Introduction to Quantum

Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Part - I

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

University of Calcutta

November 23, 2013

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

Introduction

Motivations for Quantum Computation

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

Qubit

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Linear Algebra

Uncertainty Principle

Postulates of Quantum Mechanics

Next Presentation

Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Classical Computation vs Quantum

Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

It may be tempting to say that a quantum computer is

one whose operation is governed by the laws of quantum
mechanics. But since the laws of quantum mechanics
govern the behaviour of all physical phenomena, this
temptation must be resisted.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Classical Computation vs Quantum

Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

It may be tempting to say that a quantum computer is

one whose operation is governed by the laws of quantum
mechanics. But since the laws of quantum mechanics
govern the behaviour of all physical phenomena, this
temptation must be resisted.
Moores law roughly stated that computer power will
double for constant cost approximately once every two
years. This worked well for a long time. However, at
present, quantum eects are beginning to interfere in the
functioning of electronic devices as they are made smaller
and smaller.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

November 23, 2013

3 / 70

Classical Computation vs Quantum

Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

It may be tempting to say that a quantum computer is

one whose operation is governed by the laws of quantum
mechanics. But since the laws of quantum mechanics
govern the behaviour of all physical phenomena, this
temptation must be resisted.
Moores law roughly stated that computer power will
double for constant cost approximately once every two
years. This worked well for a long time. However, at
present, quantum eects are beginning to interfere in the
functioning of electronic devices as they are made smaller
and smaller.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

One possible solution is to move to a dierent computing

paradigm. One such paradigm is provided by the theory of
quantum computation, which is based on the idea of using
quantum mechanics to perform computations, instead of
classical physics.
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Classical Computation vs Quantum

Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

Quantum systems are exponentially powerful. A system of

500 particles has 2500 computing power. Quantum
Computers provide a neat shortcut for solving a range of
mathematical tasks known as NP-complete problems.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Classical Computation vs Quantum

Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

Quantum systems are exponentially powerful. A system of

500 particles has 2500 computing power. Quantum
Computers provide a neat shortcut for solving a range of
mathematical tasks known as NP-complete problems.
For example, factorisation is an exponential time task for
classical computers. But Shors quantum algorithm for
factorisation is a polynomial time algorithm. It has
successfully broken RSA cryptosystem.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/crypto.jpg

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Motivations for Quantum Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Faster than light (?) communication.

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Motivations for Quantum Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Faster than light (?) communication.

Uncertainty Principle

Highly parallel and efficient quantum algorithms.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Motivations for Quantum Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Faster than light (?) communication.

Uncertainty Principle

Highly parallel and efficient quantum algorithms.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

Quantum Cryptography.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Reference

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Motivations for Quantum Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Faster than light (?) communication.

Uncertainty Principle

Highly parallel and efficient quantum algorithms.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

Quantum Cryptography.

Reference

and many more...

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Qubits: The building blocks of Quantum

Computer

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

In classical computer, bits of digital information are either 0 or

1. In a quantum computer, these bits are replaced by a
superposition of both 0 and 1.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

1 or

their linear combination.

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Qubits: The building blocks of Quantum

Computer

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

In classical computer, bits of digital information are either 0 or

1. In a quantum computer, these bits are replaced by a
superposition of both 0 and 1.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Qubits are represented as |0i and |1i . Qubits have been

created in the laboratory using photons, ions and certain sorts
of atomic nuclei.

1 or

their linear combination.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Superposition Principle

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Suppose we have a k-level system. So there are k

distinguishable or classical states for the system.
The possible classical states for the system: 0, 1, ..., k

Outline
Introduction

1.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit

Superposition Principle

Linear Algebra

If a quantum system can be in one of k states, it can also be in

any linear superposition of those k states.

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/superposition1.jpg

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Superpostition Principle

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

|0i, |1i, ..., |k 1i are called the basis states. The

superposition is denoted as a linear combination of these basis.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

0 |0i + 1 |1i + ... + k

|k

1i

where,

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

i 2 C

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

X
i

|i |2 = 1

(more on this later)

Two level systems are called qubits. (k = 2)
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Qubit: Physical Interpretation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

We may have various interpretations of qubits.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Qubit: Physical Interpretation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

We may have various interpretations of qubits.

Consider a Hydrogen atom. This atom may be treated as
a qubit. To do so, we define the ground energy state of
the electron as |0i and the first energy state as |1i.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Qubit: Physical Interpretation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

We may have various interpretations of qubits.

Consider a Hydrogen atom. This atom may be treated as
a qubit. To do so, we define the ground energy state of
the electron as |0i and the first energy state as |1i.
The electron dwells in some linear superposition of these
two energy levels. But during measurement, we shall find
the electron in any one of the energy states.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/qubit1.png

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Other examples of Qubits

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

Motivations for Quantum

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/photon.jpg
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Figure : Photon Polarization: The orientation of electrical field

oscillation is either horizontal or vertical.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Other examples of Qubits

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

Motivations for Quantum

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/photon.jpg
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Figure : Photon Polarization: The orientation of electrical field

oscillation is either horizontal or vertical.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/spin.jpg

Figure : Electron spin: The spin is either up or down

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Qubit: Mathematical model

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

Mathematically, a quantum state (which, as we shall see later,

is a vector) is represented by a column matrix. The two
fundamental states that we introduced before, |0i and |1i form
an orthonormal basis. We shall see more of orthonormality
when we see inner products.
The matrix representation of |0i and |1i:

1
|0i =
0

0
|1i =
1

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Qubit: Mathematical model

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

So a general quantum state | i = |0i +

as

|1i is represented

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Uncertainty Principle
/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/basis1.jpg
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Qubit: Mathematical model

