ADVANCE FOUNDATION

ENGINEERING
ASSOC. PROF. Ir. DR. RAMLI NAZIR

SUCCESSFUL FOUNDATION
ENGINEERING FAILURE

Stage of Design
Normally there are 3 stages of design i.e
1.

PRE DESIGN STAGE

2.

CONSTRUCTION STAGE

3.

POST DESIGN STAGE

PRE DESIGN STAGE

Accurate and reliable SI data is vital.
Type of foundation use for the structure is based from the
above.
b
An overall aspect and anticipation during construction has to be
considered especially practical and economics consideration.
consideration
During this stage, loading, foundation arrangement and location,
identified
bearing capacity and other related practice has been identified.
Anticipation of the problem in foundation construction work
should be recognised and overcoming the problem should be
readily available.

DESIGN ANALYSES
Which one to use???

TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Or
EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS

TOTAL STRESS ANALYSES

This type of analysis uses the undrained shear strength of the
cohesive soil and also known as short term analysis.
Th undrained
The
d i d shear
h strength,
h cu can be
b obtained
b i d ffrom fi
field
ld such
h
as vane shear and laboratory such as unconfined compression
test If the undrained shear strength is constant throughout the
test.
depth then cu = c and =0o. The use of unconsolidated
undrained triaxial compression test is also applicable provided
that it is saturated plastic soil.
The groundwater does not have an effect in the use of total
stress parameters.

EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS

This type of analysis uses the drained shear strength, c and of
the plastic soil.
The drained shear strength could be obtained from triaxial
i test with
i h pore pressure measurement tested
d on a
compression
fully saturated specimen of the plastic soil.
Also known as long term analysis since the shearshear-induced pore
water pressure (positive or negative) from the loading has
and the hydrostatic
pore
pressure conditions now
dissipated
p
y
p
p
prevail in the field.
Thus the location of the water table is significant in considering
in the analysis.

Governing Conditions (TSA and ESA)

Total stress analysis will provide a lower allowable bearing
capacity for soft or very soft saturated plastic soils.
Thi is
This
i due
d to
t the
th load
l d from
f
foundation
f
d ti that
th t will
ill consolidate
lid t the
th
plastic soil leading to an increase in shear strength as time passes.
For Effective stress analysis, the shear strength is higher for soft
or very soft saturated plastic soils which will results in higher
bearing capacity.
Effective stress analysis will provide lower bearing capacity for
very stiff or hard saturated plastic soils.
This is due to the dilation of plastic soil during undrained shear
deformation since the soil are usually heavily overconsolidated.
As the soil dilates it tends to develop
p negative
g
p
pore p
pressure. As
these pressure dissipates with times the shear strength of the
heavily overconsolidated plastic soil will decrease. This will lower
the bearing capacity of the soil.
soil

Firm to stiff saturated p

plastic soils are intermediate conditions.
The OCR and the tendency of the saturated plastics soilto
consolidate will determine whether the TSA or ESA provides the
lower bearing capacity.

SITE INVESTIGATION

INTRODUCTION
A process of site exploration consisting of boring, sampling and
testing so as to obtain geotechnical information for a safe,
practical and economical geotechnical evaluation and design
design..
Generally it is an exploration or discovery of the ground
conditions..
conditions
In other words the main purpose of site investigation is to
determine within practical limits, the depth, thickness, extent and
compositions of each subsoil stratum, the depth and type of rock,
the depth and composition of ground water, the strength,
compressibility and hydraulic charactristics of soil strata as
required by geotechnical engineers
engineers..

THE IMPORTANCE OF SI
To study the general suitability of the site for an engineering
project. (FEED Program)Program)- FRONTIER EVALUATION
ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT
DEVELOPMENT.
To enable a safe
safe, practical and economic design to be prepared.
prepared
T determine
d t rmi the
th possible
p ibl difficulties
diffi lti that
th t may
m be
b encountered
t r d
To
by a specific construction method.
To study the suitability of construction material (soil or rock).

WHY S.I
S I ??????
This is a part of geotechnical processes.
Lack of geotechnical processes will lead to a:a:

Failures where many case histories are

available.
Significant
delayy and increase in construction
g
costs when the design has to be revised or
ammended.

Generally the elimination of the SI will not safe the cost of the
project thus it only comprises from only 0.1% to 5% of the
project cost.

YOU HAVE TO PAY FOR THE S.I

WHETHER YOU LIKE IT OR NOT!!

