1.

INTRODUCTION

Thermal engineering is a field of engineering which is deal with the heat transfer; heating and
cooling process. Its become the important field of engineering that give a lot of benefit to
mankind. The basic three laws of thermodynamics is a based foundation in thermal
engineering. Every calculation and solution must obey to these laws.
Heat conduction, heat convection, heat exchanger, and refrigeration cycle are topics
which are discuss in thermal engineering. Heat conduction is heat transfer between the more
energetic particles to the less energetic particle in contact. There are three ways to solve the
problem in heat conduction. There are thermal circuit which is used to solve one dimensional
problem, differential equations and numerical equations.
Next, heat convection is heat transfer between fluids in motion with a surface. Heat
convection is divided into two types which are force convection and natural convection. Force
convection can be divided into two situations; flat surface and pipe. Nusselts Number,
Reynolds Number, Pranatls Number, Grashofs Number, and Reyleigh Number are widely
used in this chapter.
Heat exchanger is a device that facilitates the exchange of heat between two fluids that
are at different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. In other word,
fluid is used to heating or cooling the other fluid. Log mean temperature difference (LMTD)
and effectiveness- NTU method are used in heat exchanger.
Refrigeration cycle is the gas refrigeration cycle in which the refrigerant remains in the
gaseous phase throughout. The main purpose is to drop the temperature from high to low
temperature. This situation will not obey the Zeroth Law of thermodynamics which is heat
will transfer from high temperature to low temperature. Thus, Reverse Carnot Cycle by totally
reversible from Carnot Cycle which consist isothermal and isentropic process invented to
archive this purpose.
Air conditioning system is another chapter in thermal engineering. Air conditioning
process is a series of processes of treating air to simultaneously control the air temperature,
humidity, cleanliness, and distribution to meet the comfort requirement of the occupants in a
space. Generally, the comfort temperature range is 22C to 27C while the comfort humidity
range is 40%RH to 60%RH.

Thermal Engineering (MEC551) subject is required us as a student to do the

assignment or case study about air conditioning. We are divided into several groups of 3
persons to complete the task. This task needs us to cooperate and do it as a team. We had
discussed together and find out the solution for this problem to conduct preliminary design
calculations of an air conditioning system. Based on syllabus that we had studied all the topics
mention above in the class, we had referring other thermal books, handbooks, and internet
sources to finish this assessment.

2.0

APPLICATION IN ENGINEERING PRINCIPLE AND CONCEPT

Refrigeration and air conditioning is used to cool products or a building environment. The
refrigeration or air conditioning system (R) transfers heat from a cooler low-energy reservoir
to a warmer high-energy reservoir.

There are several heat transfer loops in a refrigeration system as shown in Figure 2. Thermal
energy moves from left to right as it is extracted from the space and expelled into the outdoors
through five loops of heat transfer:

i.

Indoor air loop. In the left loop, indoor air is driven by the supply air fan through a
cooling coil, where it transfers its heat to chilled water. The cool air then cools the
building space.

ii.

Chilled water loop. Driven by the chilled water pump, water returns from the cooling
coil to the chillers evaporator to be re-cooled.

iii.

Refrigerant loop. Using a phase-change refrigerant, the chillers compressor pumps

heat from the chilled water to the condenser water.

iv.

Condenser water loop. Water absorbs heat from the chillers condenser, and
thecondenser water pump sends it to the cooling tower.

v.

Cooling tower loop. The cooling towers fan drives air across an open flow of the hot
condenser water, transferring the heat to the outdoors.

Air-Conditioning Systems
Depending on applications, there are several options / combinations of air conditioning, which
are available for use:
a) Air conditioning (for space or machines)
b) Split air conditioners
c) Fan coil units in a larger system
d) Air handling units in a larger system

Refrigeration Systems (for processes)

The following refrigeration systems exists for industrial processes (e.g. chilling plants) and
domestic purposes (modular units, i.e. refrigerators):
i.

Small capacity modular units of the direct expansion type similar to domestic
refrigerators.

ii.

Centralized chilled water plants with chilled water as a secondary coolant for a
temperature range over typically 5 oC. They can also be used for ice bank formation.

iii.

Brine plants, which use brines as a lower temperature, secondary coolant for typically
sub- zero temperature applications, which come as modular unit capacities as well as
large centralized plant capacities.

iv.

The plant capacities up to 50 TR (tons of refrigeration) are usually considered as small

capacity, 50 250 TR as medium capacity and over 250 TR as large capacity units.

