The Character and the Spatial Concepts of Cakranegara

The Historical City of Indonesia as an Alternative Urban Design

Lalu Mulyadi
Department of Achitecture, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Planning
National Institute of Technology (ITN Malang)
[email protected] and [email protected]
Razak School of Engineering and Advance Technology
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, International Campus, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia
[email protected] and [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The main challenge in Indonesian urban conservation efforts is to determine how changes can meet
our current needs without jeopardizing its unique character. Cakranegara, Lombok is one of the towns that have
unique character and concept for its spatial organization. This research seeks to define the character o of
Cakranegara by outlining the spatial city concepts in relation to the physical character based on the socio-cultural
and religious principles using questionnaires, mental mapping, visual survey and interviews. The results indicate
that the grid pattern, settlement blocks and the positioning of the east-west temples have become the specific
character of the city. Findings suggest that cosmological philosophy that emphasizes on the relationship between
humans and nature is used to determine the spatial organizatin. This relationship is observed in the placement of
the three temples which symbolizes the spirit, the dwellers as the energy and the settlement territorial as the
vessel. The study concludes that the basic principles of socio-cultural and the socio-religious beliefs had created
the spatial concept of this historic town.
Keywords: Cakranegara City; Socio-culture; Character; Spatial Concept.

Introduction
Urban designs that currently exist in Indonesia
are still focused on the same forms. As a result,
little attention is given to urban designs where
cultural heritage is neglected. An excellent example
of this can be seen in the administrative boundaries
among districts which depict as units of the urban
designs of which the socio-cultural aspects are then
neglected (Samadhi, 2004 vol 9:205.223).
Historically the culture of Indonesian people were
largely influenced by the Hindus. Their thinking
was very ancient as were their religious beliefs.
They regarded the spirit as the supernatural power
which was identical to their Dewa (God). The
Dewa is deemed as real, has orientation, hierarchy
and certain functions and is thus symbolized as
having a great power in the universe (Alisjahbana,
1966).
Indian culture, which subscribes to Hinduism,
had contributed greatly to the development of
Indonesian culture especially in the regions of
Trowulan-Mojokerto and Tengger in East Java, in
Bali and in the western parts of Lombok in East
Indonesia (Wiryomartono, 1995). The use of
figurines of various shapes to symbolize the Dewadewa (the gods) and physical elements whichare
predominant in residential areas as can be seen in
the countrysides as well as in the cities. These areas
display orientation and adherence to hierarchy
which include social culture aspect (Munandar,
2005).
Urban areas like Nagari in Padang, Gampong in
Aceh, and Desa Adat in Bali which have valuable
1

social cultures that displays a close relationship

with the sense of place of the area. Therefore, the
development of historical cities should consider the
character of the place and how they contribute to
support valuable social and cultural expectations of
the users. Thus, more research should be conducted
related to the old historical cities and social
because they provide theoretical concepts that
caould be used as references to build urban areas
(Bondan, 1999).
The main purpose of this study is to provide a
new perspective to architectural and urban design
theories with regard to the spatial organisation.
This will be useful for the local government
consultants to use as a reference for planning and
formulating the conservation of Cakranegara. For
the Indonesian urban designers, the theory will be
an inspiration to develop existing cities and become
an international reference for grid planning in case
of Indonesia. Lastly for further research, the frame
of analysis of this study can also be an alternative
for the same kind of study either in Indonesia as
well as other countries.
Theoretical Background
Definition of Spatial
The term spatial is used to denote anything
that deals with space including size, distance, shape
and position. Similar to the term morphology, the
term spatial can also be used in economy,

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geography, urban planning, environment study,

area study and architecture.
The term spatial as used in this study takes on
a different definition from the mathematical term
Euclide which refers to space as confined to the
geometric aspect and is free from values. In this
study, space is related to the socio cultural values
that has significance and value where it is
heterogeneous, metaphorical and has relations with
social and cultural aspects (Parimin, 1986:ii-iii).
Spatial study in the order of building mass is very
important because it is an essential part of any
architecture in relations to their context. The
concept of space in the order of building mass for
Balinese Hinduism for example depicts a profound,
symbolic meaning (Salija, 1975:34-35). It is the
core of the people`s social culture cognition that
they become part of their life (Eiseman, 1985:29).
Spatial concepts consist of space elements with
their ordering where it is seen as a composition and
order as well as the model of the relationship
among spaces. Discussion relating to spatial
comprises characteristics of the space ordering
element like the space shapes, function,
relationship, orientation and hierarchy (Ching,
1984).
The Overview of the Cosmology of Balinese
Hinduism
Basically, the religion of the Balinese Hinduism
desires relate to the life of man in the universe from
his interim life to end of his time (Zahener,
1992:225; Mauro, 1986:33-35; Budihardjo,
1986:22-23). The purpose can be achieved by
following the principle of tri warga: dharma,
artha, and kama. Dharma is the spiritual aspect,
keeping the close relationship between man and his
god. Artha is the socio-economic aspect that keeps
the interpersonal communication and close
relationship between the people. Finally, Kama is
the cultural life related to the creation of arts,
culture and architecture.
Balinese Hinduism stresses on the ritual
activities either by individuals, among friends or
communities. All the ritualitic activities can be
classified into five categories: Panca Yadnya which
consists of dewa yadnya a ritual in the temples,
pitra yadnya a ritual for the spirit of the
ancestors, manusa yadnya a ritual for
commemorating the process of life from childhood
to adult, rsi yadnya a ritual related to the
inaguration of a priest as a leader of religion, and
bhuta yadnya a ritual for the evils (Pidarta,
2000:16-20; Bagus, 1997: 303).
Finally, the philosophy of Balinese Hinduism is
that man`s life should be in harmony with nature.
This philosophy is based on the view that man is
created from the five elements: ether (akasa), air
(bayu), heat (teja), water (apah), and soil (pertiwi)
which are called Panca Maha Bhuta (Pidarta,
2