FACTORS INFLUENCING SELECTION OF

SI METHODS
Geological nature of site.
Topographical Nature of the site
Type of information required
Financial Constraint and Time Restriction.

WORK PROCEDURE FOR SITE

INVESTIGATION

Desk study to collect all the relevant data and information

Reconnaissance
Planning program after reviewing the above.
Ground exploration: Boring, sampling and testing.
Laboratory testing
P
ti off SI reportt
Preparation
Design
Review during construction and monitoring.

Fascilitating SI Program
Location Plan : Preferably in a scale of 1:60000
Site Plan
Other details such as loading condition, preliminary SI reports if
any should be included.

PLANNING OF SITE INVESTIGATION

WORKS
Surface Investigations

Site inspection to assess general site condition

if there is any anticipated problems that might
arise during the construction later on
on..
Usuallyy the engineer
is required
to inspect
the
g
q
p
site to appreciate actual site and ground
problems with p
p
particular reference to terrain,,
vegetation,
swamps,
water
run
off,
stratigraphical
g p
formations where theyy are
exposed..
exposed

PLANNING SCOPE OF SITE

INVESTIGATION
Select methods of SI base on p
principle
p and gguidelines stipulated
p
in BS 5390.
Important
p
considerations are : terrain features and accessibility,
y
geological conditions, types of sample and test required.
Estimate cost and time required.
Determine the number, depth and spacing of boreholes or other
field tests including the location of test, procedures etc.
Determine frequency and types of insitu testing and sampling in
each borehole.
Determine extent of supervision on testing and boring.
Prepare list of special precautions for the site investigation
supervisor
i at site,
i if any.
Prepare scheme of laboratory testing after analysis of borelogs.

ROLE OF SI IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING DESIGN

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

SI

SOIL
PROPERTIES
INTERPRETATION
JUDGEMENT

GROUND
CHARACTERIZATION
MODELLING
PREDICTION
CODE OF PRACTICES: FOUNDATION BS 8004
ANCHORS BS8081
EARTHWORKS BS6031
REINFORCED FILLS BS8006
GEOGUIDES

GROUND
BEHAVIOUR
DEFORMATION
DISPLACEMENT
STABILITY

ENGINEERING
PERFORMANCE

BASIC & INDEX PROPERTIES

MASS PROPERTIES
TYPICAL & GENERALISED
SUBSOIL PROFILE &
PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL
GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS,
MAN MADE FILL etc..
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

SOIL & ROCK MECHANICS

EFFECTIVE STRESS THEORY
SEEPAGE THEORY
STRESS DISTRIBUTION
LATERAL PRESSURE
BEARING CAPACITY
COMPRESSIBILITY

INSTRUMENTATION FOR
PORE WATER PRESSURE
EARTH PRESSURE
DISPLACEMENT(SURFACE & SUBSURFACE
INTERNAL STRESSES

Method of Site Investigation

JKR PROBE
HAND AUGERING (HA)
MOTORISED HAND BORING (MHB)
DEEP BORING (DB)
TRIAL PITS AND PLATE BEARING TEST
DEEP SOUNDING (DS)
INSITU VANE SHEAR TEST (IVST)
STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)
PRESSUREMETER TEST
GROUND WATER INVESTIGATION
ROCK CORING

JKR PROBE
Simple and cheap dynamic penetrometer test used to check the
consistency of subsoil.
D l by
Develop
b JKR in
i 1970 andd always
l
mistaken
i k with
i h Mackintosh
M ki
h
Probe.
The cone is driven directly into the soil by driving a 5kg hammer
at a height of 280mm through free fall.
The results are recorded in a number of blows per 300mm
penetration.
Maximum penetration is about 12m or 400 blows/300mm
whichever arrives first.
The p
probe is unable to p
penetrate into medium strength
g soil and
gravelly ground.

ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH JKR PROBE

Human errors ::-

Drop height less than 280mm resulting in higher blow counts

Applying force to hammer resulting in less blow counts.
Penetration depth not marked correctly
Wrong counting.

Instrumental error ::-

Driving bend rod deformed

Stopper blow lost of damage
Worn out threads on coupling and driving rods.

