the voltage across an inductor leads the current in the inductor by 90o. This is
because cos = sin(+90o).
Using V = 0.7071vm and I = 0.7071im for the rms voltage and current, we have:
V = IL at 90o
We use the angle to tell us that the voltage leads the current by 90o.
The instantaneous power is the product of voltage and current.

P = ivL = [vm2/(L)]sin(t)cos(t)
Now, the average of sincos = 0 over one complete cycle. So the average power dissipated in the
inductor is zero over one complete cycle.
Pave = 0
An inductor is an energy storage device. During part of the cycle energy is stored and during the other
part of the cycle energy is released. Over a complete cycle the average power is zero.

Figure 3. A capacitor, C, is connected to an AC voltage

source, v = vmcos(t). Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law we
have:
vC = v = vmcos(t)

Now, i = C(dvC/dt) = Cd(vmcos(t))/dt. And:

i = -[vmC]sin(t) = -imsin(t)
vm = im/(C)
Notice that the current is a negative sine function and the voltage is a cosine function. The current and
voltage are not in phase. We say the current leads the voltage by 90o (or, the voltage lags the current by
90o). This is because cos = -sin(-90o).
Using V = 0.7071vm and I = 0.7071im for the rms voltage and current, we have:
V = I/(C) at -90o
We use the angle to tell us that the voltage lags the current by 90o.
The instantaneous power is the product of voltage and current.
P = ivC = -[vm2C]sin(t)cos(t)
Now, the average of sincos = 0 over one complete cycle. So the average power dissipated in the
capacitor is zero over one complete cycle.
Pave = 0
A capacitor is an energy storage device. During part of the cycle energy is stored and during the other part
of the cycle energy is released. Over a complete cycle the average power is zero.

Impedance and Phase Diagrams

Let's look at the rms voltage and current equations for the three basic circuits we just examined.
VR = IR at 0o purely resistive
VL = IL at 90o purely inductive
VC = I/(C) at -90o purely capacitive
In AC circuits the term impedance, Z, is used. The magnitude of the impedance of a device is the ratio of
the rms voltage to the rms current and has units of Ohms. For resistors, inductors and capacitors, the
impedances are:
ZR = VR/I = R at 0o resistive impedance
ZL = VL/I = L = 2fL at 90o inductive impedance
ZC = VC/I = 1/(C) = 1/(2fC) at -90o capacitive impedance
Notice these things:
The resistive impedance is not a function of frequency, f. A resistor impedes current flow in the circuit
independent of frequency and the impedance of the resistor is constant.
The inductive impedance is linear with frequency and how much it impedes current flow in the circuit
does depend on frequency. If the frequency of the voltage source is zero, then the impedance of the
inductor is zero (it acts like a short circuit to DC). As the frequency approaches infinity, the impedance of
the inductor approaches infinity (it acts like an open circuit).
The capacitive impedance varies inversely with frequency and how much it impedes current flow in the
circuit also depends on frequency. If the frequency of the voltage source is zero, then the impedance of
the capacitor is infinite (it acts like an open circuit to DC). As the frequency approaches infinity, the
impedance of the capacitor approaches zero (it acts like a short circuit).
The voltage and current are in phase for a resistor. The voltage leads the current by 90o for an inductor.
The voltage lags the current by 90o for a capacitor.
An RLC Series Circuit
Now, let's connect a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor in series with an AC voltage source as shown in
the figure below. Since they are in series, they will get the same current. Using Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
around the loop, we have:
V = VL + VR + VC
V = IZL + IZR + IZC

V = I(ZL + ZR + ZC)
V = IZeq
Now, the impedances are not at the same phase angles, so to get the equivalent impedance, Zeq, we must
take this difference in phase into account. We do this using a phase diagram.
Figure 1. A resistor, inductor
and capacitor are connected in
series to an AC voltage source.
Since they are in series, they all
get the same current. A phase
diagram is also shown. This
diagram accounts for the phase
differences between the
voltages and current for the
devices in the circuit. The
current and voltage are in phase
for a resistor so we plot vR on
the positive i axis. The voltage
leads the current by 90o for an
inductor, so we plot vL on the
o
positive j axis. The voltage lags the current by 90 for a capacitor, so we plot vC on the negative j axis.
Now, the phase diagram resembles a vector diagram, but i and j do not represent directions, they represent
phase angles between the voltages and the current in the circuit. The arrows on the diagram are called
phasors, and while they are not vectors, they do add similar to adding vectors. Since the current is the
same for all the voltages on the phase diagram, we can divide it out.