2000:23). All these play a vital role in the

formation of Cakranegara urban form.
The Basic Principles of Social and Religious
Culture of Balinese Hinduism
There are seven principles of social and religious
culture of Balinese Hinduism.
First: The Principle of Desa Kala Patra
Desa refers to the people`s living area whereas
Kala refers to the time when people carry on their
life activities. Patra is people who live in an area
(Saraswati, 1993). Thus, the emphasis of this
principle is that people who practice Balinese
Hinduism should be in harmony with the area and
the community they are living in. According to
Widana (2002:37-38), harmonious living should
not deviate from Weda Teaching.
Second: The Principle of Rwa Bhinneda
This is based on the belief that the universe is
created systematically balanced. The basic
principle in this system is the binary concept of
coupling. Ruskam (1999:17) says that there would
not be any meaningful life if there is just one
species occupying the universe and dominating this
cosmos. God created human beings and other
creatures to live and propagate naturally. It is this
concept that makes the universe with its life on
earth perfect and beautiful. According to Ruskam
(1999:76-81), the first harmonious couple is a man
and a woman. The second principle of the couple
theory is evident through the organs of a body
which comes in pairs for example, the eyes, the feet
and the hands. The third aspect of this notion is
evident in the depiction of life: rich-poor,
righteousness-evil, mortality-immortality. Finally,
this binary principle is also evident in the natural
world: the land-the sea, the highs-the lows, the
rain-the heat, the day-the night.
The couple system stated by Ruskam (1999) has
the same significance with binary opposition
written by Levi-Strauss (1969) in Totemism. He
defines the couple of different gender as a method
to analyse the social phenomena whose way of
thinking comes from the human thought to classify
the environmental world. He also shares the same
opinion about the classification based on different
characteristics.
The Hindus in Bali, for example, think that the
couple system in the universe is a consistent order
of the cosmos. They are oriented in a balance state
that keeps the harmonious relationship between the
universe as macro-cosmos and the human beings as
micro-cosmos. This order is based on the
philosophy of reconciliation of two poles of which
have different values but tied in a relationship,
either between the objects, man with objects or
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man with other living things as well as man with

his God (Mauro,1989:35-46; Budihardjo, 1991:3264;)
The philosophy of reconciliation has
significance in the life of the people as it relates to
the social belief of Bali Hinduism to God, the
Almighty (Pidarta, 2000; Sudharta, 2005). Suwena
(2003) suggested that the philosophy of
reconciliation for the Balinese Hinduism is called
the principle of rwa bhinneda. Rwa means two and
bhinneda means different which is reflected such as
the mountain-the sea, dirty-clean, luan-teben,
sekala-niskala, and sacred-profane (Ardi, 1986;
Gelebet, 1986; Widana, 2002:91-2).
Ardi (1986), Mantra (1988:18), Budihardjo
(1991) and Widana (2002:91-2), suggested that the
implementation of the rwa bhineda principles in
the spatial orientation is achieved by the way a
temple is oriented towards a mountain which is
considered a centered-orientation of high value and
hygiene. On the other hand aspects which are not
sacred are directed towards the sea. The sea
comprises bad values and, therefore, it connotes
dirty things. According to Ardi (1986:40-41),
Gelebet (1986), Budihardjo (1991:33-34), Samadhi
(2001-a 25/4:559-575), Geriya (2004:10-15), and
Eiseman (2005:2-5), this binary opposition is
applied to the spatial patterns of the city, village,
settlement, and house yard. Ardi further argued that
both the Puseh temple and Desa temple are
oriented towards the mountain while the Dalem
temple, which is related to mortality and the
graveyard, are both oriented towards the sea.
Third: The Principle of Sekala - Niskala
Sekala is a visible object, whereas niskala is an
invisible object. Both are supernatural elements
where Balinese Hinduism believe that the invisible
objects belong to the supernatural which are then
realized into real objects in order for man to be able
to make contact with (Suparman, 2003; Soeka,
2004). Suparman (2003:133) adds that the temple,
which is a place for worship to God, is a sekala that
is a reflection of niskala. Eiseman (2005:280-321)
also states that dances (sekala), which are
performed by Balinese Hinduism, are the symbols
of the invisible powers (niskala).
Suparman (2003) and Soeka (2004) however
state that the highest power in the universe is just
God, who is unseen and untouchable and where
his power is clasified into three kinds: the power to
create, the power to care for and to return to him.
Balinese Hinduism aspires to be able to
contact directly with God in the real appearance
(sekala) to make it easy for them to relate their
thoughts. Therefore, they reflect God`s character in
the form of Dewa (God) where it is believed that
dewa was created from light to become Gods
envoy (Puja, 1985).

