FLYING OPERATIONS

Eye
ILLUSTRATION: MERRAN WILLIAMS

on the sky
Better scanning techniques will help pilots avoid mid-air collisions.
O YOU WANT to know what the
perfect scan is? There isnt one, or at
least there is no one scan that is best
for all pilots. Pilots need to develop
a scan that is comfortable and
workable for them in their own aeroplanes.
The best way to start is by getting rid of
bad habits. Failing to look out is the poorest
scan technique, but glancing out at intervals
of five minutes or so is also poor, given that
it takes only seconds for a disaster to happen.
Check yourself the next time youre climbing
out, making an approach, or just flying crosscountry. See how long you go without
looking out the window.
Glancing out and giving it the oncearound without stopping to focus on
anything is practically useless. So is staring
at one spot for long periods (even though it
might be great for meditation).
Learn how to scan properly by knowing

Your eyes can play some

nasty tricks on you - things
arent always what they
seem.
where to concentrate your search. It would
be better to look everywhere but, as thats
impractical, concentrate on the areas most
critical to you at the time.
In the circuit area especially, clear the area
before every turn and always watch for traffic
making an improper entry into the pattern.
On descent and climbout, make gentle Sturns, if possible, to see if anyone is in your
way. Always make clearing turns before
attempting unusual manoeuvres.

34 FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2003

During that very critical final approach

stage, avoid tunnel vision. Pilots often rivet
their eyes to the point of touchdown. In
normal flight you can generally avoid the
threat of an in-flight collision by scanning
an area 60 degrees to the left and right of
your centre of vision.
This doesnt mean you should forget the
rest of the area you can see from your side
windows every few scans. Statistics indicate
that you will be safe if you scan 10 degrees
up and down from your flight path. This will
allow you to spot any aircraft that is at an
altitude that might conflict with your own
flight path, whether its level with you, below
and climbing, or above and descending.
Your eyes can play some nasty tricks on
you things arent always what they seem.
Scan patterns The best defence against inflight collisions is an efficient scan pattern.
Two basic methods that have proved best for

FLYING OPERATIONS
most pilots use the block system of scanning. This type of scan is based on the
theory that traffic detection can be made
only through a series of eye fixations at
different points in space. Each of these fixes
becomes the focal point of your field of
vision (a block 1015 degrees wide). By
fixating every 1015 degrees, you should be
able to detect any contrasting or moving
object in each block. This gives you 912
blocks in your scan area, each requiring at
least one to two seconds for accommodation and detection.
One method of block scanning is the
side-to-side motion. Start at the far left of
your visual area and make a methodical
sweep to the right, pausing in each block to
focus. At the end of the scan, return to the
panel.
The second form is the front-to-side
version. Start with a fixation in the centre
block of your visual field (approximately
the centre of the front windshield in front of
the pilot). Move your eyes to the left,
focusing in each block, swing quickly back
to the centre block and repeat the procedure to the right.
Fixations There are other methods of scanning, some of which you might find as effective as these. However, unless some series of
fixations is made, there is little likelihood
that you will be able to detect all the targets
in your scan area. When the head is in
motion, vision is blurred and the mind will
not register targets.
External scanning is part of the pilots
total scanning job. To achieve maximum
efficiency in flight, you have to establish a
good internal (panel) scan and learn to give
each its proper share of time. The amount of
time spent looking outside the cockpit in
relation to time spent looking inside
depends on the workload inside the cockpit
and the density of traffic outside. Generally,
the external scan will take about three to
four times as long as a look around the
instrument panel.
Using military pilots ranging in experience from 350 to 4,000 hours, McDonnell
Douglas conducted an experimental scan
training course. Its researchers discovered
that the average time devoted to scanning
was three seconds for panel scan and 17
seconds for outside.
Panel scan An efficient instrument scan is
good practice, even if you are operating in
visual meteorological conditions. Being able
to quickly scan the panel gives pilots a better
chance of doing an effective job outside as
well.
Developing an efficient time-sharing plan
takes a lot of work and practice, but it is just

10%
10%

The threat of mid-air collision can be reduced by scanning 60 degrees to the

left and right and 10 degrees up and down.

as important as developing good landing

techniques. The best way is to start on the
ground, in your own aeroplane or the one
you usually fly, and then practice your scans
during every flight.
Passengers Although your passengers might
not be pilots, they can help you in your
responsibility to see and avoid. Take a few
moments to brief them on the importance of
detecting traffic and, if possible, acquaint
them with the rudiments of scanning.

Explain how to relate traffic position with

respect to the clock and encourage them to
report all the traffic they see. This will invariably result in a few false alarms but the
potential payoffs are worth the inconvenience.If you develop an effective timesharing scan, youll have no trouble avoiding
in-flight collisions.
Adapted from How to Avoid a Mid-air
Collision, AOPA Air Safety Foundation

FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2003

35

FLYING OPERATIONS

FLYING OPERATIONS

Scanning techniques
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Example 1 The centre-to-side pattern involves moving the eyes methodically from the centre of the visual field to
the far left. The eyes then return to the centre and move right. This is followed by a brief scan of the instrument
panel before the process is repeated.