Figure 2. The current has

been divided out of the phase
diagram. We are now left
with impedances. Using an
impedance table we have:

Impedance

ZR

ZL

ZC

-1/(C)

Zeq

L - 1/(C)

The magnitude of the equivalent impedance, Zeq, is:

Zeq = {ZR2 + [ZL - ZC]2}0.5
Zeq = {R2 + [L - 1/(C)]2}0.5
The angle, , is the phase angle between the source voltage, V, and the current, I.
= tan-1{[ZL - ZC]/ZR}
= tan-1{[L - 1/(C)]/R}
The rms current in the circuit is related to the rms source voltage by:
V = IZeq at
For a purely resistive circuit we have:
Zeq = {R2}0.5 = R
= tan-1{0/R} = 0o
VR = IR at 0o
For a purely inductive circuit we have:
Zeq = {(L)2}0.5 = L
= tan-1{L/0} = 90o
VL = IL at 90o
For a purely capacitive circuit we have:
Zeq = {(-1/C)2}0.5 = 1/(C)
= tan-1{[-1/(C)]/0} = -90o
VC = I/(C) at -90o

Now, let's return to our RLC series circuit reproduced in the figure below.
Figure 3. When the
frequency approaches
zero, ZL approaches
zero, ZC approaches
infinity, and the current
in the circuit
approaches zero. When
the frequency
approaches infinity,
ZL approaches infinity,
ZC approaches zero,
and the current in the
circuit again
approaches zero. At
some frequency
between zero and
infinity we will have maximum current. This occurs when the inductive impedance cancels the capacitive
impedance.
ZL - ZC = 0
L = 1/(C)
= 1/(LC)0.5 or f = 1/{2(LC)0.5}
This is called the resonant frequency. When this occurs, the impedance in the circuit is R and the current
is maximum at:
I = V/R

Figure 4. This is a plot of impedance and

current for the above RLC series circuit
with R = 10, L = 1H and C = 1F. The
figure can be generated by opening this
document in Editor and following the
information in the Message Box that
appears. The impedance goes through a
minimum and the current goes through a
maximum at about 159 Hz (the resonant
frequency).

If one connects the resistor voltage to another circuit, then the other circuit will see a maximum input
voltage at the resonant frequency. By using a variable inductor, a variable capacitor, or both, one can
change the resonant frequency and use this type of circuit as a tuner. For example, you could construct a
circuit that would pass the frequency range for Channel 7 on a TV and exclude the other channel
frequencies.
Impedance as Complex Numbers
Now, while the RLC series impedance diagram we have just considered acts very similar to vector
addition, the vector analog quickly breaks down when we try to add impedances in parallel. The
mathematics of complex numbers then become more useful. An impedance can be modeled as a complex
number with the real part along the i axis and the imaginary part along the j axis. Then the impedance can
be written in the form, a + jb, where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part of the impedance. Here, j
is the square root of negative one and replaces i as used in mathematics because i is used for current in
electronics. Using this notation, the impedances for a resistor, inductor and capacitor are written:
ZR = R + j0, where a = R and b = 0
ZL = 0 + jL, where a = 0 and b = L
ZC = 0 - j/(C), where a = 0 and b = -1/(C)
The magnitude of the impedance is:
Z = (a2 + b2)0.5
And the phase angle of the impedance is:
= tan-1(b/a)
Impedances in series add:
Zeq = Zi for i = 1 to n
Impedances in parallel add inversely:
1/Zeq = 1/Zi for i = 1 to n
The rules of complex numbers, such as using complex conjugates, apply with impedance.

A Low Pass Filter

Figure 5. This is an example of a low pass filter

where the output voltage across the capacitor is
used as an input voltage to another circuit. As
the frequency approaches zero, ZC approaches
infinity and vout approaches v. As the frequency
approaches infinity, ZC approaches zero and
vout approaches zero. The circuit passes low
frequencies and blocks high frequencies.

A High Pass Filter

Figure 6. This is an example of a high pass

filter where the output voltage across the
inductor is used as an input voltage to another
circuit. As the frequency approaches zero,
ZL approaches zero and vout approaches zero.
As the frequency approaches infinity,
ZL approaches infinity and vout approaches v.
The circuit passes high frequencies and blocks
low frequencies.

AC to DC
In many cases, circuits may need a DC voltage source. We can construct a DC voltage source from an AC
voltage source as follows.
Figure 7. An AC voltage source is
connected to a transformer. The
transformer is used to step up or step
down the voltage. The resistor
represents the equivalent resistance
of some circuit we want to power
with DC voltage. However, the
output is still AC.

Figure 8. The new circuit symbol is for

a device called a diode. A diode is a
device that allows current to pass in
only one direction, the direction of the
arrow indicated by the symbol. In this
situation, only the positive half of the
AC voltage is passed, while the
negative half is blocked. This is called
a half wave rectifier. This is still not
DC.
Figure 9. More diodes are
added. In this situation both
halves of the AC voltage are
passed as positive half waves.
This is called a full wave
rectifier. This is still not DC.

Figure 10. A capacitor is added to

smooth the output voltage. The
larger the capacitance, the larger the
RC time constant will be. This
means the capacitor will discharge
less between each peak voltage and
the voltage across our resistor is
now nearly DC.