Fourth: The Principle of Tri Hita Kharana

Tri Hita Kharana comes from three words tri
means three, hita means righteousness and kharana
means source which
has the philosopihical
teaching about adaptable and harmonious living in
all aspects of life. According to Monografi
(1985:30), Kaler (1994:14), Putra in Atmaja
(2003:119), the three sources form the relationship
between man with their God, between man with
men and the man with his environment.
Gelebet (1986:15) claims that the three
elements of tri hita kharana are atma, khaya, and
angga (spirit, energy, and vessel/while). On the
other hand, Dharmayudha (1999:7) says that the tri
hita kharana are atman, prana, and sarira which is
the source of life that is spirit, energy, and body. In
this case, if a mans life is in balance he can
assume highly the important role. According to
Patra (1992:16), Gorda (1996:79-94), Atmaja
(1999:61-66), and Samadhi (2001-a 25/4:559-575)
spatial pattern adopting the principle of tri hita
kharana can be seen in the form of parahyangan
that is the site of worship for the spirit where
Pawongan (the people living in the area) is the
energy, and palemahan (settlement) is the vessel
(Table 1).
Table 1: The Elements of Tri Hita Kharana
(Source: Gelebet, 1986; Dharmayudha, 1991; Patra, 1992;
Gorda, 1996; Atmaja, 1999; Samadhi, 2001-a)
Container

SPIRIT
(atma)

Universe

Paraatman

City/village/
desa adat

Tri
Kahyangan
or
Parahyangan

House
Human being

House
temple
Soul/spirit

ENERGY
(prana)
Power to move
the universe,
e.g. planetary
movement
Sima karma or
Pawongan or
dwellers/
villagers and
their activities
House dwellers
Energy

VESSEL
(sarira)
Panca maha
bhuta elements

Palemahan or
settlement/
village territory
Dwelling unit
with its yards
Body

Fifth: The Principle of Tri Angga, Tri Mandala

and Sanga Mandala
Tri Angga is an order in which the basic
cultural and religious belief become the source with
three levels of values in an object, which is
expressed by the Balinese Hinduism with the terms
utama, madya and nista (top, middle and bottom).
In a human being, tri angga bould be represented
by the head, body and legs. In a building, it is the
roof, wall and the floor whereas in the
environment, they are the mountain, land and sea.
In the universe, they are the space (atmosfear), the
land (litosfear) and the sea (hidrosfear). If the
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terms utama, madya, nista are used in an area,

there will be three values of the space called the tri
mandala. Tri means three, mandala means square
or space (Atmaja, 2003) where the principle of Tri
Mandala is the development of rwa bhinneda i.e.
the existence of east west, sunrise-sunset, and
mountain sea and the north south (Ardi,

1986; Budihardjo, 1991). If the two powers

are exposed, there will be a value in-between called
madya. If the value of space is exposed from the
(mountain-sea) and the direction of east west
(sunrise-Sunset), there will be nine space values
called the principle of Sanga Mandala as shown in
(Fig. 1).

Utama

TRI ANGGA

Madya
E

Nista

UN UM UU

Mountain

MN

Utama

Madya

MM

MU

NN NM NU

Legenda:
UU : Utamaning Utama
UM : Utamaning Madia
MU : Madianing Utama
UN : Utamaning Nista
NU : Nistaning Utama

Sunset

Utama

Madya

Nista

Nista

Sunrise

MM : Madianing Madia
MN : Madianing Nista
NM : Nistaning Madia
NN : Nistaning Nista

Sea

Figure 1. The Principle of Tri Angga, Tri Mandala, Sanga Mandala

(Source: Ardi, 1986; Gelebet, 1986; Megananda, 1990; Budihardjo, 1991; Samadhi, 2001-b; Samadhi, 2004-a; Suwena, 2003;
Eiseman, 2005)

Sixth: The Principle of Nawa Sanga

Nawa means the throne of dewa, whereas
Sanga means nine positions. Nawa Sanga means
the nine positions of dewa`s thrones (Covarrubias,
1972:298). Dewa Syiwa`s position is in the centre
whereas the other eight is in the direction of the
compass (Pott, 1966:133; Soekmono, 1986:284-5;
Munandar, 2005:169; Eiseman, 2005:4-5). From
dewa Syiwa`s aspect, the north is dewa Wisnu, the
northeast is dewa Sambu, the east is dewa Iswara,
the southeast is dewa Maheswara, the south is
dewa Brahma, the southwest is dewa Rudra, the
west is dewa Mahadewa and the northwest is dewa
Sangkara (Suwena, 2003:55) (Fig. 2).