A large company may have a bank of units, often with common chilled water pumps,
condenser water pumps, cooling towers, as an off-site utility. The same company may also
have two or three levels of refrigeration and air conditioning such as a combination of:
i.

Comfort air conditioning (20 25 oC)

ii.

Chilled water system (80 100 C)

iii.

Brine system (sub-zero applications)

Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

Compression refrigeration cycles take advantage of the fact that highly compressed fluids at a
certain temperature tend to get colder when they are allowed to expand. If the pressure change
is high enough, then the compressed gas will be hotter than our source of cooling (outside air,
for instance) and the expanded gas will be cooler than our desired cold temperature. In this
case, fluid is used to cool a low temperature environment and reject the heat to a high
temperature environment.

Vapor compression refrigeration cycles have two advantages. First, a large amount of thermal
energy is required to change a liquid to a vapor, and therefore a lot of heat can be removed
from the air-conditioned space. Second, the isothermal nature of the vaporization allows
extraction of heat without raising the temperature of the working fluid to the temperature of
whatever is being cooled. This means that the heat transfer rate remains high, because the

closer the working fluid temperature approaches that of the surroundings, the lower the rate of
heat transfer.

Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System

The vapour absorption refrigeration system consists of:

i.

Absorber: Absorption of refrigerant vapour by a suitable absorbent or adsorbent,

forming a strong or rich solution of the refrigerant in the absorbent/ adsorbent

ii.

Pump: Pumping of the rich solution and raising its pressure to the pressure of the
condenser

iii.

Generator: Distillation of the vapour from the rich solution leaving the poor solution
for Recycling

The absorption chiller is a machine, which produces chilled water by using heat such as
steam, hot water, gas, oil etc. Chilled water is produced based on the principle that liquid (i.e.
refrigerant, which evaporates at a low temperature) absorbs heat from its surroundings when it
evaporates. Pure water is used as refrigerant and lithium bromide solution is used asabsorbent.

Heat for the vapour absorption refrigeration system can be provided by waste heat extracted
from the process, diesel generator sets etc. In that case absorption systems require electricity
for running pumps only. Depending on the temperature required and the power cost, it may
even be economical to generate heat / steam to operate the absorption system.

3.0

INTEGRATION MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS

A. Air-conditioning process

Evaporator
T1 = 35C

T2 = 10

T3 = 20C

2 = 100%
3

Condensat
e
1

2
Condensate
Water

1 = 70%
P = 100 kPa
38,000 cfm

Provide a sketch of the air conditioning processes with the ambient pressure of 100kpa.

Determine the required heat extraction rate at the cooling rate and heating rate when the
ambient air enters at 35C and 70C of relative humidity and leave the system at 20C.

Assumptions:
a) This is a steady-flow process and thus the mass flow rate of dry air remains constant
during the entire process.
b) Dry air and the water vapor are ideal gases.
c) The kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.

STATE 1:
From the Psychrometric chart and A-4 table,
h1 = 100.0 kJ / kg dry air
1 = 0.0253 kg H2O / kg dry air

(
[(

)(
) (

)(

)
)]

v1 = 0.9202 m3 / kg dry air

1 cfm = 0.02831 m3/min
38000 cfm = 1075.78 m3/min = 18 m3/s = V
Psat = 5.6291 kPa

STATE 2:
Psat = 1.2281 kPa
h2 = 29.6 kJ/kg dry air
2 = 0.0078 kg H2O/kg dry air.

STATE 3:
Since 3 = 2 = 0.0078 kg H2O/kg dry air

CALCULATION:
mw = ma (1-2)
ma = V1 / v1

ma = 19.56 kg/s

mw = 0.3423 kg/s

Qdot.out = ma (h1-h2) mwhw

hw = hf @ Tcondensate
hf = 42.022 kJ/kg at T = 10C
Qdot.out = [(

) (

)] [(

) (

)]

Qdot.out = 1362.62 kW

Qdot.in = ma (h3-h2)
h3 = (1.005)(20) + (0.0078)(2537.4)
h3 = 39.892 kJ/kg
Qdot.in = 19.56 (39.892-29.6)
Qdot.in = 201.31 kW
The required heat extraction rate at the cooling coil is 1362.62 kW and the heating section is
201.31 kW.