JKR probe result can be used for shallow footing designs if the
results
lt are consistent.
it t

HAND AUGERING
Simple boring by hand with periodic removal of soil samples.
Normally no casing is used.
Usually used in soft to stiff cohesive soils or sandy silty soil
above water table.
D h iis lilimited
Depth
i d about
b
55m and
d the
h di
diameter off the
h b
borehole
h l iis
about 100mm.
i very
r useful
f l tto gett the
th soilil sample
mpl for
f r soilil classification
l ifi ti
HA is
tests and ground water observation.
For sandy soil with high water table,
table the uncased bored shaft will
collapse and boiling may be noted even for a short exposure
(indicating
(
g shallow foundation is not practical)
p
)

MOTORISED HAND BORING

Commonly called wash boring consists of tripod with block and
tackle or motor driven winch.
Th borehole
The
b h l iis advanced
d
db
by chopping
h
i while
hil twisting
i i rods
d and
d
washing with pump
pump--circulated water.
Simple easily portable and can be used in all types of soils except
Simple,
those containing big boulders.
Progress is slow when encountering very stiff/dense material
especially when deeper than 10m.
Adopted easily at locations where access is difficult.
Normally casing is used and depth of boring is about 20m.

DEEP BORING
Also refer as rotary drilling.
Basic component including drilling machine, drilling rods, casing,
bits and sampling tools.
Basic field test sets are SPT sets, vane shear set, Menard
pressuremeter, etc.
Borehole is advance by power rotation of drilling bit and
removall off cuttings
i
by
b the
h circulating
i l i water.
Drilled rod are presented by hydraulic pressure.
Wh
db
ld are encountered,
d suitable
i bl di
d
Whenever
rockk and
boulders
diamond
bits or tungsten carbide bits are to be used.
Casing needed to be used
sed and changing in strata are indicated by
b
changing in the rate of advancing of borehole action of drilling
g in drillingg fluid.
rods and visual examination of cuttings
This is the most expensive soil investigation method but yet a
comprehensive type.

ROTARY WASH BORING

TRIAL PITS AND PLATE BEARING TEST

Depth is usually about 5m and the side of open cuts need to be
braced.
F easy visual
For
i l examination
i i off soilil strata in
i their
h i naturall
conditions.
Usually carried out at site where shallow foundation is feasible
and design pressure is high.
Trial pit is also preferable to boring in cohesive soils and soft
rocks above water table or cohesive soils containing considerable
amount of boulders or cobbles.
It is also used to locate buried pipes and services.

Vertical plate bearing is usually carried out in trial pit to

determine the shear strength and deformation characteristics of
soil/rock beneath the loaded plate.
Useful in weathered rock, highly fractured rock, hardcore fill or
soils containing considerable amount of gravel and cobbles
where other test procedure are difficult or impossible to apply.
Square and circular plate is used to load in order to obtain the
load--settlement curve.
load
Results should be used with caution in clayey soils where depth if
influence is limited by virtue of limited plate size.
In absence of additional penetrometer tests like SPT and JKR
Probes, the test can be misleading.

DEEP SOUNDING
Refers to static dutch cone penetrometer.
Consists of essentially a penetrometer having an apex 60o and
the end area of 10cm2.
Comparatively
p
y a fast economical and simple
p method and veryy
useful in coastal alluvial and thick deposits of weak to moderately
strong soils.
Deep soundaing cannot penetrate very dense soils with gravel or
soft rocks.
It does not reveal soil types but by Schmertmann method it can
correlate the type of soils.
In permeable
bl soils,
l ddeep sounding
d results
l give ddrained
d condition
d
strength while in clays, it measures undrained strength of the
soils.
soils

Cone Resistance
i
Ckd(kg/cm2)

Relative
l i Density
i
Dr (%)

l off Internall
Angle
Friction,

< 20

< 20

25 - 30

20 - 40

20 - 40

30 - 35

40 - 120

40 60

35 - 40

120
20 - 200

60 - 80

40
0 - 45

> 200

> 80

45

In cohesionless soil:soil:fs = Ckd/200

if Ckd >
>= 20MPa

fs = Ckd/150

if Ckd <= 10MPa

In cohesion soil:soil:fs = Ckd/15

for soft soils

fs = Ckd/36.6

for stiff soils

Ratio of Ckd/cu is about 16,

16, where cu is an undrained strength.
strength.

IN SITU VANE SHEAR TEST

Used to determine the undrained cohesion of clay in field
conditions which are generally difficult to simulate in the lab.
B i ll consists
Basically
i off the
h ffour bl
bladed
d d vane that
h will
ill penetrate iinto
the undisturbed soil and rotated at a constant rate between 6o to
12o / min.
min
The results are reliable for saturated clayey soil without gravel or
coarse sands.
For very soft to stiff clay (cu < 50kPa) the blade size should be
g
75mm wide byy 150mm long.
For stronger soil (cu between 50 and 100 kPa) the blade size
should be 50mm to 100mm long.