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Example 2 The side-to-side pattern involves moving the eyes methodically from the far left of the visual field to the
far right, pausing very briefly in each block of the viewing area to focus. This is followed by a brief scan of the
instrument panel before the process is repeated.

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36 FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2003

FLYING OPERATIONS

Putting the focus on vision

VISION IS vulnerable to just about everything: dust; fatigue;
emotion; germs; fallen eyelashes; age; optical illusions and
the number of drinks consumed at last nights party. In flight,
our vision is altered by factors including atmospheric conditions, windshield distortion, too much oxygen or too little,
acceleration, glare, heat, lighting and aircraft design.
Most of all, the eye is vulnerable to the vagaries of the
mind. We can see and identify only what the mind lets us
see. A daydreaming pilot staring out into space sees no
approaching traffic and is probably the number one candidate for an in-flight collision.
One function of the eye that is a source of constant problems to the pilot (though he or she is probably never aware
of it) is the time required for accommodation. Our eyes automatically accommodate for (or refocus on) near and far
objects.
But the change from something up close, like a dark panel
two feet away, to a well-lit landmark or an aircraft target a
mile or so away takes at least one to two seconds for eye
accommodation. Thats a long time, given that you need
about 10 seconds to avoid in-fight collisions.
Another focusing problem usually occurs at very high altitudes but it can happen at lower levels on vague, colourless
days above a haze or cloud layer when no distinct horizon
is visible. If there is little or nothing to focus on at infinity, we
do not focus at all.
We experience empty-field myopia staring but seeing
nothing, even approaching traffic. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has studied the effects of binocular vision during investigations of in-flight collisions, with
the conclusion that this is also a causal factor. To accept what
we see, we need to receive cues from both eyes. If an object
is visible to one eye but hidden from the other by a windshield post or other obstruction, the total image is blurred and
not always acceptable to the mind.
Another inherent eye problem is that of narrow field of
vision. Although our eyes accept light rays from an arc of
nearly 200 degrees, they are limited to a relatively limited
area (approximately 10 to 15 degrees) in which they can
actually focus on and classify an object.
Though we can perceive movement in the periphery, we
cannot identify what is happening out there. We tend not to
believe what we see out of the corner of our eyes. This, aided
by the brain, often leads to tunnel vision.
This limitation is compounded by the fact that at a
distance, an aircraft on a collision course with you will appear
motionless. It will remain in a seemingly stationary position,
without appearing either to move or grow in size for a relatively long time, and then suddenly bloom into a huge mass
filling one of your windows. This is known as blossom

effect. Since we need motion or contrast to attract our eyes

attention, this becomes a frightening factor when you realise
that a large bug smear or dirty spot on the windshield can
hide a converging plane until it is too close to be avoided.
Also be aware that fashion sunglasses can be useless in
reducing glare and in some cases, can obstruct clear vision.
The eye is also limited by environment. Optical properties
of the atmosphere alter the appearance of traffic, particularly
on hazy days. Limited visibility actually means, limited
vision. You may be legally VFR when you have five kilometres of visibility, but at that distance on a hazy day,
opposing traffic is difficult to detect. At a range closer than
five kilometres even though detectable an aeroplane
on a collision course may not be avoidable.
Lighting also affects our vision. Glare, usually worse on
a sunny day over a cloud deck or during flight directly into
sun, makes objects hard to see and scanning uncomfortable.
And an object that is well lit, will have a high degree of
contrast and will be easy to detect. One with low contrast at
the same distance may be impossible to see. For instance,
when the sun is behind you, an opposing aircraft will stand
out clearly, but when youre looking into the sun and your

traffic is backlit, its a different story.

Another contrast problem is trying to find an aeroplane
over a cluttered background. If it is between you and terrain
that is vari-coloured or heavily dotted with buildings, it will
blend into the background until it is quite close.
And of course, there is the mind, which can distract us to
the point of not seeing anything at all, or lull us into cockpit
myopia staring at one instrument without seeing it. How
often have you been IFR on a CAVOK day, settled back at
your assigned altitude with autopilot on and then never
looked outside, secure that the radar advisory service will
protect you from all harm?
Perception is affected by many factors. It all boils down
to the fact that pilots, like anyone else, tend to over estimate their visual abilities and to misunderstand their eyes
limitations. Since the number one cause of in-flight collisions
is the failure to properly adhere to the see-and-avoid concept,
we can conclude that the best way to avoid them is to learn
how to use our eyes in an efficient external scan.

Adapted from How to Avoid a Mid-air Collision, AOPA Air

Safety Foundation.

FLIGHT SAFETY AUSTRALIA SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER 2003

37