Notes: Chapter 2

Section 2.1: Proof Techniques

Direct
Indirect
Contradiction - Assume the statement is false. Show that this
assumption leads to a contradiction. Remember that ( (P
Q) = P Q.
To prove an implication, P Q, instead prove its contrapositive, Q P .
P Q Prove both P Q and P Q.
The following are equivalent, Tfae
The statement that statements A1 , A2 , . . . , An are equivalent means
that for each
n pair i, j [n], i < j, Ai Aj . So for n statements,
there are 2 statements, which each give two implications. But
due to transitivity, we do not have to prove all 2 n(n) implications.
We can select an order, for instance A1 , A2 , . . . , An and prove A1
A2 , A2 A3 , , An1 An , An A1 .
Existence proof
Section 2.1
Topic: Valid reasoning and logic must be used in the proofs
of theorems.
The Direct Proof.
(1) Use complete sentences and paragraphs.
(2) Start with a fact, axiom, or definition.
(3) Each statement should imply the next using as justification a
known fact, axiom, or definition.
(4) The justifications should be given, using complete sentences.
(5) The final statement in your argument should correspond to the
statement of the theorem that you are proving.
(The only place the 2-column method is used is high school geometry. There is nothing wrong with it, logically, but instead we use rules
of proper grammar and write with sentences and paragraphs.)
Example from Geometry.
1

We must have a clear understanding of what can be assumed

true before starting any proof. Basic facts and definitions:
A triangle A is similar to another triangle B if both A and B
have the same angles.
If we join the midpoint of two sides of a triangle, it is parallel
to the third side.
Opposite angles of a parallelogram are the same.
Used to prove:
Theorem 1. If we join the midpoints of the sides of a triangle, we form
a triangle inscribed in the original one that is similar to the original
one.
Proof. Let T be an arbitrary triangle. We draw T in the plane and
label the points at the vertices of T , A, B, and C. We label the angles
the same as the vertices. Suppose the midpoints of the segments AB,
BC, and CA are M1 , M2 , and M3 , respectively. The triangle on the
interior has corner points M1 , M2 , and M3 . We label their respective
angles the same.
We will show that A = M2 .
We know that the line segments M1 M2 , M2 M3 , and M3 M1 are parallel to segments CA, AB, and BC, respectively, because if the midpoints
of two sides are joined by a line segment, it is parallel to the third side.
So that AM1 , M1 M2 , M2 M3 , and M3 A forms a parallelogram. Since
opposite angles of a parallelogram are the same, we know that angle A
is the same as angle M2 .
Similar arguments could be used to show that B = M3 and C =
M1 .
Therefore, triangle M1 M2 M3 is similar to triangle T .

Topic: How to prove a theorem.

Have an understanding of assumptions.
Working out the details on scrap paper. Playing around with
the known facts.
Put the argument into the proper order for a direct proof.
Write out the details as formally or informally as required.
In the most formal form, the written argument should be complete. Any pictures should only be used to supplement the
argument so that the reader can understand it better.
When explaining a proof at the board, some words used in the
argument may be spoken and not written.

Example from Calculus. Basic Facts.

Definition of the derivative
sin(u + v) = sin u cos v + cos u sin v

sin x
=1
x0 x
lim

cos x 1
=0
x0
x
lim

The limit of a sum is the sum of the limits (if both exist).
The limit of a product is the product of the limits (if both exist).
Used to prove:
Theorem 2. Let f (x) = sin x. Then, f 0 (x) = cos x.
Proof.
sin(x + h) sin x
h0
h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h sin x
lim
h0
h
sin x(cos h 1) cos x(sin h)
lim
+
h0
h
h

cos h 1
sin h
lim sin x
+ cos x
h0
h
h

cos h 1
sin h
lim sin x lim
+ lim cos x lim
h0
h0
h0
h0
h
h
sin x 0 + cos x 1 = cos x

f 0 (x) = lim
=
=
=
=
=

The quadratic formula

Theorem 3. If Ax2 +Bx+C = 0, A 6= 0 then x

B+ B 2 4AC B B 2 4AC
,
2A
2A

Proof. We are given

Ax2 + Bx + C
Ax2 + Bx
B
A(x2 + x)
A
2
B
B
A(x2 + x +
)
A
4A2
B 2
)
A(x +
2A
B 2
(x +
)
2A
B
x+
2A
B
x+
2A
B
x+
2A

= 0
= C
= C
= C + A

B2
4A2

B2
4A
C
B2
+
Ar 4A2
C
B2

+
A
4A2
r
4AC
B2

+
4A2
4A2

B 2 4AC

2A

B 2 4AC
B

2A
2A
2
B B 4AC
2A

= C +
=
=
=
=

x =
x =

Chapter 2: Section 2.1

We provide a direct proof for each of the statements in Theorem 4 about integers. Use the definition of the odds as integers
n that can be written in the form n = 2k + 1 for some integer k and
evens as those integers n that can be written in the form 2k for some
integer k to prove:
Theorem 4.
(1) The sum of 2 odds is even.
(2) The sum of 2 evens is even.
(3) The sum of an odd and an even is odd.
(4) The product of 2 odds is odd.
(5) The product of an even and an odd is even.
(6) The product of 2 evens is even.
Proof.