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST (SPT)

This a dynamic field test usually carried out in boreholes.
Test consists of driving a standard split barrel sampler 50.8mm
in diameter.
The SPT is read from a 65kg drop hammer fall at a vertical
h i ht off 75cm.
75 m
height
Th sampler
The
l is
i driven
di
to a totall off 45cm
45 into
i
the
h soilil andd the
h
number of blows recorded for the last 30cm of penetration
(SPT,
(SPT N
N--value)

Numbers of BH,
BH POSITION and Depth

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST VALUE

FOR DESIGN
D l d in
Developed
i 1927 andd currently
l the
h most popular
l method
h d andd economical
i l means to obtain
b i
subsurface information.
Currently 85% - 90% of usage in conventional foundation design.
T t consist
Test
i t off ::

Driving the split barrel sample at a distance of 460mm into the soil at the bottom of boring.
Counting the number of blows to drive sample at last two 150mm distances to obtain N
value
Using 63.5kg driving mass falling free from a height of 760mm.

The boring log shows refusal and the test is halted if:if:

50 blows are required for any 150mm increment

100 blows are obtained to drive the required 300mm
10 successive blows produce no advance.

When full test depth cannot be obtained, boring log will show a
ratio as 70/100 or 50/100 indicating that 70 or 50 blows resulted in
a penetration of 100mm.
The blow count is directly related to the driving energy:energy:E

1
mv
2

1 W
v
2 g

2 gh

1W
2gh
2 g

Substituting both equation:equation:-

Wh

W= weight of mass or hammer

H = height of fall

For standard test:test:E = 63.5 x 9.81 x 0.762

= 474 5 475 kJ

K
Kovac
andd Salomone
S l
( 1982) found
f
d that
h the
h actuall energy impact
i
to the
h sampler
l range about
b
30% to
80% while Riggs (1983) obtained energy input from 70% to 100%
The discrepancies arises from:from:

Equipment from different manufacturers

Driving hammer configuration
Usage of liner inside the barrel
Overburden pressure
p
Length of drill rod

Therefore SPT can be standardised to some energy ratio Er such that:that:Er= (Actual hammer energy to sampler (Ea)/ Input Energy (E)) x 100

Energy input of 70% is normally use since observation is close to

the actual energy ratio (E
( E r)
Th f
Therefore
the
h standard
d d bl
blow count N70 is
i measure from
f
N as
follows:
N70 = CN x N x x x x
Where i = adjustment factor from table
N70 = Adjusted
Adj
dN
CN = Adjustment for effective overburden pressure
CN

95.76
po'

po in kPa

Note that larger Er decrease the blow count nearly linearly

i.e Er45 gives N=20
Er90 gives N = 10
With Er700 gives N = 13
Er 1xN1 Er 2 xN2

Energy ratio x blow count should be constant thus ::-

N2

Er 1
xN1
Er 2

Say Er1 = 70 thus gives N2 = (70/Er2)xN1

Say N2 for Er45 = 20 = Er2
We obtain N1 = 13
If we convert N70 to N60 than N2 = N60 = (70/60)x13 = 15
Using the equation we can readily convert any energy ratio to any other base.

SPT CORRELATIONS
It can be used in correlation for unit weight
weight relative density,
Dr, angle of internal friction angle , undrained compressive
strength,
strength qu, bearing capacity and stress
stress--strain modulus
modulus.
Angle of internal friction:friction: 4.5N70 20
Base from Japanese Railway Standard:
N'
32 0.288p'
Relative Density
D
B from
fr m M
rh f(1957) :
Base
Meyerhof(1957)
where po is in kPa
N ' A BC p'
F OCR > 1 DSkempton
For
Sk
suggest the
h following
f ll i adjustment
dj
has
h
been made:
made:-70

70

OCR

Where A range between 15 to 54

B range between 0.306
0 306 to 0.204
0 204
And COCR

p' onc
p' oOCR

For COCR=1 it relates to normally consolidated clay

o
o
28 15 Dr

Thus Meyerhof estimate:estimate:-

A correlation for N versus qu in general form of:

of:-qu = kN
Wh k tend
Where
d to b
be site
i ddependant.
d
However k = 12 has been used i.e for N70 = 10, qu = 120kPa

DESIGN NN-values

Relationship between Angle of Internal Friction and N-Value

(Sandy Soil)

SPT (Standard Penetration Test)

SPT

Hammer Type

N SPT = Total No. of Blows for spoon sampler to penetrate at a

N-SPT
depth of 30cm

c (t/m2) = 2/3 N

Relationship between Cohesion and N-Value (Cohesive soil)