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

So a general quantum state | i = |0i +

as

|1i is represented

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Uncertainty Principle
/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/basis1.jpg
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

The matrix notation will be

| i=
=

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

+0
0+

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Qubit: Sign Basis

|0i and |1i are called bit basis since they can be thought of as
the quantum counter-parts of classical bits 0 and 1
respectively. However, they are not the only possible basis. We
may have infinitely many orthonormal basis for a given space.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

Another basis, called the sign basis, is denoted as |+i and | i.

|+i =
| i=

p1
2
p1
2

|0i +
|0i

p1
2
p1
2

|1i
|1i

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/basis.jpg

Figure : Geometrical model of bit basis and sign basis

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Qubit: Change of Basis

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

Measure | i =

1
2

|0i +

3
2

Introduction

|1i in |+i/| i basis.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Qubit: Change of Basis

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

Measure | i =

1
2

|0i +

3
2

Introduction

|1i in |+i/| i basis.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

It can be checked that:

|0i =
|1i =

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Uncertainty Principle

p1
2
p1
2

|+i +
|+i

p1
2
p1
2

| i
| i

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Qubit: Change of Basis

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

Measure | i =

1
2

|0i +

3
2

Introduction

|1i in |+i/| i basis.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

It can be checked that:

|0i =
|1i =
| i=

1
2

|0i +

3
2

Uncertainty Principle

p1
2
p1
2

|+i +
|+i

p1
2
p1
2

| i
| i

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

|1i

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Qubit: Change of Basis

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

Measure | i =

1
2

|0i +

3
2

Introduction

|1i in |+i/| i basis.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

It can be checked that:

|0i =
|1i =

Uncertainty Principle

p1
2
p1
2

|+i +
|+i

p1
2
p1
2

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics

| i
| i

Next Presentation
Reference

| i = 12 |0i + 23 |1i
= 12 ( p12 |+i + p12 | i) +

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

3 p1
2 ( 2

|+i +

p1
2

| i)

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Qubit: Change of Basis

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

Measure | i =

1
2

|0i +

3
2

Introduction

|1i in |+i/| i basis.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

It can be checked that:

Uncertainty Principle

|0i =
|1i =

p1
2
p1
2

|+i +
|+i

p1
2
p1
2

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics

| i
| i

Next Presentation
Reference

| i = 12 |0i + 23 |1i
= 12 ( p12 |+i + p12 | i) +
= (2

1
p

p
p3 ) |+i
2 2

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

3 p1
2 ( 2 |+i
p
1
p3 ) |
( 2p
2
2 2

+
i

p1
2

| i)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Linear Algebra

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/la2.png
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

Linear Algebra
A very short introduction

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Reference

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Vector Space

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

A vector space consists of vectors(|i , | i , | i), together

with a set of scalars(a, b, c,....)2 , which is closed under two
operations:

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

Vector addition

2 the

Reference

scalars can be complex numbers

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Vector Space

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

A vector space consists of vectors(|i , | i , | i), together

with a set of scalars(a, b, c,....)2 , which is closed under two
operations:

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

Vector addition

Reference

Scalar multiplication

2 the

scalars can be complex numbers

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Vector Addition

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The sum of any two vectors is another vector

|i + | i = | i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

3 |0i

and 0 are dierent

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Vector Addition

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The sum of any two vectors is another vector

|i + | i = | i

Vector addition is commutative

|i + | i = | i + |i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

3 |0i

and 0 are dierent

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Vector Addition

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The sum of any two vectors is another vector

|i + | i = | i

Vector addition is commutative

|i + | i = | i + |i

It is associative also

|i + (| i + | i) = (|i + | i) + | i

3 |0i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

and 0 are dierent

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Vector Addition

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The sum of any two vectors is another vector

|i + | i = | i

Vector addition is commutative

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

|i + | i = | i + |i

It is associative also

|i + (| i + | i) = (|i + | i) + | i

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

There exists a zero(or null) vector with the property

|i + |0i = |i ,

3 |0i

8 |i

and 0 are dierent

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Vector Addition

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The sum of any two vectors is another vector

|i + | i = | i

Vector addition is commutative

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

|i + | i = | i + |i

It is associative also

|i + (| i + | i) = (|i + | i) + | i

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

There exists a zero(or null) vector with the property

|i + |0i = |i ,

8 |i

For every vector |i there is an associative inverse

vector(| i) such that
|i + | i = |0i
3 |0i

and 0 are dierent

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Scalar Multiplication

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The product of any scalar with any vector is another

vector
a |i = | i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Scalar Multiplication

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The product of any scalar with any vector is another

vector
a |i = | i

Scalar multiplication is distributive w.r.t vector addition

a(|i + | i) = a |i + a | i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

18 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Scalar Multiplication

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The product of any scalar with any vector is another

vector
a |i = | i

Scalar multiplication is distributive w.r.t vector addition

a(|i + | i) = a |i + a | i

And with respect to scalar addition also

(a + b) |i = a |i + b |i

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Scalar Multiplication

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The product of any scalar with any vector is another

vector
a |i = | i

Scalar multiplication is distributive w.r.t vector addition

a(|i + | i) = a |i + a | i

And with respect to scalar addition also

(a + b) |i = a |i + b |i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

It is also associative w.r.t ordinary scalar multiplication

a(b |i) = (ab) |i

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Scalar Multiplication

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The product of any scalar with any vector is another

vector
a |i = | i

Scalar multiplication is distributive w.r.t vector addition

a(|i + | i) = a |i + a | i

And with respect to scalar addition also

(a + b) |i = a |i + b |i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

It is also associative w.r.t ordinary scalar multiplication

a(b |i) = (ab) |i

Multiplication by scalars 0 and 1 has the eect

0 |i = |0i ;

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

1 |i = |i

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Basis Vectors

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Linear combination of vectors |i, | i, | i,... is of the form

|i + | i + | i + . . .

