GOVERNMENT

OF

THE

MINISTRY
DIRECTORATE

GENERAL

REPUBlIC

OF PUBLIC

OF

OF

INDONESIA

WORKS

WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT

PROGRAMME Of ASSISTANCE fOR THE IMPROVEMENT

Of HYDROLOGIC DATA COLLECTION. PROCESSING
AND EVALUATION IN INDONESIA

BED- MATERIAL LDAD

(EINSTEIN'S

METHOOJ

by

M TRAVAGLIO

~~

SOCIETE CENTRALE
POUR L" EQUIPEMENT
DU TERRITOIRE
INIERNATIONAt
INTERNATIONAL
po

BANDUNG MARCH

1981

Bed-Materia1 Load
(Einstein's Methed)

by

M. TRAVAGLIO

Bandung, March 1981

Taole of Contents

Page
List of symbols

Introduction

Einstein's Procedure

1.

Hydraulic.Calculations

1.1

Test Reach

1.2

Surface Drag and Bedform Drag (or Bar Resistance)

1.3

Mean velocity

a.

Manning-Stricler's Equation

b.

Logarithmic Type Formula

1.4
2.

Bed-Material Load Calculation .

2.1

3.

step by Step Procedure for Hydraulic Calculations

Rouse Equation for Vertical

Distribution of Suspended Matter

2. 2

Suspe nded Load Equation

la

2.3

Einstein's Bed-Load Formula

11

2.4

Bed-Material Load Equation

13

Example of Bed-Material Load Calculation

21

Concluding Remarks
Annex 1
Annex 2

Annex 3
Annex 4

27
28

30

31
33

Annex 5

35

References

37

LIST OF SYMBOLS

cross-sectional area

diameter of particle. In a mixture

depth of flow

gravitational constant, mean value 9.81 rn/s

gs

bedload rate in weight per unit time and unit width

gss

suspended.load rate in weight per unit tirne and unit width

gst
GS

bed-material load rate in weight per unit time and unit width
bedload rate in weight per unit time

GSS

suspended load rate in weight per unit time

bed-material loadrate in weight per unit time

Manning roughness value

fraction of bed rnaterial in a given grain size

wetted perimeter

st

= d 50

or median diameter
2

water discharge (m /s)

hydraulic radius
S

channel slope

fluid velocity

=p

shear or friction velocity

v

settling velocity of particle

density of fluide For water at 20 C

kg/m

= 1000

density of particle.Usually taken as 2650 kg/m

when the actual value is unknown

1000 kgtm 3
3
partie le specifie weight. Taken usually as 2650 kgf/m
0

fluid specif~c weight. Water at 20 C

when actual value is unknown

o

kinernatic viscosity of fluide For water at 20 C.

= 10

-2

2
cm /s

shear stress or friction force per unit area exerted by

the fluid at a depth

above the bed

shear stress at the bottom

'"'"

\0'0

R S

or

1:0

= "(DS

other symbols are defined in due course in the following sections.

.;

...

INTRODUCTION

The bed-material load is made up of only those particles consisting

of grain sizes represented in the bed.
In theory

the bed-material load can be predicted with the hydraulic

knowledge of the stream J that is,

velocity
bed composition and configuration
shape of the measuring section
water temperature
concentration of fine sediment

Therefore the problem

at issue is to de termine the relationship

between the bed-material load and the prevailing hydraulic conditions such
a problem has proved to be a difficult task and is not yet completely solved.

50 far

comparisons of measured and calculated bed-material loads

exhibit discrepancies which lead to think that first the problem

o~

sediment

transport is not fully understood and second great care must be taken in
using bed-material load formulae.
As pointed out by GRAF (see references at the end) "Einstein's method
represents the most detailed and comprehensive treatment, from the point of
fluid mechanics, that is presently available". This method is described in
the following paragraphs.