2/3 N

Variables that influence SPT results

Dented or detorned driving shoes
Driving Sampler above base of casing
Inadequate cleaning of borehole
Inadequate supervision or observation

Carelessness in blow counting

Penetration depth not marked clearly
Sampler
byy coarse gravel
or cobbles causing
p frequently
q
y impeded
p
g
ga
sudden increase in blow counts. Observe rate of penetration and
sample recovered. Indicate this in bore log.
Always keep boreholes full of water or bentonite solution to minimise
quick or boiling condition especially in sandy strata at great depth.
Ensure hammer does not strike dolly eccentrically.
Use standard drilling rod or bigger if depths exceed 50m
Use standard hammer with guide rod.

DESIGN NN-values
Current practise is to use an average N but in the zone of
majoring stress.
S
Spread
d foundation
f
d i the
h zone off iinterest iis ffrom about
b
1/2B to
2B below the base of footing.
Nav
a

N.z
z

For pile foundations, there may be merit in the simple average of

blow count N for any stratum unless it is very thick.
thick
It may be better to subdivide the thick stratum into several strata
and average the N count for each division.
Average corrected N70 can be computed and then average.

Empirical Design Value for Pile

Pile Location

Skin Resistance ((kN))

End Bearing
g ((kN))

Sand

3 Nav As

400 Nb Ab

Silt

2.5 Nav As

300 Nb Ab

Clay

2 Nav As

100 Nb Ab

PRESSUREMETER TEST
Using Menard Pressuremeter test to carry out in a borehole by
appl ing press
applying
pressure.
re
For undrained condition, the pressure is maintained for a minute
or two.
two
The probe pressure, in applied step, is increased untill limit
pressure P1.
condition:-For cohesive soil in undrained condition:
P1 = Po + ncu, where n = 4 to 5 generally
cu = (P1 Po)/10 + 2.5 (kg/cm2)
For cohesionless soil:
soil:-P1 = PoN2 where N = tan2(45 + /2)

GROUND WATER INVESTIGATION

Parameters of importance in groundwater investigation are:

Existence of water table; normal perched or artisan.

Exact GWT and lower limit of perhed ground water
Thickness of strata and the piezometric level of artisan groundwater.
Variation of these characteristics over the site and with time
The chemical composition of groundwater.

Precaution taken while collecting water samples:

Avoid taking water sample from borehole where bentonite slurry has bee used.
used
If possible collect the water before addition of water to borehole.
Make sure the subsoil water is not contaminated by rain water or surface water.
meter
It is a good practise to lower the water in the borehole by about half a meter,
and then allowing to rise ti its original position and collect the water sample.
Water sample shall be stored in airtight and clean container.
Test on water samples shall be carried out at the earliest
earliest.

ROCK CORING
To determine the soundness of rock.

Sound rock : Rock which ring when struck with a pick or bar
bar.. Does not integrate
after exposure to air or water, breaks with a sharp, fresh fracture, in which
cracks are unweathered and less than 3mm wide and generally not closer than
1m apart.
apart. Core recovery is normally 85%
85%.
Medium
d
rockk : Characteristic
Ch
as for
f sound
d rockk but
b the
h cracks
k maybe
b 6mm wide
d
and slightly weathered, generally no closer than 60cm
60cm.. Core recovery is 50%
50% or
more..
more
Intermediate rock : Give dull sound when hit by pick or bar
bar.. Does not integrate
after exposure to air or water
water.. Broken pieces may show weathered faces.
faces.
Fractures
a u
up to
o 25
25mm
5mm wide
d a
and
d space
pa
no
o closer
o
than
a 30
30cm
cm.. Core
o recovery
o y
generally is 35%
35% or greater
greater..

Soft rock : Any rock which flakes on exposure to air or water. Give a very dull
sound when struck with pick or bar. Core recovery generally is less than 35% or
greater but SPT more than 50.

Description of rock (BS 5930).