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

A vector | i is said to be linearly independent of the set

of vectors |i, | i, | i,. . . ,if it cannot be written as a
linear combination of them.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Basis Vectors

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Linear combination of vectors |i, | i, | i,... is of the form

|i + | i + | i + . . .

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

A vector | i is said to be linearly independent of the set

of vectors |i, | i, | i,. . . ,if it cannot be written as a
linear combination of them.
A set of vectors is linearly independent if each one is
independent of all the rest.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

November 23, 2013

19 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Basis Vectors

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Linear combination of vectors |i, | i, | i,... is of the form

|i + | i + | i + . . .

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

A vector | i is said to be linearly independent of the set

of vectors |i, | i, | i,. . . ,if it cannot be written as a
linear combination of them.
A set of vectors is linearly independent if each one is
independent of all the rest.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

If every vector can be written as a linear combination of

members of this set then the collection of vectors said to
span the space.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

19 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Basis Vectors

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Linear combination of vectors |i, | i, | i,... is of the form

|i + | i + | i + . . .

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

A vector | i is said to be linearly independent of the set

of vectors |i, | i, | i,. . . ,if it cannot be written as a
linear combination of them.
A set of vectors is linearly independent if each one is
independent of all the rest.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

If every vector can be written as a linear combination of

members of this set then the collection of vectors said to
span the space.
A set of linearly independent vectors that spans the space
is called a basis.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

19 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Basis Vectors

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Linear combination of vectors |i, | i, | i,... is of the form

|i + | i + | i + . . .

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

A vector | i is said to be linearly independent of the set

of vectors |i, | i, | i,. . . ,if it cannot be written as a
linear combination of them.
A set of vectors is linearly independent if each one is
independent of all the rest.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

If every vector can be written as a linear combination of

members of this set then the collection of vectors said to
span the space.
A set of linearly independent vectors that spans the space
is called a basis.
The number of vectors in any basis is called the
dimension of space.
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Inner product

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

An inner product is a function which takes two vectors as input

an gives a complex number as output.
The dual(or complex conjugate) of any vector |i is h|

|i = h|

4 This

is a complex number;h| i 2 C

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

The inner product of two vectors (|i, | i) written as h| i4

which has the properties:
h| i = h |i

Introduction

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Inner product

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

An inner product is a function which takes two vectors as input

an gives a complex number as output.
The dual(or complex conjugate) of any vector |i is h|

|i = h|

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

The inner product of two vectors (|i, | i) written as h| i4

which has the properties:
h| i = h |i

Introduction

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

h|i > 0, and h|i = 0 , |i = |0i

4 This

is a complex number;h| i 2 C

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Inner product

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

An inner product is a function which takes two vectors as input

an gives a complex number as output.
The dual(or complex conjugate) of any vector |i is h|

|i = h|

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

The inner product of two vectors (|i, | i) written as h| i4

which has the properties:
h| i = h |i

Introduction

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

h|i > 0, and h|i = 0 , |i = |0i

h| (b | i + c | i) = b h| i + c h| i

4 This

is a complex number;h| i 2 C

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Inner Product Space

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

A vector space with an inner product is called inner product

space.
i.e. the above conditions satisfied for any vectors
|i, | i, | i 2 V and for any scalar c
n

e.g. C has an inner product defined by

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics

2 3
b1
X
6 7
h| i
ai bi = [a1 . . . an ] 4 ... 5
i

Next Presentation
Reference

bn

2 3
2 3
a1
b1
6 .. 7
6 .. 7
where |i = 4 . 5 and | i = 4 . 5
an

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

bn

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Orthonormal Set
Inner product of any vector with itself gives a non-negative
number its square-root of is real which is called norm
p
k k= h|i

It also termed as length of the vector.

A unit vector one whose norm is 1 is said to be normalized5 .

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

5 Normalization:

|ek i =

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

|ki
kkk

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Orthonormal Set
Inner product of any vector with itself gives a non-negative
number its square-root of is real which is called norm
p
k k= h|i

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

It also termed as length of the vector.

A unit vector one whose norm is 1 is said to be normalized5 .

Uncertainty Principle

Two vectors whose inner product is zero is said to be

orthogonal

Next Presentation

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics

Reference

h|i = 0

5 Normalization:

|ek i =

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

|ki
kkk

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

22 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Orthonormal Set
Inner product of any vector with itself gives a non-negative
number its square-root of is real which is called norm
p
k k= h|i

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

It also termed as length of the vector.

A unit vector one whose norm is 1 is said to be normalized5 .

Uncertainty Principle

Two vectors whose inner product is zero is said to be

orthogonal

Next Presentation

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics

Reference

h|i = 0
A mutually collection of orthogonal normalized vectors is
called an orthonormal set
(
= 0, i = j
hi |j i = ij , where ij
6= 0, i 6= j
5 Normalization:

|ek i =

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

|ki
kkk

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November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Orthonormal Set(Contd.)