Wisnu
Sambu

Sangkara

Mahadewa

Rudra
E

Siwa

Iswara

Maheswara
Brahma

Figure 2. The Position of Dewa-Dewa Nawa Sanga in Point of the Compass

(Source: Pott, 1966; Covarrubias, 1972; Soekmono, 1986; Suwena, 2003;
Munandar, 2005; Eiseman, 2005)

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Seventh: The Principle of Asta Dikpalaka

This principle finds its source from Indian
Hinduism which describes the form of the universe
like a circle. The area of the universe is believed to
be centered at Mt Mahameru (where a throne of
gods named Asta Dikpalaka is located) which has
four other peaks higher than its surrounding. The
sun, the moon and the stars are believed to revolve
around the Mahameru peak. Mahameru stands
upright in the centre of a continent called
Jambhudwipa in which human beings and other
living things exist. There is also a mountain range
called Cakrawala.
The eight directions of
mountain Mahameru are guarded by Asta
Dikpalaka as the universe protector against the evil
creatures (Stutley, 1977:190-1; Dumarcay,
1986:89-91).
Asta Dikpalaka are the gods of the eight
directions of the compass which in the myth, is said
to surround the Mahameru mountain (Munandar,
2005:170). From the aspect of Mt Mahameru, the
north is dewa Kumera, the northeast is dewa
Isana/Candra, the east is dewa Indra, the southeast
is dewa Agni, the south is dewa Yama, the
southwest is dewa Nirtti/Surya, the west is dewa
Waruma and the northwest is dewa Wayu (Fig. 3).
Kumera

Isana/
Candra

Wayu

Waruna

Gunung
Maha
meru

Indra

Nirtti/
Surya

Agni
S

Yama

Figure 3. The Position of Dewa Asta Dikpalaka inrelation to Point

of the Compass
(Source: Liebert, 1976; Daniclou, 1964; Van Lohuizen-De Leeuw,
1955 in Munandar, 2005)

Methodology
According to Shuhana (1997) there are two
main types of methodology used in conducting a
research on historical urban areas i.e. qualitative
and quantitative methodologies. Quantitative
methodology uses the questionnaire method
whereas qualitative methodology is based on a field
study. According to Festinger and Katz (1953), the
difference in both methodologies is in the
evaluation where the questionnaire method is
broader whereas the field study method is more
complete. Thus, the use of both methodologies will
provide a complete explanation of the
phenomenon. Shuhana (1997) adds that the study
5

of a historical urban area cannot be conducted

using just one method due to their specific
characteristics. Bell (1990) did this but also used
the triangulation method in order to get accurate
results. Both methodologies are adopted in the
study of Cakranegara where the use of the
quantitative method involves the people in the
surrounding area to evaluate the environment of the
city using a questionnaire (Mahbob, 1992;
Shuhana, 1997). The qualitative methodology is
used to obtain information about the social and
physical character recorded from the field study as
suggested by Shuhana (1997).
The distribution of the questionnaires is done
by simple random sampling where they are
distributed to the blocks of the homogeneous
settlement dwellers as suggested by Sugiyono
(2009). The sample size is 330 respondents with a
sampling error of 5.5% at 95% confidence level as
stated by De Vaus (1991). Data collection using
mental mapping is carried out through indepth
interview with 30 respondents where they are
classified according to their levels of education,
values, norms, custom rules and their roles in the
community such as priests and leaders. This
method is based on earlier research by Shuhana
(1997), Shuhana and Ahmad Bashri (1999). The 30
respondents consist of the residents in the area
being studied. The respondents were interviewed
relating to the elements and events they could
recall about Cakranegara city which are considered
important because they have specific values,
therefore significant and outstanding as compared
to the other elements. A systematic field
observation to record the physical elements and
structure of the city was conducted as a means for
comparison with the social data. According to
Spreiregen (1965), a visual observation activity is
an excellent method to know the composition, the
shape of the city and to evaluate their potentials
and shortcomings. Shuhana and Ahmad Bashri
(1992) suggested that the use of technical
observation to conduct a research of an historical
city area is advantageous especially in the
effectiveness to describe the city or the town
thoroughly. In addition, a thorough evaluation of
the physical character of a city can be obtained by a
visual observation and recording of the physical
elements of the city (Shuhana and Ahmad Bashri,
2002). The results of the observation are collected
and then analysed to ascertain the significant
physical elements, the spatial qualities such as the
structure and urban pattern.

The Case Study: Cakranegara

Cakranegara which was previously known as
Singasari is an historical city in Lombok, East
Indonesia. It has a unique spatial quality that
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reflects a special social cultural setting. Cakra

means circle in Sanskrit whilst negara means city,
settlement or country so Cakranegara suggest a
settlement city in a rounded shape (Agung, 1992).
It is suggested that the historical city of
Cakranegara is designed based on the Balinese
Hindu philosophy of cosmology.
According to Funo (1995), Cakranegara
has a grid pattern which is built in the form of
settlement blocks called Karang. It is also an
example of an old city that was planned based on
the cosmology (Handinoto, 2000).
Suardana
(2005) further suggested that Cakranegara is a city
of a thousand crossroads where according to
Atmaja (2003) the crossroad is called Catuspatha.
The paper revolves around the question What is
the character of the spatial concept of the historical
city of Cakranegara Indonesia?
Historically, Cakranegara was founded
in Bali during the of Gel-Gel kingdoms where in
the 15th century, the Gel-Gel regime colonized

to Karangasem at the northern part of Gel-Gel

kingdoms where the height of the regimes glory
ended around 1962 after the 4th King Karangasem,
I Gusti Anglurah Ketut Karangasem, expanded his
power to the island of Lombok (Cakranegara). De
Graaf (1941: 372) stated that the downfall of GelGel coincided with the colony of Karangasem to
the island Lombok. The conquer of Karangasem
Bali over Lombok was due to the political situation
between two powerful kingdoms in Selaparang,
East Lombok and Pejanggik in the Central
Lombok. With the conquer of the island of
Lombok, King Karangasem took the opportunity to
control other small kingdoms in West Lombok like
Kediri, Senkongo, Pagutan, Pagesangan, Mataram
and Singasari.