Colour
Grain size ( Tab. 9)
Texture and structure
State of weathering
Rock Name (in capital : Tab. 9)
Strength
Others.
RQD

RQD(%)

Soundness of Rock

90 - 100

Excellent

75 - 90

Good

50 - 75

Fair

25 - 50

Poor

< 25

Very Poor

Strength of Rock Materials

T
Term

U i i l Compressive
Uniaxial
C
i Strength
St
th (MN/m
(MN/ 2)

Very Weak

< 1.25

Weak

1.25 5.0

M d
Moderately
t l Weak
W k

5 0 12.5
5.0
12 5

Moderately Strong

12.5 50.0

Strong

50 - 100

Very Strong

100 - 200

Extremely strong

> 200

Depending on moisture ,
anisotrophy and test
procedure

SOIL SAMPLING TECHNIQUE

2 TYPES OF SAMPLE ::-

Undisturbed
U di t b d
: To
T determine
d t
i
properties
ti
such
h as strength
t
th parameters,
t
consolidation, permeability and parameters which need to observed as per site
condition..
condition
Disturbed : Do determine physical properties such as grain size, colour,
colour, texture,
compaction properties, remoulded properties and for testing etc
etc..

DISTURBED SAMPLE
Causes of samples disturbance ::

From boring
g processes
p
Driving the sampling tools
Withdraw of sampling tools
The relief of stresses in the soil

Methods to reduce disturbance ::-

By fixing extension pieces at each end of the sampling tube.

For soft sensitive soil use piston sampler
Sealed sample to reduce moisture losses.

Sample identification

UNDISTURBED SAMPLE
The amount of sample disturbance depends on several factors as
follows::follows

Sh
Shape
off cutting
tti edge
d
Area of container relative to area of soil.
Ar =( Do2 Di2 ) / Di2

Ar < 0.01

Friction between soil and inside of tube wall

wall.. This will compressed the
recover length and make it less than push length.
length.

A measure of disturbance is called a recovery ratio

Lr = Length Recovered / Length Pushed
Lr < 1.0

- soil in compression

Lr > 1.0

- soil in expansion

If Lr not equal to 1.0 - sample are disturbed

Soil character itself. If the soil is highly sensitive, insitu testing
will be dominant.

FIELD IDENTIFICATION AND

DESCRIPTION OF SOIL
Soil descriptions are made from washed and disturbed samples
recovered from the boreholes.
The soil name is based on particle size distribution and plasticity,
which can be readily estimated and measured at the laboratory.
laboratory

According to BS 5930, soil samples are described with each element of

the descriptions having a fixed position within the overall description:description:

a)
b))
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Consistency (cohesive) or RD (non cohesive)

Fabric and Fissuring,
g, if distinguishable
g
Colour
Subsidiary constituent
Angularity or grading of principal soil type (for coarse grained soil)
Principal soil type (in capital letter)
More detailed comments on constituents or fabric.

EG.
Very Stiff (a)

Dark Grey (c)

Dense (a) Brown (c)

Fine to Coarse (e)

Very Stiff (a)

Greenish blue (c)

CLAY (f)
Angular (e) GRAVEL (f)

Sandy (d) CLAY (f) With some rounded gravel (g)

When soils are desribed at field, it is important to learn how to

di ti i h between
distinguish
b t
clay
l andd non cohesive
h i soils
il on the
th basis
b i off
estimated engineering behaviour.
behaviour. (10% of clay can impart an
essentially cohesive behaviour
behaviour.. Eg
Eg..

A soil containing 50% of silt, 30% of clay and 20% of sand is described as
sandy silty CLAY because the soil behaves more like a clay.

Clayey SAND not cohesive, but contains clay

Very clayey SAND or Very sandy CLAY borderline

Sandy CLAY cohesive, but sand may be the major constituents by weight.

The following description should be used when giving more

detailed comments on constituents of soils ::Description
Desc iption
.with traces of

% by
b wt.
t of total soil
10

.with a little of

10 - 20

.with some ..

20 - 35

.and.

35 - 50

The following should be used when describing subsidiary

components of soils:
soils:-Descriptive
Term

Subsidiary Component by Weight

Sand and
Gravel Mixes

Coarse Soil
Containing
Fines

Fine Soil
Containing
Coarse Particles

None

35 %

Slightly
g y

5%

5%

Not Used

Subsidiary
Adjective

5 20 %

5 15 %

35 65 %

Very

20 %

15 35 %

Not Used

GEOTECHNICAL REPORT GUIDELINE

Table
Table of Contents
Executive Summary. Brief to the point summary not exceeding one page of
g and design
g recommendations
findings
Terms of Reference. Outline terms of reference and scope, identify requesting
source. Find out geotechnical requirements from the project manager, structural
engineer or the geometric designer at the beginning of the assignment and keep
track of changing requirements thus terms of reference.
Background information/ review of existing data. Provide site description.
Describe, topography and geology (in terms of engineering significance and
engineering properties), seismic ground motion data, lab data, groundwater and
d i
drainage
i f
information.
ti
P id location
Provide
l
ti
map, National
N ti
l Topographic
T
hi Series
S i 1:50,000
1 50 000
map reference, e.g. 92B/12, Longitude and Latitude, Universal Transverse Mercator
coordinates if possible. Provide plan profile where applicable, site history if available.