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

If an orthonormal basis is chosen then the inner product of

two vectors can be written as
h| i =

a1 b1

a2 b2

+ ... +

an bn

hence the norm(squared)

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

h|i = |a1 | + |a2 | + . . . + |an |

Reference

each components are

aj = hej |i ,

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

where ej s are basis vector

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Linear Operator and Matrices

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

A linear operator between vector spaces V and W is

defined to be any function A : V ! W which is linear in
its inputs

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

X
i

ai | i i

Linear Algebra

X
i

Uncertainty Principle

ai A(| i i)

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

24 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Linear Operator and Matrices

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

A linear operator between vector spaces V and W is

defined to be any function A : V ! W which is linear in
its inputs

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

X
i

ai | i i

Linear Algebra

X
i

Uncertainty Principle

ai A(| i i)

another linear operator on any vector space V is Identity

operator, Iv defined as Iv | i | i.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

November 23, 2013

24 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Linear Operator and Matrices

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

A linear operator between vector spaces V and W is

defined to be any function A : V ! W which is linear in
its inputs

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

X
i

ai | i i

Linear Algebra

X
i

Uncertainty Principle

ai A(| i i)

another linear operator on any vector space V is Identity

operator, Iv defined as Iv | i | i.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Zero operator which maps all vectors to zero vector,

0 | i |0i.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Linear Operator and Matrices

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

A linear operator between vector spaces V and W is

defined to be any function A : V ! W which is linear in
its inputs

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

X
i

ai | i i

Linear Algebra

X
i

Uncertainty Principle

ai A(| i i)

another linear operator on any vector space V is Identity

operator, Iv defined as Iv | i | i.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Zero operator which maps all vectors to zero vector,

0 | i |0i.

Let V, W, X are vector spaces, and A : V ! W and

B : W ! X are linear operators. Then the composition of
operators B and A denoted by BA and defined by
(BA)(| i) B(A(| i))
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Matrix Representation of Linear Operators

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

already we have seen that matrices can be regarded as

linear operators..!!

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

25 / 70

Matrix Representation of Linear Operators

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

already we have seen that matrices can be regarded as

linear operators..!!
does linear operators has a matrix representation..??!

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

/Users/mindSpace/Deskto
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

25 / 70

Matrix Representation of Linear Operators

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

already we have seen that matrices can be regarded as

linear operators..!!
does linear operators has a matrix representation..??!

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

/Users/mindSpace/Deskto
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

yes it has..!!

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

25 / 70

Matrix Representation of Linear Operators

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

already we have seen that matrices can be regarded as

linear operators..!!
does linear operators has a matrix representation..??!

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

/Users/mindSpace/Deskto
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

yes it has..!!
say, A : V ! W is a linear operator between vector spaces
V and W. Let the basis set for V and W are
(| 1 i , . . . , | m i) and (|!1 i , . . . , |!n i) respectively. Then
we can say For each k in 1,2,....,m, there exist complex
numbers A1k through Ank such that
A|

ki

X
i

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Aik |!i i

The matrix whose entries are Aik is the matrix

representation of the linear operator.
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Identity Matrix

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The exotic way to express 1

Introduction

Definition

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Identity matrix is one with the main diagonals and zeros

everywhere. it is denoted by In or I

Qubit

Matrix representation of Identity operator

2
3
1 0 ... 0
6 0 1 . . . 07
6
7
6 .. .. . . .. 7
4.. . .5

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

0 0 ... 1

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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26 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Identity Matrix

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The exotic way to express 1

Introduction

Definition

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Identity matrix is one with the main diagonals and zeros

everywhere. it is denoted by In or I

Qubit

Matrix representation of Identity operator

2
3
1 0 ... 0
6 0 1 . . . 07
6
7
6 .. .. . . .. 7
4.. . .5

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

0 0 ... 1
It satisfies the property In A = AIn = A

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

26 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Identity Matrix

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The exotic way to express 1

Introduction

Definition

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Identity matrix is one with the main diagonals and zeros

everywhere. it is denoted by In or I

Qubit

Matrix representation of Identity operator

2
3
1 0 ... 0
6 0 1 . . . 07
6
7
6 .. .. . . .. 7
4.. . .5

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

0 0 ... 1
It satisfies the property In A = AIn = A
compact notation: (In )ij =

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

ij

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

26 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Identity Matrix

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

The exotic way to express 1

Introduction

Definition

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Identity matrix is one with the main diagonals and zeros

everywhere. it is denoted by In or I

Qubit

Matrix representation of Identity operator

2
3
1 0 ... 0
6 0 1 . . . 07
6
7
6 .. .. . . .. 7
4.. . .5

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

0 0 ... 1
It satisfies the property In A = AIn = A
compact notation: (In )ij =

ij

It satisfies Idempotent law, I.I = I

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Pauli Matrices

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

Pauli matrices are named after the physicist Wolfgang

Pauli.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

27 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Pauli Matrices

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

Pauli matrices are named after the physicist Wolfgang

Pauli.
These are a set of 2 x 2 complex matrices which are
Hermitian and unitary.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

27 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Pauli Matrices

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

Pauli matrices are named after the physicist Wolfgang

Pauli.
These are a set of 2 x 2 complex matrices which are
Hermitian and unitary.
They look like
10
,
01
0
Y
i

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

i
,
0

X
3

Reference

01
10

1
0

Introduction to Quantum Computation

0
1

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Pauli Matrices(properties)

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Some properties of Pauli matrices

2
1

2
2

2
3

1 2 3

Outline

1 0
=I
0 1

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

28 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Pauli Matrices(properties)

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Some properties of Pauli matrices

2
1

2
2

det( i ) =

2
3

1 2 3

Outline

1 0
=I
0 1

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

28 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Pauli Matrices(properties)

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Some properties of Pauli matrices

2
1

2
2

det( i ) =

2
3

1 2 3

Outline

1 0
=I
0 1

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Tr ( i ) = 0

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

28 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Pauli Matrices(properties)

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Some properties of Pauli matrices

2
1

2
2

det( i ) =

2
3

1 2 3

Outline

1 0
=I
0 1

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Tr ( i ) = 0
Each Pauli matrices has two eigenvalues +1 and -1.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

28 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Pauli Matrices(properties)

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Some properties of Pauli matrices

2
1

2
2

det( i ) =

2
3

1 2 3

Outline

1 0
=I
0 1

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Tr ( i ) = 0
Each Pauli matrices has two eigenvalues +1 and -1.
Normalized eigenvectors are

1
1
1
p
p
,
x+ =
x =
2 1
2

1
1
1
p
p
,
y+ =
y =
2
2
i


1
0
,
z+ =
z =
0
1

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

Reference

1
1

1
i

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Pauli Matrices and Quantum Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

Pauli matrices are used here as rotation6 operators.