. Nota

We prefer the name "Bed-material load" to the name "Total load" since
the so-called "washload"
of bed-material load.

is not taken into account when one speaks

EINSTEIN'S PROCEDURE
Introduction
The

bed-materi~l

load is divided in two parts according to the mode

of transport. In the immediate vicinity of the bed in the so-called bed

layer takes place the bedload whereas the suspended-load takes place above
the bed layer where the particle's weight is supported by the surrounding
fluid and thus the particles move with the flow at the same average velocity:
Some researchers think the division of the bed-material load in two
fractions is questionable. Actually such a division is rather artificial
particularly when it comes to define a zone of demarcation between bed-load
and suspended-load, nevertheless it is often convenient for the sake of
clarity to distinguish these two modes of transport.

Nota

1.

Figures number 2 ta number 9 are grouped fr.om page

15 to page 20.

HYDRAULIC C.l\LCULATIONS

1.1 Test Reach

To calculate or measure the flow and the sediment transport in a
stream, a test reach has to be selected first, the following requirements
have to be fulfilled, the better they are the more reliable the results.
It should be sufficiently long to determine rather accurately
the slope of the channel
It should have a fairly uniform and stable channel geometry
with uniform flow conditions and bed material composition
It should have a minimum of outside effects such as strong
bends, islands, sills or excessive vegetation
No tributaries should join the river within

~r

immediatly

above the test reach.

It is worth noting that the foregoing requirements are those usually

. sought-for to set up a gauging station.

1.2

Surface Drag and Bed-Form Drag (or Bar Resistance)

To take into account the contribution the bedforms make to the channel
roughness it was proposed that both the cross section area, denoted A, and
the hydraulic radius, denoted

~,

be

di~ided

into two parts: one related to

the surface drag or grain roughness designated by A' and R' , the other related
H

to the

bedform drag designated by A" and

R~

respectively.

In terms of hydraulic radii we have

+ R"

It follows that both shear stress and friction velocity are in turn
divided since:

~=

Y(RH

~ R")S

and

(1)

(2)

so we have:

a.

In terms of shear stresses

= 't"o
b.

+ 't;'

(3)

in terms of friction velocities

=
the "prime",

(4)

used in the notation pertains to the surface rag whereas

the "double prime",

fi

pertains to the bedform drag.

Einstein and Barbarossa derived a curve fram data of river measurements

which relates the "flow intensi ty" denoted

35

and defined as

is the bed sediment size forwhich

RES

to the ratio

35% of the material is finer)

of the me an stream velocity, denoted u,

u"

(5 )

velocity due to the bar resistance denoted

to the friction

u;. This curve which has come to

be known as "bar resistance curve" is shown in fig. 3.

Nota:

1.3

Different bedform shapes are sketched in Annex 1

Mean Velocity

DePending on the surface roughness, Einstein and Barbarossa recommended

use of either the Manning-Strickles equation or a"logarithmic type formula.

a.

Manning-Strickler's equation
Is defined as

u' *

where

65

is

7.66

(RH )i/6
d

(6 )

65

the bed sediment size for which 65%

of the bed material is

finer.

The well-known Manning fonnula is defined as

1
n

R 3/2 51 / 2
H

(7)

Let us assume firstly the velocity would be the same with a fIat bed
and secondly the bedform would affect both the roughness coefficient
the hydraulic radius

i1i

n'

Be

and

and

the values when no bedform exists.

50 we have
u

By

combin~ng

l
n'

R'

3/2 si/2

{8}

{7} and {8} we get:

n'

}3/2

{9}

and by combining {6} and {8} we get

n'

1/6
65

. {10}

24

Equations {9} and (lO) enable to ascertain whether there is a bedform

drag or not and ta calculate

if need be. This is the case when direct

measurement were made of the mean velocities for examp1e at a permanent

gauging station.

b.

Logarithrnic

Formula

Type

Einstein and Barbarossa chose the fo110wing equation

which was

derived from Nikuradse's experirnents by Keulegan.

where

2.3

u'
.*

12.27

log {

x
}

{11}

65

is the Prandtl - Von Karman coefficient equal to 0.4 for clear

fluid and, x , is a correction factor for the transition from hydraulically

(see AnneA 2 for a discussion about

k) "rough to hydraulically srnooth surface,

the roughness being in turn related to the ratio

T65 '

where ~ is the thick-

ness of the so-called laminar sublayer and is defined as

11.6 J)

(J,I

u~

In figure 2, the factor

kinematic viscosity of the fluid)

(12)

is given as a function of

Use of Manning-Strickler's formula is recommended when the grain roughness produces a hydraulically rough surface, i.e. when

d 65

about 5. Whereas use of a logarithmic formula when

d 65

~
~s

is more than
less than about

5 (see fig. 2).