Analyze the cooling rate and heating rate when the ambient temperature changes from
28C to 40C if the exit temperature will maintain at 20C
Since the value of T2 is greater than the T1, the cooling rate will become smaller than the
value from A(2). It can be proved when the value of h2 > h1 on the psychrometric chart, the
value of Qdot.out is increase. Using the

) equation, we can calculate the new

Qdot.out. Since the Qdot.out = (-ve) (+ve) sign, the value of Qdot.out will be greater for the
cooling rate. So, the cooling cannot be operated.
For the heating rate, the value is good for heating purpose. Since the value of heat transfer is
bigger, the heating rate can be operated.

B. Refrigeration cycle

Select 2 refrigerants for the system and explain the reasons of selection based on safety and
thermal properties.
First and foremost, r134a do not contain chlorine atom so that it afford to undermine the role
of atmospheric ozone; besides, r134ahas a good safety performance (non-flammable, nonexplosive, non-toxic, non-irritating no rot resistance), in addition, r134ais easier to retrofit
refrigeration system so that the heat transfer performance is closer. Last but no least,
r134aheat transfer performance better than the R12 which can help the amount of refrigerant
greatly reduced.
As a refrigerant, ammonia offers three distinct advantages over other commonly used
industrial refrigerants. First, ammonia is environmentally compatible. It does not deplete the
ozone layer and does not contribute to global warming. Second, ammonia has superior
thermodynamic qualities, as result ammonia refrigeration systems use less electricity. Third,
ammonia's recognizable odor is it's greatest safety asset. Unlike most other industrial
refrigerants that have no odor, ammonia refrigeration has a proven safety record in part
because leaks are not likely to escape detection.

Choose operating conditions for the refrigeration cycle such as the evaporator and
condenser pressure if the surrounding temperature is 35C.

Analysis:
The T-s diagram of the refrigeration cycle is drawn below.

This an ideal vapor compression refrigerant cycle, and thus the compressor is isentropic and
the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid and enter the compressor at saturated
vapor.
A refrigerator used refrigerant-134a as the working fluid and the assuming design pressures
for the condenser are 0.887MPa while the evaporator is at 1.2MPa. Pressure of evaporator is
assumed below from pressure of condenser to allow heat transfer,
from surrounding into
the refrigerant and
from refrigerant into surrounding.
Assumptions:
1. Steady operating conditions exist
2. Kinetic and potential energy changes are negligible.
From the refrigerant -134a tables, the enthalpies of the refrigerant at all four states are
determined as below:
State 1: Saturated vapor refrigerant-134a
Assumptions: Pressure

= 0.887 Mpa

Temperature = 35 C
Heat transfer efficiently (100%)
By referring to the Refrigerant-134a tables:
To find

and

(35-34) / (36-34) = (

we have done the interpolation from table A-11 at

268.57) / (269.49 268.57)

(35-34) / (36-34) = ( 0.91743) / (0.91675 0.91743)

State 2: Superheated vapor refrigerant-134a

The chosen pressure is 1.2 MPa due to the pressure on the condenser. We picked this pressure
to allow heat transfer from refrigerant to surrounding. At state 2, it is isentropic process
.
(

To find h,we have done the interpolation from table A-13 at

(0.91709-0.9130) / (0.9267 0.9130) = (h2 273.87) / (278.27 273.87)
h2 = 275.1836 kJ/kg

State 2S: Superheated vapor refrigerant-134a h2s

The compressor efficiency is assumed at 80%.

h2s = 273.95 kJ/kg

State 3: Saturated liquid refrigerant-134a

(refer Table A-12)

State 4: Throttling valve

Calculate the required refrigerant mass flow rate to obtain the desired cooling effect.
(

is obtained from question 1.

surrounding.
(

indicate that the heat transfer rate from refrigerant to

)

Calculate the maximum COP and actual COP of the cycle if the compressor efficiency is
assumed at 80%.

COP defines the performance of the refrigeration cycle. To calculate COP, we use this
formula

Maximum COP
(

)
(

Actual COP
(

)
(

Suggest an innovative system that can improve the current COP i.e multistages or cascade
refrigeration cycle. Prove your suggestion using analytical analysis.
It is obvious that the lower-temperature unit of the cascade system absorbs less power than the
single stage system. This originates from the fact that the pressure ratio across the compressor
in the lower unit of the cascade system is less than that in the single-stage system for the same
refrigeration capacity. COPs for the lower unit of the cascade system are higher than those for
the single-stage system.