/Users/mindSpace/Deskto
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

On the basis of Pauli matrices the X, Y, Z quantum gates are

designed.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

The Pauli-X gate is the quantum equivalent of NOT

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images
gate. It maps |0i to |1i and |1i to |0i.

6 rotation
7 all

of Bloch sphere
acts on single qubit

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Pauli Matrices and Quantum Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Pauli-Y gate maps |0i to |1i and |1i to

|0i.

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop
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Pauli Matrices and Quantum Computation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Pauli-Y gate maps |0i to |1i and |1i to

|0i.

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop
Uncertainty Principle

Pauli-Z gate leaves the basis state |0i unchanged and

maps |1i to -|1i.
/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/sigz.jpg

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Hilbert Space

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Hilbert Space
/Users/mindSpace/D
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Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Wave functions live in Hilbert space

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Hilbert Space: Few Basics

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

The mathematical concept of Hilbert space named after

David Hilbert, but this term coined by John von Neumann.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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8 any Cauchy sequence of functions in Hilbert space converges to a

function that is also in the space.
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Hilbert Space: Few Basics

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

The mathematical concept of Hilbert space named after

David Hilbert, but this term coined by John von Neumann.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Basically this is the generalization of the notion of

Euclidean space i.e. it extends the methods of algebra
and calculus of 2D Euclidean plane and 3D space to space
of any finite or infinite dimensions.

Linear Algebra

Qubit

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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8 any Cauchy sequence of functions in Hilbert space converges to a

function that is also in the space.
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Hilbert Space: Few Basics

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

The mathematical concept of Hilbert space named after

David Hilbert, but this term coined by John von Neumann.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Basically this is the generalization of the notion of

Euclidean space i.e. it extends the methods of algebra
and calculus of 2D Euclidean plane and 3D space to space
of any finite or infinite dimensions.

Linear Algebra

Hilbert space is an abstract vector space with inner

product defined in it, which allows length and angle to be
measured.

Reference

Qubit

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

8 any Cauchy sequence of functions in Hilbert space converges to a

function that is also in the space.
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Hilbert Space: Few Basics

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

The mathematical concept of Hilbert space named after

David Hilbert, but this term coined by John von Neumann.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Basically this is the generalization of the notion of

Euclidean space i.e. it extends the methods of algebra
and calculus of 2D Euclidean plane and 3D space to space
of any finite or infinite dimensions.

Linear Algebra

Hilbert space is an abstract vector space with inner

product defined in it, which allows length and angle to be
measured.

Reference

Qubit

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

Hilbert space must be complete.8

8 any Cauchy sequence of functions in Hilbert space converges to a

function that is also in the space.
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Hilbert Space: Formal Approach

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

The set of all functions of x constitute a vector space. To

represent a possible physical state,the wave function needed to
be normalized
R
| |2 dx h | i = 1
The set of all square-integrable functions on a specified
interval,9
Rb
f (x) such that a |f (x)|2 dx < 1,

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Reference

constitutes a smaller vector space. It is known to

mathematician as L2 (a, b); physicists call it Hilbert space.

Definition
A Euclidean space Rn is a vector space
pendowed with the inner
product hx|y i = hy |xi norm k x k= hx|xi and associated metric
k x y k, such that every Cauchy sequence takes a limit in Rn .
This makes Rn a Hilbert space.
9 The

limits(a and b) can be 1

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Observables

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

Observables
/Users/mindSpace/D
Linear Algebra

Uncertainty Principle

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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woow..! It looks good..!!

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Observables

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

A system observable is a measurable operator, where the

property of the system state can be determined by some
sequence of physical operations.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Observables

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

A system observable is a measurable operator, where the

property of the system state can be determined by some
sequence of physical operations.
In quantum mechanics the measurement process aects
the state in a non-deterministic, but in a statistically
predictable way. In particular, after a measurement is
applied, the state description by a single vector may be
destroyed, being replaced by a statistical ensemble.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
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Linear Algebra
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Mechanics
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November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Observables

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

A system observable is a measurable operator, where the

property of the system state can be determined by some
sequence of physical operations.
In quantum mechanics the measurement process aects
the state in a non-deterministic, but in a statistically
predictable way. In particular, after a measurement is
applied, the state description by a single vector may be
destroyed, being replaced by a statistical ensemble.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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In quantum mechanics each dynamical variable (e.g.

position, translational momentum, orbital angular
momentum, spin, total angular momentum, energy, etc.)
is associated with a Hermitian operator that acts on the
state of the quantum system and whose eigenvalues
correspond to the possible values of the dynamical
variable.

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Observables

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

e.g. let |i is an eigenvector of the observable A, with

eigenvalue a and exits in a d-dimensional Hilbert space,
then
A |i = a |i

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
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Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Observables

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

e.g. let |i is an eigenvector of the observable A, with

eigenvalue a and exits in a d-dimensional Hilbert space,
then
A |i = a |i

This equation states that if a measurement of the

observable A is made while the system of interest is in
state |i, then the observed value of the particular
measurement must return the eigenvalue a with certainty.
If the system is in the general state | i 2 H then the
eigenvalue a return with probability | h| i |2 (Born rule).

