Data Communication and

Networking
Ethernet and Wireless LAN

IEEE802 Standard for LANS

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Ethernet Evolution

IEEE802.3 Ethernet Frame

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Addressing
Each station on an Ethernet network (such as a PC,
workstation, or printer) has its own network interface card
(NIC). The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station
with a link-layer address. The Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48
bits), normally written in hexadecimal notation, with a colon
between the bytes.

Implementation of standard Ethernet

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Access Method
Since the network that uses the standard Ethernet protocol is
a broadcast network, we need to use an access method to
control access to the sharing medium. The standard Ethernet
chose CSMA/CD with 1-persistent method.

10BASE5 Implementation

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10BASE-T Implementation

Collision domains

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Switched Ethernet

Full duplex switched Ethernet

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IEEE802.3u Fast Ethernet

IEEE802.3z Gigabit Ethernet

The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design
of the Gigabit Ethernet Protocol (1000 Mbps). The IEEE
committee calls it the Standard 802.3z. The goals of the
Gigabit Ethernet were to upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps, but
keep the address length, the frame format, and the maximum
and minimum frame length the same.

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MAC Sublayer
A main consideration in the evolution of Ethernet was to keep
the MAC sublayer untouched. However, to achieve a data
rate of 1 Gbps, this was no longer possible. Gigabit Ethernet
has two distinctive approaches for medium access: halfduplex and full-duplex. Almost all implementations of Gigabit
Ethernet follow the full-duplex approach, so we mostly ignore
the half-duplex mode.

Encoding in Gigabit Ethernet

IEEE802.3ab

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Gigabit Ethernet implementations

IEEE802.3ae 10-Gigabit Ethernet

In recent years, there has been another look into the Ethernet
for use in metropolitan areas. The idea is to extend the
technology, the data rate, and the coverage distance so that
the Ethernet can be used as LAN and MAN, Metro Ethernet
or MetroLAN.

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10-GbE implementations

IEEE802.3ba 40/100-Gigabit Ethernet

40 Gbit/s and 100 Gbit/s Ethernet. 40 Gbit/s over 1m
backplane, 10 m Cu cable assembly (4x25 Gbit or 10x10 Gbit
lanes) and 100 m ofMMF and 100 Gbit/s up to 10 m of Cu
cable assembly, 100 m of MMF or 40 km of SMF respectively.

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Hierarchical Ethernet LAN

Three categories of connecting devices

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Layer 1: Hub
A hub is a device that operates only in the physical layer.
Signals that carry information within a network can travel a
fixed distance before attenuation endangers the integrity of
the data. A repeater receives a signal and, before it becomes
too weak or corrupted, regenerates and retimes the original
bit pattern.

Layer2: Link-Layer Switches

A link-layer switch (or switch) operates in both the physical
and the data-link layers. As a physical-layer device, it
regenerates the signal it receives. As a link-layer device, the
link-layer switch can check the MAC addresses (source and
destination) contained in the frame.

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Ethernet Switch

Learning switch

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Loop problem in a learning switch (Part a)

Loop problem in a learning switch (Part b)

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Loop problem in a learning switch (Part C)

Loop problem in a learning switch (Part D)

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System of connected LANs and its graph(Part a)

System of connected LANs and its graph(Part b)

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Finding the shortest path and the spanning tree

Forwarding and blocking ports after using spanning

tree algorithm

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Layer 3: Routers and Layer3 Switch

Virtual LAN
A station is considered part of a LAN if it physically belongs to
that LAN. The criterion of membership is geographic. What
happens if we need a virtual connection between two stations
belonging to two different physical LANs? We can roughly
define a virtual local area network (VLAN) as a local area
network configured by software, not by physical wiring.

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A switch connecting three LANs

A switch using VLAN software

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Two switches in a backbone using VLAN

VLAN with Ethernet Switches

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VLAN Membership
Vendors use different characteristics such as interface
numbers, port numbers, MAC addresses, IP addresses, IP
multicast addresses, or a combination of two or more of
these.