Estimate the cost of running the system (single cycle and multistage or cascade) for a 12
hour operation (based only on the compressor work input) under steady conditions and
actual Malaysian daylight electrical tariff.
Tariff D - Low Voltage Industrial Tariff
For Overall Monthly Consumption Between 0-200 kWh/month
For all kWh

34.50 sen/kWh

C. Combustor for the Heat exchanger

Determine the mass flow rate of the hot gases (

0.75CH4 + 0.1 N2 + 0.07O2+0.05CO2 +0.03H2

25C

To heater tubes

XCO2 +YH2O+ ZN2

2000C

ath (O2 +3.76N2)

320K

Combustion equation, (theoretical)

0.75CH4 + 0.1 N2 + 0.07O2+0.05CO2 +0.03H2 + ath (O2 +3.76N2) = XCO2 +YH2O+ ZN2

Balance the equation:

The unknown coefficients x ,y ,z and ath are determined from mass balances
C:

0.75 + 0.05 = X

N2 :

0.1 + 3.76 ath = Z

X= 0.8
H:

Z= 5.5332

0.75 (4) + 0.03(2) = 2Y

O2:

Y= 1.53

0.07 + 0.05 + ath = X +Y/2

ath = 1.445

Combustion equation for the system is:

0.75CH4 + 0.1 N2 + 0.07O2+0.05CO2 +0.03H2 +1.445 (O2 +3.76N2) = 0.8CO2 +1.53H2O+
5.5332N2
Element M, kg/kmol

hfo, kJ/kmol

h320K, kJ/kmol h298K, kJ/kmol

h2273K, kJ/kmol

CH4

16.043

-74850

N2

28.013

9306

8669

74693.2

O2

31.999

9325

8682

78279.74

CO2

44.01

-393520

9364

117847.46

H2

2.016

8468

70889.14

H20

18.015

-241820

9904

96775.02

Qout = [ 0.75(-74850 + 0 - 0) + 0.1(0 + 9306 - 8669) + 0.07(0 + 9325 - 8682) +

0.05(-393520 + 10186 - 9364) + 0.03(0 + 9100 - 8468)]
[ 0.75( -393520 + 117387.4 9364) + 1.53( -241820 + 96775.02 9904) +
5.5( 0 + 74693 8669)
= -36374.93 ( -84760.03)
= 48,385.1 kJ/kmol

)(

)(

The operating cost for 12 hours if the Natural Gas cost is RM18.22/mmbtu
(

D. Unmixed Cross Flow Heat exchanger for the heating effect

Determine the heat convection coefficient in the heater tube and at the outer flow of the
tube.

25 mm
15 mm

T2, 2

0.5 m
Heater Tube
0.5 m
Air Conditioning Conduit
Heater Tubes
Exhaust
Combustor
T3, 3
Example of Heater Tubes
Layout

Assuming n = 8

(
)(

)
)(

Properties of air at 10 C (1 atm):

)(

)(

)
(Laminar flow)

**(

)+

(
[

)
**(

)+

Properties of CH4 at 25C

Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, U (neglect the conduction effect in the
heater tube)
[

Analyze the required number of heater tubes for heat exchanging process using LMTD or
-NTU method.

)(

)(

)( )

( )

(
(

)(

)(

))

Hence the obtained

)(

Effectiveness,
Cross flow for both fluid unmixed

)
(

])

]-

4.0

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS AND SOCIETAL IMPACT

Mostly refrigerant has a dangerous particle that can affect environmental aspect. Refrigerant
systems are producing HCFC gases that are dangerous to ozone layer and may have other
negative factors. Basically the HCFC gases can reduce the thickness of ozone layer. Thus, the
depletion problem may introduce to other problem such as the radiation light from the sun that
may harmful.
Nowdays, for safety purposes and the awareness of environmental issues, government and
private sector have taken a serious matter. The uses of HCFC gases are recommended replace
by natural refrigerant. These natural refrigerants may help to reduce the affect of ozone layer
thickness. The uses of CO2 or R-744 have become an alternative way to replace the HCFC
gases. These gases may able to avoid the negative affect during production. Moreover,
blended HFC also has been introduced. These gases are not natural gases, but it also has quite
same purpose for reducing environmental issues. These are some example of blended HFC:

CFC 502 is usually used in low temperature commercial and small industrial cooling
installations (e.g. supermarket frozen food systems, small cold stores and small blast
freezers). In the UK CFC 502 became scarce quite quickly after the 1995 phase out of
CFC production, so it is believed that there are relatively few CFC 502 systems still in
use.