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Observables

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

e.g. let |i is an eigenvector of the observable A, with

eigenvalue a and exits in a d-dimensional Hilbert space,
then
A |i = a |i

This equation states that if a measurement of the

observable A is made while the system of interest is in
state |i, then the observed value of the particular
measurement must return the eigenvalue a with certainty.
If the system is in the general state | i 2 H then the
eigenvalue a return with probability | h| i |2 (Born rule).

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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More precisely, the observables are Hermitian operator

so its represented by Hermitian matrix.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Hermitian Operator

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

Hermitian
/Users/mindSpace/D
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Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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hmmm...sounds like me!! is it a new breed ??!!

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Hermitian Operator

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

No, its nothing new. Its the self-adjoint operator.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit

Definition

Linear Algebra

Hermitian matrix is a square matrix with complex entries that

is equal to its own conjugate transpose i.e. the element in
the i-th row and j-th column is equal to the complex conjugate
of the element in the j-th row and i-th column, for all indices i
and j.

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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mathematically aij = aji or in matrix notation, A = (AT )

In compact notation, A = A

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Hermitian Operators: Expectation Value

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

As previously said that the measurements are

non-deterministic, so we can get a probabilistic measure of any
observable, that is known as expectation value
D
E
R
=
hQi
Q =
Q
Operators representing observables have the very special
property that,D
E D
E
= Qf
f
f Qf
8f (x)

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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More strong condition

D
E forDhermiticity,
E

g
f Qg = Qf
8f (x) and g (x)

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Hermitian Operators:Properties

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

Eigenvalues of Hermitian operators are real.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Hermitian Operators:Properties

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

Eigenvalues of Hermitian operators are real.

Eigenfunctions belonging to distinct eigenvalues are
orthogonal.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Hermitian Operators:Properties

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

Eigenvalues of Hermitian operators are real.

Eigenfunctions belonging to distinct eigenvalues are
orthogonal.
The eigenfunctions of a Hermitian operator is complete.
Any function(in Hilbert space) can be expressed as the
linear combination of them.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Uncertainty Principle

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/uncertain.jpg
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Wave Particle Duality

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

According to de Broglie hypothesis:

Outline
Introduction

p=

2~

where p is the momentum, is the wavelength and h is called

Planks constant. It has a value of 6.63 10 34 Joule-sec.
h
~ = 2
is called the reduced Plank constant.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Wave Particle Duality

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

According to de Broglie hypothesis:

Outline
Introduction

p=

2~

where p is the momentum, is the wavelength and h is called

Planks constant. It has a value of 6.63 10 34 Joule-sec.
h
~ = 2
is called the reduced Plank constant.
This formula essentially states that every particle has a wave
nature and vice versa.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/duality.jpg

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

The Uncertainty Principle is a direct consequence of the wave

particle duality. The wavelength of a wave is well defined, while
asking for its position is absurd. Vice versa is the case for a
particle. And from de Broglie hypothesis, we get that
momentum is inversely proportional to wavelength. Since every
substance has both wave and particle nature -

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Uncertainty Principle
One can never know with perfect accuracy both the position
and the momentum of a particle.

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Uncertainty Principle: Mathematical Notation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

According to Heisenberg, the uncertainty in the position and

momentum of a substance must be at least as big as ~2 . So we
can write the mathematical notation of the uncertainty
principle:
x. p

~
2

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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/users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/identity.jpg

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Introduction to Quantum Mechanics

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

Not only is the Universe stranger than we

think, it is stranger than we can think
- Warner Heisenberg

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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/users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/quantum.png

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Quantum Mechanics

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

By the late nineteenth century the laws of physics were

based on Mechanics and laws of Gravitation from Newton,
Maxwells equations describing Electricity and Magnetism
and on Statistical Mechanics describing the state of large
collection of matter.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Quantum Mechanics

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

By the late nineteenth century the laws of physics were

based on Mechanics and laws of Gravitation from Newton,
Maxwells equations describing Electricity and Magnetism
and on Statistical Mechanics describing the state of large
collection of matter.
These laws of physics described nature very well under
most conditions. However, some experiments of the late
19th and early 20th century could not be explained.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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November 23, 2013

46 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Quantum Mechanics

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

By the late nineteenth century the laws of physics were

based on Mechanics and laws of Gravitation from Newton,
Maxwells equations describing Electricity and Magnetism
and on Statistical Mechanics describing the state of large
collection of matter.
These laws of physics described nature very well under
most conditions. However, some experiments of the late
19th and early 20th century could not be explained.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

The problems with classical physics led to the development

of Quantum Mechanics and Special Relativity.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Quantum Mechanics

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

By the late nineteenth century the laws of physics were

based on Mechanics and laws of Gravitation from Newton,
Maxwells equations describing Electricity and Magnetism
and on Statistical Mechanics describing the state of large
collection of matter.
These laws of physics described nature very well under
most conditions. However, some experiments of the late
19th and early 20th century could not be explained.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

The problems with classical physics led to the development

of Quantum Mechanics and Special Relativity.
Some of the problems leading to the development of
Quantum Mechanics are
I
I
I
I

Black Body Radiation

Photoelectric Eect
Double Slit Experiment
Compton Scattering

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Double Slit Experiment: Setup

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

This experiment shows an aberrant result which cannot be

explained using classical laws of physics.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
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Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Double Slit Experiment: Setup

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

This experiment shows an aberrant result which cannot be

explained using classical laws of physics.
The experiment setup consists of a monochromatic source of
light and two extremely small slits, big enough for only one
photon particle to pass through it.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/ds1.png

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Double Slit Experiment: One Slit Open

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

If initially only one slit is open, we get a probability distribution

as shown in figure.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

So if the two slits are opened individually, the two distinct

probability distributations are obtained in the screen.