Single Point of Failure and 802.1D

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Switch Purchasing Considerations

Number and Speeds of Ports
Buyers must decide on the number of ports needed and
the speed of each
Buyers often can buy a prebuilt switch with this
configuration

Store-and-Forward Versus Cut-Through Switching

Store-and-forward switches receive the entire frame before

sending bits back out
Cut-through switches send the frame out after only a few
octets
Cut-through switches reduce latency, but this is rarely
important at todays switch speeds

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Manageability

SNMP Manager controls many managed switches

Manageability

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Polling enables managers to collect data and diagnose

problems
Switches can be fixed remotely by changing their
configurations

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Manageability

Manager provides the network administrator with summary

performance data
Managed switches are substantially more expensive than
unmanaged switches
However, in large networks, the savings in labor costs and
rapid response are worth it, reducing the TCO compared
with unmanaged switches

Physical and Electrical Features

Switches fit into standard

19-inch wide (48-cm wide)
equipment racks
Switch heights usually are
multiples of 1U (1.75 in or
4.4 cm)

19 inches
(48 cm)

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Fixed-port switches

No flexibility: The number of ports is fixed

1 or 2U tall
Most workgroup switches are fixed-port switches

Stackable switches

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Fixed number of ports

1U or 2U tall
High-speed interconnect bus connects stacked switches
Ports can be added in increments of as few as 12

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Modular switches

1U or 2U tall
Contain one or a few slots
Each slot module contains 1 to 4 ports

Module

Chassis switches

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Several U tall
Contain several expansion
slots
Each expansion board
contains several slots
Most core switches are
chassis switches

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IEEE802.3at Power Over Ethernet

Switches require electrical power

In addition, switches can provide electrical power to devices
connected by UTP cables
With PoE, switches can supply 25.5 W DC power to devices
connected by UTP cables

IEEE802.3az Energy-Efficient Ethernet

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Wireless LANs

Isolated LANs: wired versus wireless

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Connection of a wired LAN and a wireless LAN to

other

Access Control
Maybe the most important issue we need to discuss in a
wireless LAN is access controlhow a wireless host can get
access to the shared medium (air). The CSMA/CD algorithm
does not work in wireless LANs for three reasons:
Wireless hosts do not have enough power to send and
receive at the same time.
The hidden station problem prevents collision detection
The distance between stations can be great.

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Hidden station problem

Hidden station problem

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IEEE 802.11 PROJECT

IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called
IEEE 802.11, which covers the physical and data-link layers.
It is sometimes called wireless Ethernet. In some countries,
including the United States, the public uses the term WiFi
(short for wireless fidelity) as a synonym for wireless LAN.
WiFi, however, is a wireless LAN that is certified by the WiFi
Alliance.

Architecture
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service
set (BSS) and the extended service set (ESS).

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Basic service sets (BSSs)

Extended service set (ESS)

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MAC Sublayer
IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers: the distributed
coordination function (DCF) and point coordination function
(PCF). Next figure shows the relationship between the two
MAC sublayers, the LLC sublayer, and the physical layer. We
discuss the physical layer implementations later in the
chapter and will now concentrate on the MAC sublayer.

MAC layers in IEEE 802.11 standard

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CSMA/CA and NAV

NAV

Example of repetition interval

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Frame format

Specifications

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802.11 Wireless Access Points and NICs

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect
devices of different functions when they are at a short
distance from each other. Bluetooth was standardized as
IEEE 802.15.1, but the standard is no longer maintained. A
Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network. The devices, sometimes
called gadgets, find each other and make a network called a
piconet.

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Piconet

Scatternet

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Single-secondary communication

Multiple-secondary communication

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Other Local Wireless Technologies

UWB
ZigBee
RFIDs
NFC
Software-defined radio

RFID (Radio Frequency ID) Tags

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Like UPC tags but readable remotely

In most cases, the radio signal from the reader provides
power for the RFID tag
The RFID tag uses this power to send information about
itself
Battery-operated RFID tags can send farther and send
more information

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Near Field Communication

Software-Defined Radio

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Can implement multiple wireless protocols

No need to have separate radio circuits for each protocol
Reduces the cost of multi-protocol devices

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IEEE802.16 WiMAX
People want to have access to the Internet from home or
office (fixed) where the wired access to the Internet is either
not available or is expensive. People also need to access the
Internet when they are using their cellular phones. WiMAX
has been designed for these types of applications.

Fixed WiMAX

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Mobile WiMAX

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