Findings
The Character and Concepts of Settlement
Blocks

27m

27m

27m 9m

Temple

27m

27m 9m

27m

27m 9m

27m

27m

27m

Jalan Subak I

27m

Jalan Cendrawasih

Jalan Merak

Jalan Balam

Jalan Beo

Jalan Kebudayaan

270m

Nort

Jalan Pejanggik

0m

Vacant Land

Figure 4: Cakranegara City Map

(Source: Cool, Capt. W., 1896)

100m

150m

Figure 5: Blocks of Karang

(Source: Funo, 1995)
The Muslim
community

The historical city of Cakranegara comprises of

square blocks (Fig. 4 and 5) where from the
questionnaires it was revealed that these blocks are
dwelt by 268 Hindu respondents (81.2 %), 50
Muslim respondents (15.2 %), 4 Buddhist
respondents (1.2 %), and 8 Christian respondents
(2.4 %). See Table 2. According to Babad
Lombok, Sumbawa and Blambangan (East Java)
Watu Renggong. After his death, the regime moved
6

50m

27m

and these states came under the reign of Dalem

Selaparan
(manuscript),
Babad
Lombok
(manuscript), Wacana (1988:52), Zakari (1998:1718), and Djelenga (2001:22-54), the blocks
occupied by the Hindu community had been in
existence since the seventeenth century (1692),
when the area was ruled by the Balinese Hindu
kingdom of Karangasem.
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Table 2: Religions of Cakranegara City

(Source: Analysis, 2006)

Valid

Frequency

Percent

Muslim

50

15.2

15.2

15.2

Hindu
Buddhist
Christian

268
4
8
330

81.2
1.2
2.4
100.0

81.2
1.2
2.4
100.0

96.4
97.6
100.0

330

100.0

Total
Total

Valid
Percent

Cumulative
Percent

The study confirmed the presence of 36

settlement blocks, which includes 33 blocks dwelt
by the Hindu community in the center of the city, 2
settlement blocks by the Muslim community on the
southeast corner, and 1 block of vacant land on the
southwest corner with temples located on the
northeast corner. Interviews with local community
reveal that most inhabitants of this area are either
self-employed or civil servants whilst the Muslim
community, who inhabit the southeast corner block
(Fig. 4), comes from a long line of skin cracker
producers.
Observation on one settlement block reveals
that settlement units stretch in the north-south
direction, and their gates face either east or west.
Based on the measurement conducted by the
researcher, each of the settlement units occupies a
area of an average of 729 meter squares, or 27.00
meters on each side. The length of the road on each
side of a block is 27.00 meters, and the length of
each road that divides blocks into units is 9meters.
During interviews, local residents confirm that the
design of settlement blocks in this city is based on
Balinese Hindu philosophy. According to Funo
(1995) and feedback from the locals, there are
several levels of settlement units in each block. The
first and smallest level here consists of 20
settlement units, and is called marga. The second,
which is the intermediate level, comprises 40
settlement units, and is called kriang. The third and
biggest level, comprises 80 units, and is called
karang (Fig. 5).
In summary, the most prominent physical
characteristic of the city is its block layout and
functions. This characteristic includes designation
of the northeast corner for temples, southeast
corner for the settlement of the Muslim
community, and the southwest corner for open
space. Such formation potentially reveals the whole
concept behind the block layout.
Ardi (1986) argues that to understand the
spatial concepts of Balinese traditional villages,
one has to observe the utilization of space and
buildings in a given area. He also argues that the
spatial formation of most Balinese traditional
7