In case direct measurements of velocities are made, a trial and error

procedure is used to determine

R'

and

x. The chosen values have not only

to verify equation (11) but to verify both the

functions depicted by the

curves given in figures 2 and 3.

1.4

Step by Step Procedure for Hydraulic Calculations

Once a test reach has been selected, the following informations are

needed.
l.

Slope

2.

Description of the

3.

cros~

2.1

Curve of

~ versus

2.2

Curve of

versus

2.3

Curve of

versus

section, that is,

D

Cross section area

Depth or stage

Wetted perime ter

Bed sediment distribution curve

The determination of the depth (or stage) - dischargerelation proceeds

as follows:
l.

Select a value of

2.

Calculate

u'

and

through

equations (2) and (12) respectively

3.

Determine

frcm fig. 2

4.

Calculate

through equation (6)

or equation (11)

7.

Calculate y 35 fram equation (5 )

.
u
frcm fig. 3 then calculate un
ob ta~n-;;*
u *
Calculate
=~ +~

8.

Determine

5.

6.

and

RH

A and

through the description of

the cross section

9.

Calculate

=u

Remark

In flume experiments

a side-wall correction is introduced to take into

account differences in roughness between the sand-coverad bed and the flume
walls. In most natural streams such a correction neednot be applied.

2.

BED-MATERIAL LOAD CALCULATION

The bed-material transport is calculated in its two modes, namely,

bed-load and suspended-load for each grain fraction of the bed at each
given flow depth.
The procedure used to compute the suspended-load is based on the
so-called Rouse equation which is in turn an application of the diffusiondispersion model.
The Einstein's bedload-function is used to calculate the bedload rate.
Sorne theoretical considerations are in place here to shed some light on the
procedure.
2.1

Rouse Equation for vertical Distribution of Suspended Matter

Let us consider particles of uniform shape, size and density in a two

dimensional, uniform,' turbulent flow.

Since the particle continuously settles with its settling velocity in
relation to the surrounding fluid an equilibrium suspension is possible only
if the flow provides a countermotion with an equal velocity. This.upward
movement is due to the turbulence of the flow, which turbulence results fram
eddies that are bei~g formed continuously and are swirling in an irregular
manner as they are carried along by the flow.
The diffusion-dispersion

theory states that the settling rate due to

gravity per unit area is balanced by the upward movement due to diffusion.
This can be expressed by the followingequilibrium equation
vc

.2s.

_ E

(13)

s dy

where
v

is the settling velocity of the given particle and

at the height

above the bed.

the concentration

is given with fig. 4 as a function of

the particle diameter, the curve due to Rubey will roughly describe the sediment of most streams.

being a function of

diffusion coefficient

f3

@Em

s.

ft

(14)

factor is taken as unity. "Though experiments

decreases when both the diameter

concentration increase
observed in

so we have:

In most applications the

have shown that

which has been found to be proPQrtional to the

and the sediment

such changes are small in comparison with the changes

k.

Furthermore, the local shear stress, that is, the shear stress at the height
y

above the bottan can be expressed as:

CE ~
, m dy

(15)

Assuming the Karman-Prandtl velocity law valid, that is,

2.3

u-u

max

-~

log 0

(16)

we finally get the so-called Rouse equation (see Annex 3 for the derivation
of this equation).

c
c
a

The quantity

"ku.

(17)

is often denoted

z.

It has been found that the dis-

crepancies observed between theoretical values of

experiments are chiefly .due to variations of the
unity as

wel~

as using for

do not seriously change the

and the ones based on

factor. So taking

the settling velocity in clear, still water

z

values. (See Annex 2).

as

10

- - - - -.... fla,,",

Figure l

50 relation (5) may be used to calculate the concentration, c , of a

given grain size whose diameter is, d , at a distance, y , above the bed
provided that the concentration, c

, at a distance, a , above the bed is

available. 5ee fig. 1.