(1) Let m, n be two arbitrary odd numbers. Then there

exists two integers, k1 and k2 such that m = 2k1 + 1 and n =
2k2 + 1. Then m + n = 2k1 + 1 + 2k2 + 1. Regrouping, we get

(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)

m + n = 2(k1 + k2 ) + 2 = 2(k1 + k2 + 1) which is even because

it is of the form of 2 times the integer: k1 + k2 + 1.
complete this case on your own.
complete this case on your own.
complete this case on your own.
complete this case on your own.
complete this case on your own.

We provide two examples of a proof by contradiction.

Theorem 5. If a, b, and c are odd integers, then ax2 + bx + c = 0 has
no rational solution.
Proof. Suppose x is a rational solution, where x = pq is in reduced form.
If both p and q were even, x would not be in reduced form, so at least
one of p and q is odd.
2

p
p
a
+b
+c = 0
q
q
2

p
p
a 2 +b
+c = 0
q
q
2

p
p
2
q (a 2 + b
+ c) = q 2 0
q
q
ap2 + bpq + cq 2 = 0
Case 1. p even, q odd.
p2 is even, so a p2 is even.
b p is even, so bpq is even.
q 2 is odd, and so is cq 2 .
Thus, summing the first two terms of ap2 + bpq + cq 2 , we have an
even plus an even which is even and adding in the odd term to the even
term, we get an odd number.
But the right hand side of the equality is zero which is even.
We have reached a contradiction, because on the left we have an odd
and on the right we have an even. An odd number cannot equal an
even number.
Case 2. p odd, q even.
complete this case on your own.
Case 3. p odd, q odd.

complete this case on your own.

Theorem 6. Among numbers y1 , y2 , . . . , yn , at least one is greater than

equal to the average of all n of them.
Proof. By contradiction. Suppose not.
n
. Call this number a.
The average can be expressed as y1 +y2 ++y
n
By assumption, i [n], yi < a.
That is, y1 < a, y2 < a, . . . , yn < a.
Adding up the Left hand sides of each inequality, we get y1 + y2 +
+ yn . Adding up the right hand sides of the inequalities, we get a,
n times, P
that is n a.
Thus, ni=1 yi < n a. We label this inequality (1).
But,
Pn
n
X
i=1 yi
a=
and n a =
yi .
n
i=1
Now, by (1), we have
n
X
i=1

yi <

n
X

yi .

i=1

We have reached an obvious contradiction. Thus, our assumption is

false which implies that the theorem is true.

We prove an implication by proving the contrapositive instead.

Theorem 7. Let f (x) = mx + b, m 6= 0. If x 6= y then f (x) 6= f (y).
Proof. We will assume that f (x) = f (y) and show that x = y.
We assume mx + b = my + b. Subtracting b from both sides, we have
mx = my. Dividing both sides by m, (which we may do since m 6= 0)
we obtain, x = y.

Definition 1. For x R, the absolute value of x, |x|, is defined by:

x
x0
x=
x x < 0
Example 1. Notice that |x| = | x|, for all x R.
There exists.
Example 2. For all x R, y, z R, y 6= z, yet |x y| = |x z|.

Proof: x is unknown but fixed. We select y 6= x and choose z = 2x y

We see that z = 2x y 6= y, since if 2x y = y, then x = y, but we
chose x 6= y.
Then x z = x (2x y) = x 2x + y = (x y). So |x z| =
| (x y)| = |x y|.
If and only if.
Example 3. |x| = x if and only if x 0.
The following are equivalent.
Example 4. Let a Z. The following are equivalent
(1) a is even.
(2) a/2 is in Z.
(3) a 1 is odd.
Unique.
Theorem 8. For each real number y, there is an unique real number
x that satisfies: 3x + 1 = y.
Theorem 9. For each real number y, there is a real number x that
satisfies: 3x2 1 = y 2 .

2 is irrational.

Proof. Suppose
not.
Suppose
2 is rational.

Then 2 = pq for 2 integers, p and q, where q 6= 0. Assume also that

p
is in reduced form. In particular, that means that p and q cannot
q
both be even.

p
2=
q
2
p
2= 2
q
2
2
2q = p , since q 6= 0
But this implies that p2 is even. Thus p must be even, since if not
then p would be odd which would make p2 odd. Then p = 2k for some
integer k. and p2 = 4k 2 . So we have
2q 2 = 4k 2
q 2 = 2k 2
But this implies that q 2 is even, which in turn implies that q is even.

We have reached a contradiction. Therefore, it must be that 2 is

irrational.