villages follows the belief of spatial organization

concept of gods in protecting the cosmos.
If the principle of Asta Dikpalaka (Fig. 3),
which states that eight different gods guard eight
corners of an area, is applied on block layout and
block functions, then there is no doubt that the
assignment of blocks for the Muslim community,
the open space and sites for worship ritual, is a
potential indicator to find the concept behind the
block layout. The settlement blocks for Muslim
residents, whose livelihood depends on the
production of skin crackers and who occupy the
southeast corner, are in parallel with the zone
guarded by dewa Agni, the god of fire, who is
associate with the production of skin cracker. On
the southwest corner lies the open space and if we
apply the principle of Asta Dikpalaka with regard
to the open space then this area is highly parallel
with the region guarded by dewa Nirtti. Nirtti is the
god of sadness, which makes it reasonable that this
area should be left vacant, free from any structures.
On the northeast corner lie temples for worship. If
we apply the principle of Asta Dikpalaka with
regardt to the location of these temples, then this
area is highly parallel with the region guarded by
dewa Isana. Isana is another name of dewa Syiwa,
the most exalted god in Trimurti.
Based on the aforementioned analysis, this
researcher assumes that the organization of the
settlement block in Cakranegara is built upon the
principle of Asta Dikpalaka.
The Character and Concepts of Crossroads
Gelebet (1986), Ardi (1986), Budihardjo
(1991), Rahmat (1995), Atmaja (2003), Widana
(2002), Soeka (2004), Munandar (2005), and
Bangli (2005) state that each Balinese traditional
village has a crossroad, called Pempatan Agung, at
its center. This crossroad serves as an axis, an open
space, and the site of religious rituals.
When asked to sketch mental maps, as many as
28 out of 30 respondents (93.3 %) are able to make
a mental map sketch of the crossroads well (Table
4). The questionnaires also reveal that 238 out of
330 respondents (84.80 %) are able to explain that
one of the characteristics of Cakranegara is the
presence of many crossroads, public temples, and
settlement blocks (Table 3). Interviews with local
community reveal that Cakranegara has many
crossroads. Meanwhile, visual observation by this
researcher registers two types of crossroads. The
first type is the crossroads which are located in the
center of the city.The second type is the crossroads
which are located in the settlement blocks. The
crossroads at the center of the city, called pempatan
agung, serves to accommodate city-wide socialcultural activities and religious rituals. As for the
crossroads located in each block, called pempatan
madya, they function as the center of

copyrigt2012 SciRes.

neighborhood-wide social-cultural activities and

religious rituals.
Table 3: Respondents Perception of Physical
Characteristics Cakranegara City
(Source: Analysis, 2006)
Freque
ncy

Percent

37
5
238
50
330
330

11.2
1.5
72.1
15.2
100.0
100.0

1 and 2
1 and 3
Valid
1,2 and 3
1,2,3 and 4
Total
Total

Valid
Percent

Cumulative
Percent

11.2
1.5
72.1
15.2
100.0

11.2
12.7
84.8
100.0

Legend:
1. Crossroads
2. Temple (Meru, Mayura, and Dalam)
3. Settlement Blocks
4. Others

Figure 6: Formation of Spatial Arrangement

of Offerings at the Crossroad
(Source: Eiseman, 2005:231)

CIRI-CIRI
FISIK
Physical Characteristics
80

Percent

60
40
20
0
1 dan 2

1 dan 3 1, 2 dan 3

1, 2, 3

1 and 2 1 and 3 1,2 and 3 1,2,3

dan 4and 4

In summary, the big number of crossroads and

their functions to accommodate social-cultural
activities as well as religious rituals are among the
prominent physical characteristics of Cakranegara.
The routine religious ritual activities at these
crossroads can be regarded as a potential indicator
to finding the concept behind the formation of
crossroads.
There are two very prominent religious rituals
conducted at the crossroads. One is the funeral
ceremonies, in which participants make counter
clockwise spins called prasavya; the other ritual is
the ceremony of tawur agung (a particular ritual
dedicated to buthakala for the welfare and
preservation of the universe), in which participants
make clockwise spins called purwadaksina (Apta,
1979:1091) (Fig. 7).

Figure 7: The Ritual Conditions of Tawur Agung

(Source: Field Study, 2006)

Prior to the procession of the religious rituals,

tawur agung in particular, offerings are arranged at
the crossroad. According to Eiseman (2005),
participants arrange the offerings as follows: black
cloth and four sticks of sate (grilled chicken) are
set in the north, offered to dewa Wisnu, to
symbolize kaja or apah; red cloth and nine sticks of
sate are set in the south, offered to dewa Brahma,
to symbolize kelod or teja; white cloth and five
sticks of sate are set in the east, offered to dewa
Iswara, to symbolize kangin or bayu; yellow cloth
and seven sticks of sate are offered to dewa
Mahadewa, to symbolize kauh or pratiwi; and gray
cloth and eight sticks of sate are set at the center,
offered to dewa Siwa, to symbolize puseh or akasa
(Fig. 6). Interviews with religious leaders reveal
that the north is the region guarded by dewa Wisnu,
south dewa Brahma, east dewa Iswara, west dewa
Mahadewa, and center dewa Syiwa.
copyrigt2012 SciRes.

Based on this analysis, the researcher interprets

that all crossroads in Cakranegara use the principle
of spatial organization guarded by gods Panca
Brahma, that is, dewa Wisnu in the North, dewa
Brahma in the South, dewa Iswara in the East,
dewa Mahadewa in the west and dewa Syiwa at the
center.
The Character and Concepts of City Structures
Cakranegara has a well-planned road system
with roads of varying widths. The field observation
reveals that in terms of width there are four types
of road in Cakranegara. First, the East-West roads
(Selaparang and Pejanggik streets) are 45.00 meters
wide. Second, the North-South roads (Sultan
Hasanuddin and Anak Agung Gede Ngurah streets)
are 36.00 meters wide. The North-South roads and
East-West roads intersect as a crossroad that,
according to Funo (1995) and Handinoto (2000),
the local community calls Marga Sanga. Third, the
roads that divide the settlement blocks into squares
are 27.00 meters wide. These roads are called
Marga Dasa. Fourth, the roads that divide the
settlement blocks into rectangular sub-blocks are
09.00 meters wide. These roads are called Marga
(Fig. 8).
Interviews with local community reveal that the
roads in this city serve to accommodate socialcultural activities and religious ceremonies, which
include marriage, funeral (Fig. 9), and mendak
tirtha (Fig. 10) which is a ceremonial ritual for the
taking of sacred water.