Site investigation. Describe what is needed in light of existing information, provide specific rationale for the
scope
p and methods of site investigation
g
to make it p
possible for reviewers to assess the adequacy
q y of the
investigation. Describe what was carried out. Show location of test holes or pits or geophysical lines if any.
Include field observations at the site, soils and existing conditions.
Laboratory testing
testing. List the tests done and present the results using standard format.
format
Evaluation and analysis. Discussion of the site investigation and laboratory test results and their implications
proposed
p
facilityy or the stabilityy of the site investigated.
g
The seismic assessment should be provided.
p
on the p
Describe analyses performed, assumptions, parameters and methods used (use two methods for analyzing
slope stability or calculating bearing capacities where practical). Provide foundation or slope design
information in terms of both static and dynamic (seismic) design if required and state what safety factors are
place. Provide anticipated
p
range
g of settlement for foundations and fills and FOS of fill. Apply
pp y yyour field
in p
observation of the site conditions and existing foundations if any, on your choice of foundation type.
Sand and Gravel Sources/ Disposal Areas. Provide legal description, status (Crown, lease, etc.). Describe
i l sandd andd gravell sources, testedd or estimated
i
d material
i l properties
i andd projected
j
d quantities.
i i Describe
D
ib
potential
investigation methodology. Provide recommendations on waste or surplus material disposal areas.

Design Recommendations , including the Design of Pavement Structures.

Structures
Point out possible foundation and construction difficulties, effects on the existing
adjacent structures and suggest methods of overcoming these difficulties,
difficulties recommend
the preferred type of foundation, describe why and suggest possible alternatives
(value engineering) where possible. Refer to findings of field investigation, lab test
findings and analyses results.
results Point out that the geotechnical engineer should be
given appropriate opportunity to review the geotechnical aspects of the completed
design prior to construction.
Discuss predicted effects of the recommended work on the environment
(water quality, etc.). Provide recommendations on mitigation measures.
Provide specifications and special provisions for construction contract. Provide cost
estimates for the recommended work.

 Literature References
Provide a list of references used in the preparation of the report.
Appendices:
Correspondence Soils & rock core logs (make sure standard disclaimers are
included with the logs in contract drawings),
drawings) test hole location plan,
plan design profile
for new roads, pit development plan, drawings, plan & profile, photos.
Quality control of work:
Reports must be signed and stamped both by the author and the reviewer. It is the
responsibility of the author and the reviewer to determine the appropriateness and
accuracy of input data and the correctness of the computed results. Use of
computer programs does not free the Professional Engineer or the Professional
p
y
Geoscientist from this responsibility.

SUMMARY
Surface Investigation

Site inspection of existing earth structure, slabs and foundation nearby.

Study Topographical, geological, hydrological map, data. Etc.
Study Soil data
data, report nearby projects
projects.

Sub surface Investigation

Test Pits
Sampling and Lab Test
Log
Insitu Testing
Boring
B i Test
T t
Rotary boring
Percussion boring
Log
Lab Test

Sounding Tests
JKR Probing
Dutch Cone Penetrometer
Hand Augering
Log
Sampling
p g
Lab Test

Scope
p of site investigation
g
works when p
planned byy different engineers
g
tend to be varied because
there are an infinite number of conditions to be met and the process of planning also leaves many
areas where individual judgement and experiences must be applied.
applied.
It is also impossible to attempt to provide an exhaustive step by step guidelines applicable to all
possible cases
cases..

It should be realised that there is a p

possibilityy that anyy site
investigation may leave some area unexplored or overlooked.
The main risk in foundation design is the uncertainty involving
in predicting soil conditions which may change with
environment.
i
More site investigation will reduce the margin of uncertainty but
the time and cost requirement will be exorbitant.
Therefore the extent and the cost of SI should be such that risk
is at an established acceptable level to the designer and also
comply to the accepted code of practise.

CONSTRUCTION STAGE
Engineers should allow or apt with changes during construction
of foundation at site.
Al
Alternative
i ddesign
i need
d to b
be iin h
hand
d whenever
h
there
h are
changes during this stage.
At this stage a critical,
critical fast and accurate decision need to be done
as the delay in making decision will hold or retarding the process
of construction.
This is a stage where foundation engineers are really tested in
g integrity.
g y
their knowledge
This is also a stage where reliability of SI data is known.