2.2

5uspended Load Equation

To obtain the suspended load rate in weight per unit time and unit

width, denoted g

, we have to integrate the product of the velocity and the

ss
concentration over the part of the vertical concerned with suspended load,

say from

to

D.

(18)

cudy

This time, we use for the velocity distribution the following relation
due to Keulegan which relates the velocity not only to the depth
d

65

as well.

but to

11

2.3

\T
*

30.2 yx
l og'd
65

Substituting the Rouse equation (17) for

(19)

and cquation (19) for

into (18) we get: (see Annex 4 for the derivation)

_1..:1

gss -

u'

(20)

where

::

a
D

According to equation (20) when

approaches zero the concentration becomes

infinite,obviously this is not true. In fact

the sediment distribution does

not apply right at the bed because the concept of suspension, that is, sol id
particles being continuously surrounded by the fluid fails and so the proclem
is to determine the thickness of the layer above which suspension is possible
and under which takes place the so-called bedload which is actually the source
of the suspended load.

2.3

Einstein's Bed-Load Formula

For mixtures with small size spread the total bedload transport of

the mixture can be determined directly by using

as the effective dia35

meter, that is the case when only the bulk rate is needed to predict scour
or deposition or when the suspended load is negligeable. The case was dealt
with in a previous note entitled "Bedload measurement and sampling."
A few more parameters come up when transport rates of each size fraction
have to he computed, mainly to take into account the fact that particles of
different sizes in a mixture have not the same behaviour as uniform bed
materials.
In that case, the "intensity of bed. load transport" ,
intensity" ,

* ' are expressed respectively by:

~ * ' and "flow

12

(21)

~f

being the fraction

sentative diameter is

bed material in the given grain size whose repre-

d.

Y.

.
y

~og

10. 6
log 10.6 Xx

(fs P- r) _.RHd _S

d 65

(22)

'

X is defined as a characteristic grain size of the mixture computed as follows

O.77~
x

We recall that

d
if

65

;> 1.80b

x
d

laminar sublayer is equal to

if

(23)

c::: 1.80~

65

1.39

or

(23 ' )

11. 6 V
~= --ur

Two correction factors are introduced namely ;

and

Y.

or "hiding" factor takes into account the fact that srnall particles seems
S
to hide between larger ones. Fig.
depicts the relation between.5 and the
5

ratio

65

X
y

takes into account changes of the lift coefficient in

various roughness. Fig. 4 depicts the relation between

mixtures with
and

d 65

S
Once ~.is deterrnined, we get ~. through figure 6 which depicts the
Einstein's bedload function, namely,

ff

r
J

1/7Y.(-2)

-1/7'r.(-2)

-t

dt

~*

43.5
1+43.

S9i.

(24)

J3

2.4

Bed-Material Load Equation

For a given vertical, it is logical to think that the summation of the

bed-load and the suspended load leads to the determination of the bed-material
load. In order to relate the concentration

to the bed-load, Einstein

a
introduced the notion of bed-layer whose depth is equal to 2d and stated

that suspension is possible only above this layer.

ment in the bed layer

Assuming a bed-load move-

he derived the reference concentration at

2d

fram

the bed as (see Annex 5 for the derivation)

11.6

Introducing relation (25)

with

(25)

2d

into the suspended load equation (20)

we get

gss

gs
0.216

1:

z-l
A

30.2 Dx
d
65

(l-A) z

The bed-material load denoted gst

(~)z. dy + Az-l
Y

(l-A)~

(27)

into (27)

we obtain

(27' )

where

FE

ln

30.2 Dx
d
65

0.216

Il

(l-Y)z lny d }26)

Y
Y
A

is given by

Substituting (26)

(28)

z-l

(l-~)

(!:.:l) Z

A
E

dy

(29)

"" r!=l
z-l

0.216'

(l-A ) Z
E

A
E

).