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/ds2.png

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Double Slit Experiment: The Classical

Expectation

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

Since the opening of two slits individually are independent

events, classically we expect that if the two slits are opened
together, the two probability distributions should add up giving
the new probability distribution.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/ds3.png

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Double Slit Experiment: The Anomaly

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

What we observe in reality when both slits are opened

together, is an interference pattern.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/ds4.png

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Double Slit Experiment: Quantum Explanation

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

There is no classical explanation to this observation.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/ds5.png

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Double Slit Experiment: Quantum Explanation

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

There is no classical explanation to this observation.

However, using quantum mechanics, it can be explained.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/ds5.png

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Double Slit Experiment: Quantum Explanation

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

There is no classical explanation to this observation.

However, using quantum mechanics, it can be explained.
It is the wave particle duality of light that is responsible
for such aberrant observation. The wave nature of light is
responsible for the interference pattern observed.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/ds5.png

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Double Slit Experiment: Complete Picture

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum

Mechanics
/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/doubleslit.jpg

Next Presentation
Reference

Figure : Double Slit Experiment showing the anomaly - deviation of

the observed result from the one predicted by Classical Physics.

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Nobody understands Quantum Mechanics

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

Quantum mechanics is a very counter-intuitive theory.

The results of quantum mechanics is nothing like what we
experience in everyday life. It is just that nature behaves
very strangely at the level of elementary particles. And
this strange way is described by quantum mechanics.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Nobody understands Quantum Mechanics

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

Quantum mechanics is a very counter-intuitive theory.

The results of quantum mechanics is nothing like what we
experience in everyday life. It is just that nature behaves
very strangely at the level of elementary particles. And
this strange way is described by quantum mechanics.
In fact, so strange is the theory that Richard Feynman
once said

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/feynman.jpg

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November 23, 2013

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1st Postulate: State Space

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

Postulate 1
Associated to any isolated system is a Hilbert Space called the
state space. The system is completely defined by the state
vector, which is a unit vector in the state space.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/state.png

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State Vector: Mathematical Realisation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

Let us consider a quantum state | i = |0i +

|1i

Since a state is a unit vector, the norm of the vector must be

unity, or in mathematical notation,
h | i=1
Hence, the condition that | i is a unit vector is equivalent to

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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||2 + | |2 = 1
This condition is called the normalization condition of the state
vector.

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State: Why unit vector?

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

Let | i = 0 |0i + 1 |1i + . . . + k 1 |k 1i be a quantum

state. As we shall see later, the superposition is not observable.
When a state is observed, it collapses into one of the basis
states.

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/superposition.jpg

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Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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State: Why unit vector?

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

The square of the amplitude |i |2 gives the probability that the

system collapses to the state |ii.
Since the total probability is always 1, we must have:
P
|i |2 = 1

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

This condition is satisfied only when the state vector is a unit

vector.

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November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

2nd Postulate: Evolution

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Postulate 2

Outline

The evolution of a closed quantum system is described by a

unitary transformation.
That is, if | 1 i is the state of the system at time t1 and |
time t2 , then:
|

2 i = U(t1 , t2 ) |

where U(t1 , t2 ) is a unitary operator.

1i

2i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

at

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

2nd Postulate: Evolution

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Postulate 2

Outline

The evolution of a closed quantum system is described by a

unitary transformation.
That is, if | 1 i is the state of the system at time t1 and |
time t2 , then:
|

2 i = U(t1 , t2 ) |

where U(t1 , t2 ) is a unitary operator.

2i

1i

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

at

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/evolution.png

Figure : Quantum systems evolve by the rotation of the Hilbert

Space
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November 23, 2013

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Time Evolution: Schrodinger Equation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

The time evolution of a closed quantum system is given by the

Schrodinger Equation:

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

i~ d|dt i

=H| i

where H is the hamiltonian and it is defined as the total energy

(kinetic + potential) of the system.

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
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Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Time Evolution: Schrodinger Equation

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline

The time evolution of a closed quantum system is given by the

Schrodinger Equation:

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

i~ d|dt i

=H| i

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

where H is the hamiltonian and it is defined as the total energy

(kinetic + potential) of the system.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

The connection between the hamitonian picture and the

unitary operator picture is given by:
|

2i

= exp

iH(t2 t1 )
~

where we define, U(t1 , t2 ) exp

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

1i

= U(t1 , t2 ) |

1i

iH(t2 t1 )
~

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Attempt at 3rd Postulate

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

Unlike classical physics, measurement in quantum

mechanics is not deterministic. Even if we have the
complete knowledge of a system, we can at most predict
the probability of a certain outcome from a set of possible
outcomes.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Attempt at 3rd Postulate

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

Unlike classical physics, measurement in quantum

mechanics is not deterministic. Even if we have the
complete knowledge of a system, we can at most predict
the probability of a certain outcome from a set of possible
outcomes.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

If we have a quantum state | i = |0i + |1i, then the

probability of getting outcome |0i is ||2 and that of |1i is
| |2 .

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

November 23, 2013

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Attempt at 3rd Postulate

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

Unlike classical physics, measurement in quantum

mechanics is not deterministic. Even if we have the
complete knowledge of a system, we can at most predict
the probability of a certain outcome from a set of possible
outcomes.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

If we have a quantum state | i = |0i + |1i, then the

probability of getting outcome |0i is ||2 and that of |1i is
| |2 .

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

After measurement, the state of the system collapses to

either |0i or |1i with the said probability.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Attempt at 3rd Postulate

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

Unlike classical physics, measurement in quantum

mechanics is not deterministic. Even if we have the
complete knowledge of a system, we can at most predict
the probability of a certain outcome from a set of possible
outcomes.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

If we have a quantum state | i = |0i + |1i, then the

probability of getting outcome |0i is ||2 and that of |1i is
| |2 .