POST DESIGN STAGE

To validate the design, load test need to be carried out. The
designer may choose to have them conducted either before or
after the bids are taken.
taken
The first alternative permits development or revision of design
and specifications to fit the actual conditions.
conditions
The second saves expenses on mobilisation but may lead to delay
if the results is unsatisfactorily.
y

PILE LOAD TEST AND

INTERPRETATION

LOAD TEST
To ensure the pile workability before and after construction. It is
also as a method to determine settlement and ensuring that it
does not exceed allowable limit.

1.
2.
3.

Failure of load test according to JKR specification:

specification:-Residual
id l settlement
l
at design
d i load
l d exceedd 6.5mm
65
Total settlement at design load exceed 12.5mm
Total settlement exceed 38mm or 10% of pile diameter or width
whichever is lower under twice design load.
M h d off statement shall
Methods
h ll b
be refer
f to JKR SSpecification
ifi i or
BS8004.
Pile in granular soil are often tested 24 to 48 hrs when load
arrangement have been made.

The time lapse is sufficient for excess pore water pressure to

di i t
dissipates.
Pile in cohesive soils should be tested after sufficient lapse for
excess pore water pressure to dissipates.
dissipates
This time lapse is commonly in the order of 30 to 90 days giving
also some additional strength gain from thixotropic effects.
effects

settle
ement
6.5
5mm

12.5
5mm

LOAD

38mm

DL

2DL

From point O to a the capacity is based on the skin resistance plus any small point contribution.
From p
point a to b the load capacity
p
y is the sum of the limiting
g skin resistance plus
p the point
p
capacity.
From point b the curves becomes vertical as the ultimate point capacity is reached. Often the vertical
asymptote is anticipated and the test terminated before a vertical curve branch is established.

250k
N

1600 250 = 1350kN

1600-250

STARTING POINT OF FOUNDATION

DESIGN

1.
2.

3.
4.

5
5.

Following steps are the minimum requirement for designing a

foundation.
Locate
L
the
h site
i and
d the
h position
i i off the
h lload
d
Physical inspect the site for any geological or other evidence
that may indicate potential design problems
Establish the field exploration program for design parameters
D t rmi necessary
r design
d i parameters
p r m t r base
b on integration
i t r ti off
Determine
test data, scientific principles and engineering judgement.
Design the foundation using the latter and it should be
economical and be able to be built by the available construction
p
personnel.

GENERAL REQUIREMENT
TWO MOST IMPORTANT QUESTION FOR DESIGNER!!!
WHAT LOADS ARE TO BE SUPPORTED.
HOW FAR MAY THE FOUNDATION SETTLE IN
RESPONSE TO THESE LOAD.

Generally the proper design requires the following:following:1. Determine the building purpose, probable service life
l di type off framing,
loading,
f
i soilil profile,
fil construction
i methods
h d
and construction cost.
2 Determine the client owner and client needs.
2.
needs
3. Making the design, but ensuring that it does not successively
degrade the environment and provide a margin of safety
that produces a tolerable risk level to all parties, the public,
the owner and the engineer.
g

ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATION IN
FOUNDATION DESIGN
Adequate depth
Depth of foundation to be below seasonal change
Considering problematic soil
Compressive strength consideration
Protection of foundation against natural causes
Sustainable to changes
Buildable or limitation.
Apt to local environment standard.

CHOICE OF FOUNDATION TYPE

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Based from Neoh C.A, the choice of the foundation designs are
considered from:
L d per column
Loads
l
Bearing type either end or skin
B i layer
Bearing
l
Type of Intermediate layer
Location of water level.

PROCEDURE FOR THE

CHOICE OF FOUNDATION
TYPE FOR A SITE

Assess Foundation Base

Assess Ground
A
G
d
Conditions and Type of
Structures

YES
Are pile
necessary
Technical
Considerations
for Different Pile
Types:1.

Ground Condition

2.

Loading
Condition

3.

Environmental
Considerations

4.

Site and Plant

Considerations

5.

Safety

List all technically feasible pile types

and rank them in order of suitability
based on technical consideration.

Assess cost of each suitable pile type and

rank them based on cost consideration.

NO
Choose
Shallow
Foundation
Types

Assess construction programme for each

suitable pile type and rank them based
on program consideration

Make overall ranking of each pile type

based on technical, cost and
programme considerations

Submit individual and overall rankings of each pile

type to client and make recommendation on most
suitable pile type.