HCFC 22 is a very commonly used refrigerant. It is widely used in commercial,

industrial and air-conditioning systems. It is currently used in many applications that
cannot be manufactured using HCFCs after 1st January 2001. It is also the most likely
refrigerant to be used in the air-conditioning and heat pump applications

CFC 12 is used for a wide variety of refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.

All domestic refrigerators and freezers built before 1994 used CFC 12. Many are still
in use. Similarly CFC 12 is used for many other small hermetic systems such as retail
display cases, icemakers and etc. CFC 12 is used in many medium and large sized
systems in commercial and industrial refrigeration.

On-road and laboratory experiments with a 2009 Ford Explorer and a 2009 Toyota Corolla
were conducted to assess the fuel consumption penalty associated with air conditioner (A/C)
use at idle and highway cruise conditions. Vehicle data were acquired on-road and on a
chassis dynamometer. Data were gathered for various A/C settings and with the A/C off and
the windows open. At steady speeds between 64.4 and 113 kph (40 and 70 mph), both
vehicles consumed more fuel with the A/C on at maximum cooling load (compressor at 100%
duty cycle) than when driving with the windows down. The Explorer maintained this trend
beyond 113 kph (70 mph), while the Corolla fuel consumption with the windows down
matched that of running the A/C at 121 kph (75 mph), and exceeded it at 129 kph (80 mph).
The incremental fuel consumption rate penalty due to air conditioner use was nearly constant
with a slight trend of increasing consumption with increasing vehicle (and compressor) speed.
A lower fuel penalty due to A/C operation is observed at idle for both vehicles, likely due to
the low compressor speed at this operating point, although the percentage increase due to A/C
use is highest at idle.

5.0

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we have achieved the objective of this assignment that is to conduct

preliminary design of an air conditioning. Through the calculations, we also has indicates the
possible value for the correct air conditioning system. The calculations of problem solving
also have teach and improved our fundamental of calculus and thermal principles. Other than
that, we have identified the basic principle and the relationship between theoretical and
practical value of thermal engineering especially in air conditioning.
Based on the result and calculations, it is proved that high CCOP value can reduce the work in
needed for the system. In air conditioning application the electrical source can be reduced by
manipulated the COP value. The selection of air conditioning product also must take in care
because there is quite different between the energy consumption needed. Always prefer to
select the product that least energy consumption. For the old refrigerant and air conditioning
system, we need to regularly maintenance for better performance by cleaning and service the
coil of cooling and heating. Thus, Thermal Engineering has been proven to teach us on how to
apply the knowledge on our daily life. It also can be reference and guidance for us to reduce
the uses and sources of natural environment.

6.0

UTILIZATION OF RESOURCES

1. MEC551, Thermal Engineering, 2013, First edition, Mc Graw Hill Education

2. Walter T. Grondzik, Air-conditioning system Design Manual, 2007, Elsevier
3. http://www.gsa.gov/portal/content/101297
4. http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schooldesign/hvac.html
5. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/ansi-steel-pipes-d_305.html
6. http://www.vesma.com/tutorial/hr_principles.htm
7. http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/green-guide/buyingguide/
air-conditioner/environmental-impact/
8. http://www.alternet.org/story/37882/air-conditioning%3A_our_cross_to_bear
9. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/flow-velocity-water-pipes-d_385.html

FACULTY OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
MEC551 THERMAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT

Group Members: MOHAMAD NURHAFIZ BIN ANUAR

2012741441

AMIRUL HAKIM BIN MOHD SALLEH

2012510131

AFIQ AYMAN BIN MOHD PILUS

2012913331

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL
40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
Tel. : 03-5543 6268
Fax: 03-5543 5160
Report Assessment
Assignments Title

: ________________________________________________________

Groups Name

: ________________________________________________________

Leaders Name

: ________________________________________________________

Members Name

: 1) _______________________________________________________
2) _______________________________________________________
3) _______________________________________________________

Scale
Level

1
Poor

3
Acceptable

Factor
(A)

Criteria
[CO1, PO1]

Problem Statement

[CO2, PO1]

Application of engineering principles

and concepts

[CO4, PO3]

Integration mathematical Solutions

[CO5, PO9]

Environmental aspects and financial

impact

[CO3, PO3]

Interpretation of results and discussion

[CO4, PO3]

Conclusion

[CO1, PO1]

Utilization of resources

5
Excellent

Given Mark
(B)

Total Marks (100 %)

AxB