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

After measurement, the state of the system collapses to

either |0i or |1i with the said probability.
However, after measurement if the new state of the
system is |0i (say), then further measurements in the
same basis gives outcome |0i with probability 1.
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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3rd Postulate: Measurement

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

Postulate 3

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Quantum measurements are described by a collection {Mm } of

measurement operators. The index m refers to the
measurement outcomes that may occur in the experiment. If
the state of the quantum system is | i before experiment, then
the probability that result m occurs is given by,

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

p(m) = h | Mm .Mm | i
And the state of the system after measurement is
p

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Mm | i

h |Mm .Mm | i

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So what is the Big Deal?

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha

The postulate states that a quantum system stays in a

superposition when it is not observed. When a measurement is
done, it immediately collapses to one of its eigenstates. Hence
we can never observe what the original superposition of the
system was. We merely observe the state after it collapses.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra

This inherent ambiguity provides an excellent security in

Quantum Cryptography.

Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/observe.jpg

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November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Schrodingers Cat

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

This is a thought experiment proposed by Erwin

Schrodinger.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Schrodingers Cat

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

This is a thought experiment proposed by Erwin

Schrodinger.
Place a cat in a steel chamber with a device containing a
vial of hydrocyanic acid and a radioactive substance. If
even a single atom of the substance decays, it will trip a
hammer and break the vial which in turn kills the cat.

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

63 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Schrodingers Cat

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

This is a thought experiment proposed by Erwin

Schrodinger.

Outline
Introduction

Place a cat in a steel chamber with a device containing a

vial of hydrocyanic acid and a radioactive substance. If
even a single atom of the substance decays, it will trip a
hammer and break the vial which in turn kills the cat.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Without opening the box, an observer cannot know

whether the cat is alive or dead. So the cat may be said
to be in a superposition of the two states.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Next Presentation
Reference

November 23, 2013

63 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Schrodingers Cat

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

This is a thought experiment proposed by Erwin

Schrodinger.

Outline
Introduction

Place a cat in a steel chamber with a device containing a

vial of hydrocyanic acid and a radioactive substance. If
even a single atom of the substance decays, it will trip a
hammer and break the vial which in turn kills the cat.

Motivations for Quantum

Computation

Without opening the box, an observer cannot know

whether the cat is alive or dead. So the cat may be said
to be in a superposition of the two states.

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

Next Presentation
Reference

However, when the box is opened, we observe

deterministically that the cat is either dead or alive. We
can, by no means, observe the superposition.

/Users/mindSpace/Desktop/Images1/Schrodinger_

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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4th Postulate: Composite System

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction

What we have seen so far was a single qubit system. What

happens when there are multiple qubits? This is given by the
last postulate:

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics

Postulate 4

Next Presentation

The state space of a composite physical system is the tensor

product of the state spaces of the component physical systems.
Moreover, if we have n systems, and the system number i is
prepared in state | i i, then the joint state of the total system is
|

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

1i

2i

... |

Reference

ni

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Two Qubit System

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction

Let us consider a two qubit system. Classically, with two bits,

we can have 4 states - 00, 01, 10, 11. A quantum system is a
linear superposition of all these four states.
So, a general two qubit quantum state can be represented as
| i = 00 |00i + 01 |01i + 10 |10i + 11 |11i

10

Motivations for Quantum

Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

where,
|00 |2 + |01 |2 + |10 |2 + |11 |2 = 1

10 |0i

|0i |0i |0i |00i

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Measurement in Two Qubit System

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

Measurement is similar to single qubit system. When we

measure the two qubit system we get outcome j with
probability |j |2 and the new state will be |ji.
That is for the system

Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

| i = 00 |00i + 01 |01i + 10 |10i + 11 |11i,

we get outcome |00i with probability |00 |2 and the new state
of the system will be |00i.

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Partial Measurement

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline

So what if we want to measure only the first qubit? Or maybe

only the second one?

Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit

We take the same two qubit system,

| i = 00 |00i + 01 |01i + 10 |10i + 11 |11i,
If only the first qubit is measured then we get the outcome |0i
for the first qubit with probability |00 |2 + |01 |2

Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

and the state collapses to

01 |01i
| i = p00 |00i+
2
2

|00 | +|01 |

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Coming up in next talk...

Introduction to Quantum
Computation
Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha
Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation

Einstein-Polosky-Rosen (EPR) Paradox

Qubit
Linear Algebra

Bell State

Uncertainty Principle

Quantum Entanglement
Density Matrix Notation of Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Gates

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

and many more...

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

November 23, 2013

68 / 70

Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha

Michael A. Nielsen, Isaac Chuang

Quantum Computation and Quantum Information
Cambridge University Press
David J. Griffiths
Introduction to Quantum Mechanics
Prentice Hall, 2nd Edition
Umesh Vazirani, University of California Berkeley
Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Computation
https://class.coursera.org/qcomp-2012-001/

Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle
Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation
Reference

Michael A. Nielsen, University of Queensland

Quantum Computing for the determined
http://michaelnielsen.org/blog/
quantum-computing-for-the-determined/
James Branson, University of California San Diego
Quantum Physics (UCSD Physics 130)
http://quantummechanics.ucsd.edu/ph130a/130_
notes/130_notes.html
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Introduction to Quantum Computation

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Introduction to Quantum
Computation

Reference

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha

Saha
Outline
Introduction
Motivations for Quantum
Computation
Qubit
Linear Algebra
Uncertainty Principle

N. David Mermin, Cornell University

Lecture Notes on Quantum Computation

Postulates of Quantum
Mechanics
Next Presentation

http://www.wikipedia.org

Ritajit Majumdar, Arunabha Saha (CU)

Introduction to Quantum Computation

Reference

November 23, 2013

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