Figure 9: The atmosphere of Funeral Ceremony

(Source: Field Study, 2006)

Figure 10: Ceremony atmosphere during Mendak Tirtha

(Source: Field Study, 2006)

Jln. Sultan Hasanuddin

11.5m

22m

Marga Sanga
Marga
EastSanga
- West
Timur-Barat

11.5m

45m

Jln. Pejanggik
Jln. Selaparang
P ura M ay ura

0m

5m

10m

15m

P u ra M ayu ra

Marga Sanga
Marga Sanga
North
-South
Utara-Selatan

P ura M eru

9m

18m

9m

36m

0m

5m

10m

15m

Nort
4.5m
0m

1 0 0m

Jln. A.A.Gde Ngurah

2 00 m

3 0 0m

4 00 m

5 0 0m

18m

Marga Dasa

4.5m

27m

0m

5m

10m

15m

M a rg a S an g a
M a rg a S an g a
M a rg a D asa
M arg a

Marga
9m
0m

5m

10m

15m

Figure 8: Street System

(Source: Funo. 1995; Handinoto. 2000)

copyrigt2012 SciRes.

The mental maps results show that 29

respondents (69.7%) are able to sketch the 45.00
meter-wide roads, 24 respondents (80.0 %) the
27.00 meter-wide roads, and 14 respondents (46.7
%) the 9.00 meter-wide roads. This result suggests
that the roads are easily recollected in their
perceptual structure of the city (Table 3).
Cakranegara also tend to apply a well-organized
grid pattern which is a prominent and special
physical characteristic of the city. So what was the
philosophical foundation that gave the city its grid
pattern?
Stanislawski (1946) in Bondan (1999:32)
argue that there are several reasons why a
particular city has its current grid pattern. First, the
city was constructed as part of a centralized power
scheme that aims at gaining a total control of all
aspects in a community, including the control of
property utilization. Second, the city had been
constructed as a new urban entity altogether.
Third, the city had been constructed as a colony,
such as a main city and urban settlement. Fourth,
the area was constructed to prepare the spatial
composition of a city that demands spatial sections
that were uniform in size and shape.
Table 4: Elements of the Respondents Sketches
(Source: Analysis, 2006)
Sketch of elements

Building

Street

Land
Scape

District

Meru temple
Mayura
temple
Dalem
temple
Melanting
temple
Market of
Cakranegara
Market of
Sindu
Mataram
Mall
MGM Mall
Mosque
Crossroads
45 meters
size street
27 meters
size street
09 meters
size street
Mayura
garden
Vacant land
District
territorial
Settlement
blocks

Frequency
30
30

Total
Respondents
30
30

Validity
(%)
100.0
100.0

28

30

93.3

30

30.0

28

30

93.3

30

23.3

28

30

93.3

27
6
28
29

30
30
30
30

90.0
20.0
93.3
96.7

24

30

80.0

14

30

46.7

30

30

100.0

16
23

30
30

53.3
76.7

25

30

83.3

According to Funo (1995) the grid pattern is

used because of the need to divide settlement
10

blocks called Karang (Fig. 5). The researchers

interviews with the community in general, reveal
that the formation of grid pattern was related to the
social activities and religious ceremonial rituals.
The interviews with religious leaders reveal that the
formation of a grid pattern was inevitable with the
presence of the crossroads being a necessary
feature for the Hindu community in Cakranegara.
This is because the community believes that it is
through the crossroads that the power to protect an
area emerges. This is in accordance with the
argument shared by Budihardjo (1991), Bondan
(1999) and Eiseman (2005), that the crossroads of
Hindu cities in Indonesia are sacred spots.
Based on the above explanation, it appears
that the road system that applies a grid pattern as
the foundation of Cakranagara has emerged due to
several factors: firstly, because of the demand to
accommodate the social cultural and religious
ceremonial rituals such as the yadnya ceremony
city-wide as well as settlement block-wide;
secondly, because of the division of the settlement
blocks, which is related to the fact that during the
birth of the city there were groups of immigrants
who arrived from Bali; thirdly, due to
Cakranegaras status as a colony, as argued by
Stanislawski (1946), and fourthly, because of the
demand to fulfill the need of its community that
sees the supernatural power of the crossroads as a
defence for the city.
The Character and Concepts
Orientation and Hierarchy

of

Spatial

According to Ardi (1986), Robi (1987), and

Nindyo (1990), in order to know the orientation
and spatial hierarchies of Balinese traditional
villages, visual observation should be done
according to these steps: first, the position of the
three temples (kahyangan tiga) where the
inhabitants of a particular area practice their
worship ritual; second, the settlement pattern of the
community and third, the territory. Suwena (2003)
argues that each Balinese traditional village has its
own orientation and hierarchy. A researcher can
find them by observing the land use and
topography of the region to determine whether it is
an elevated, plain, or low-lying area.
Furthermore, Ardi (1986), Robi (1987), and
Nindyo (1990) state that the orientation and
hierarchy of city/village/hamlet areas in Bali can be
seen from the presence of two temples, Desa and
Puseh at the northernmost part of the city, a temple
(Dalem) and a cemetery on the southernmost part,
and a residential area in between these two groups.
Meanwhile, Parisada Hindu Dharma (1995) argues
that the two temples that are on the northernmost
part have a good value because they face the
mountain directly, and the one temple on the
southernmost part is not very good because it faces
the sea.
copyrigt2012 SciRes.