Iny dy

(30 )

14

The two integrals are not expressible in closed form in terms of

elementary functions.
and
for various

2
and

are graphically depicted in figures 8 and 9 respectively

z

values.

Equation (27') gives a stream's capacity as to how much bed material

load it can transport under uniform.and steady flow conditions; washload is
not included in Equation (27'). In applying the methodfor a particular watercourse, Einstein (1950) stresses the following points:
(1)

The length of a uniform reach should be such that the

slope

(2)

may be determined accurately;

the channel geometry, the sediment composition, and

aIl other factors influencing the roughness velue

n,

such as vegetation, etc., should be uniform, so that

an average representative cross section may be selected.
50 Einstein's (1950) method of computing the bed-material load 15

elegant and allows the calculation without measuring either the suspended
or the bedload matter.

15

FIGURES

Fil. 3

Flow rcsisl~nce due 10 bedforms.

[Afra EI:-.;snIN

f!t

al. {/952}.J

16

~EDIMENTATION ENGINEERING

200

I.e ~;-..;.=--...:.l __~2.:...0.9'

0.8;

O.T ~;_: _., .

~1

0.&,

i).. . f . ~-1.-{ . ~., -r

'/

~ oS>
15

.;.:.4_.;;,"'1>

,;.;,"_.:;;;
.:.-.:a~'....;;;ar;..,..;

_,
/_"

-_. _.. -

.... f - - - - -

."

---fT

"
1"

0.41 ~..,!--'o-+-.;__I_---_+...,.I-+-i---t--I~
1,,"";"'--1

~ O.3~_~.~~~;_;._~.~.:~.~:-j-; E~-~-;;B'~~1ll'g~
O.Z:~~
-5

0.8

0.6 0.5 0.4

0.3

VII"'~." - - FIG. 4.-Fac:tor Y ln Einstein'. Bed Load Functlon (Einstein, 1950) ln Y.nn. of
. d."j

200.---,---------.. . ._ --.. . . . . .

1
1

r-

"0

>

l 0.8 0.6
VI"" 01

AG. 5
d./X

-Fact

0.4 0.3

\+.---

0.2

0.1

ln Einstein'. Bed Load Functlon (Einstein, 1950) ln Y.nn. of

-t++++1ti 10
~

mtllmttttl!l1t:
1

j :
l,

IJ

.!

--f

'1

, 1t
1

.~
l

l '.

l ,1

rH-Wt++ltt-H-f'ld+H

1.0

Il H-H-I+HII++HtH:!
1 tIlH+1-"l+#q:++f+'ftH 1
l'
1

lil ;qll'

5 fi 7 89 0.1
10

18

. .e
~

10

~~

0.1

1000

l ' 45

11.0

I.()

1100

100

1.0

' : , ",Ii

Iii l'i!:!

100

sr~Fc.
Wc.:,.\.11

~'5~/e...'!>

Wf11 t-r
1

l, '

il il::'

,
1 -': l',

.'1 1
'

10) 10'

10" 10'2

Il,I

"

! [j'II

'

'.:

"Ii

j'II'

1 i

I!;I!

! 1 j 1iilll
1

i "

i;Pi

",

'I:

il:!

1 : [1
QOl
FIG.

,..

!lli

0.1

. Seulini velocit)'

1 J.

~.

:!l

:,.,

Il'!

1111'1

ilili

1!lIi

1.0

10

' ',1::

.. ,

,,
;"

I! li;11

':

,
1! i

~ j

Il

l'OC

il

. ,
Il
'

; ,: :

Jill

te""l"er..""n:

,,'

Il Iii
11111,

l'

lili

100
',000
Groin sile. m m -

for quartz irana of various aizes according to Ruhey [lOt.

19

....
l

Fi,. 8

FunClion JI in terms of AI for values of

=.

[Afur E/:-;STEIS (/950).)

'

20

~: ::-~~':~}1??~;::i\:.p~:;:~~,,~\
;
~ . ,'." .. :1:,"~ .' ~:~"~".N . .~~.~~

IOZrooo...

h--'.

~...

l' l

'i

!! Iii
,

~:

Il

il

'-'-;::-i .