According to Samadhi (2004), city areas in Bali

have the following spatial hierarchies: three
temples called parahyangan, the territorial border
called palemahan, and the dwelling community
called pawongan.
The visual observation, interviews, and mental
maps identified two temples of worship (Meru and
Mayura) to the east from the central crossroad and
one temple (Dalam) in the western most part of the
city, distinct territorial borders, and the residents
dwellings in the settlement blocks.
In summary, the aforementioned explanation
suggests that Cakranegara has spatial orientation
and hierarchy, which can be proven by the presence
of temples, community, and territorial border. Such
spatial pattern can potentially constitute prominent
physical characteristics. The fixed placement of
temples, the distinct settlement blocks and the
distinct territorial borders can be indicators to
determine the concepts behind spatial orientation
and hierarchy in Cakranegara.
Following Samadhis argument (2004), the
three temples in Cakranegara (Meru, Mayura, and
Dalam) can be considered parahyangan, the
territory palemahan, and the dwelling villagers of
Cakranegara pawongan. It can also be said that the
two temples (Meru and Mayura) located on the east
represent the direction to Mount Rinjani and the
sunrise, and the one temple (Dalam) in the
westernmost part represents its relationship to
Ampenan Sea and the sunset.

Meru and
Mayura
Mountain

Dalem and
Cemetery

Body
Leg

Head

Sea

NISTA
Dalem
Temple/Cemetery
Sea (Ampenan)
Lowest
Profane

MADYA
Settlement Blocks
Land (Cakranegara)
Middle
Neutral

UTAMA
Meru and Mayura
Temples
Mountain (Rinjani)
Highest
Sacred

Figure 11: The Elemens of Tri Angga

(Source: Analysis, 2007)

Based on the explanation in this section, it can

be assumed that the design of Cakranegara takes
into account spatial orientation and hierarchy. The
spatial orientation and hierarchy of the city can be
determined by taking into consideration the
11

principles of Tri Hita Kharana, in which case the

three temples will be the spirit, the dwellers will be
the energy and the settlement territory will be the
vessel, and Tri Angga. As an anology, Mayura and
Meru temples will be considered the head,
settlement blocks the body, and Dalam
temple/cemetery as the legs (Fig. 11).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the social-cultural activities and
religious ceremonial rituals conducted by the
residents of Cakranegara have significant
influences on the physical characteristics and the
spatial concepts of the city. The city has 5 (five)
prominent
physical
characteristics.
First,
Cakranegara is composed of 36 well-arranged
square settlement blocks. Second, each side of the
settlement block is distinctly bordered by a road,
whose length is 27.00 meter. Put together, the
roads form a grid pattern. The grid pattern is a very
special identity and image of the city. Third, the
presence of the three public temples and several
temples in each settlement block and within the
city territory give the city its religious atmosphere.
Fourth, the road system that comes with a lot of
crossroads gives the city its specificity as well as its
identity. Fifth, another characteristic of the city is
the use of number nine in several measurements of
space, buildings, and land. For example, the size of
a settlement unit is 27 meter x 27 meter (2+7=9),
the size of one settlement block is 270 meters x 270
meters (2+7+0=9), the number of settlement block
units is 36 units (3+6=9), the width of the road is
45 meter (4+5=9), and so on.
The research discovered that there are 4 (four)
spatial concepts from the aforementioned
discussion. First, the concept of square settlement
block organization is based on the principle of
Dewa Asta Dikpalaka. Put together, the roads that
border each settlement block will form a wellarranged grid pattern. Grid pattern is used in the
construction of this city because of the following
reasons: (1) the need to conduct social-cultural
activities and to accommodate religious ritual
ceremonies as the implementation of yadnya
ceremonial activities; (2) the existence of
settlement block division, considering that in those
days immigrants from Bali arrived in groups; (3)
the status of Cakranegara as a city and; (4) the need
to fulfill the needs of its community that demands
the supernatural power of crossroads as a defense
for the city. Third, the assignment of three temples
in the city is designed after the principle of Tri Hita
Kharana, which means that Cakranegara has to
have a soul, power, and vessel. The concept behind
the existence of crossroads is based on the local
communitys adherence to the principle of Panca
Brahma, which states that the gods guard the
universe from five cardinal directionsnorth by
dewa Wisnu, south dewa Brahma, east dewa
copyrigt2012 SciRes.

Iswara, and west dewa Mahadewa, and center by

dewa Syiwa. Hence, the research concludes that the
socio cultural rituals due to their religious beliefs
have a strong influence on the urban pattern of the
city observed today.
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