- i _ ,-

iii:!I'

.,
:

~
----::-:: ..: } :

l ,

-lilil:

N-U

-.~:

,
tO"~-~'3---~"~--~'.~~~:~-~.~;~'
'~:~~;~~~~~~~~~-~--i
~~

~--l--+---+--4
~---++t+-++';---I-++_":-_-";""'-+-+~";'+~
,1-:-7TI
l
,
Il!

Fil. 9

FunClion 1, in t~rms of A E for values of :. [Afler EI:-;STEl:-O (/950,.]

(I:l i~ .. ,G. t";",~ )

21

3.

EXAMPLE OF BED-MATERIAL LOAn CALCULATION

(After GRAF'Hydraulics of Sediment Transport*p.222)

A test reach, representative of the watercourse to be investigated,
has been selected. It was concluded that th channel can be represented by
a trapezoidal cross section with bank slopes of 1:1 and a bottom width of
91.45 m. The channel slope was determined and given by

S = 0.0007.

Five samples, taken down to a depth of approximately 2 ft, were.collected

to obtain information on the grain size distribution of the entire wetted
perimeter. The average values of the five samples are given in table 1.

Table 1
Grain Size
Distribution, mm

Average Grain Size

mm

d > 0.589
0.589
0.417
0.295
0.208
0.147

>d
>d
>d
>d
>d

> 0.417
> 0.295
> 0.208
> 0.147

Peroentage
2.4

0.495

17.8

0.351

40.2

0.248

32.0

0.175

5.8
1.8

The average grain size is the geometric mean between the upper and the
lower limits of each division, i.e.

0.495

"0.589 x 0.417 .

The grain size distribution curve is given in fig. 10.

Description of cross section is given in fig. Il.
Hydraulic calculations are presented in Table 2 and bed material load
in table 3. The table heading, its meaning and caleulation are explained
with footnotes.

22
t.O

0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6

;-.
,, i

~ 0.5

..

::0.4

-ct,~-

1
1

l'

:
1

95

90

- -.--~
i
r-'

0'),

1 1

0.1

,
!

..,-----.;;;-

1
0.2

:1

,
1

,
1

I~
. , ,
1.

1
l'

!1

!
1

1
80 70 605040 30 20

10

10

Grain size distribution of bed material.

i,

'

Plrelnl finer

FI,_

il
5

23

Table 2

Hydraulic calculation for sample problem

.'

u"

103S"

0.0647

0.61

d 65 /

0.179

1.96

5
1.40

-u

Y35

/u:

u"

R}i

10

11

0.25

1.745

1.12

34

0.51

3
10 d 65 / x

0.379
.'

(i'ft)
m

(1)

mis

Values of

mis

mis

are assumed

friction velocity due to grain roughness

(3)

11.6

laminar sub layer.

u'

d 65 /

(5 )

x = fct (d /S"
65

(6)

d 65 / x

(7)

r
given with fig. 2

apparent roughness
12.27'

u~

5.75 log

d
d

(8)

35

(9) --lL- =
u"

fct

= (l/u~

(11) R"

,,2
=_u_
gS

(12)

35

~s

Y35

(10) u"

(kinematic viscosity) at 20 0 C

V = 10-2 cm2/ s = 10-6m2/ s

(4)

-=

RH +

Correction factor for roughness

transition.

diamet~r

Rif

65
flow intensity with d 35 ,as representative diameter

given with fig. 3

friction velocity due to bedform drag

*
hydraulic radius due to bedform drag

RH

hydraulic radius

24

Table 2 (Continued)

u.

12

13

14

15

lG

17

0.99

0.U83

1.02

94

94.3

164

10 3 X

0"-

\10 9 10.6)
'=<

mis

Is

18
0.249

19

O.GO

20
1.024

21
1.003

Jg~S

friction velocity

(13)

u.

(14)

:::

fct(i1:I)

given with fig. 11

Depth

(15)

:::

fct (0)

given with fig. 11

Cross Section Area

(16)

:::

fct(O)

given with fig. 11

Wetted perimeter

(17)

::z

uA

(18)

:::

d
0.77 -2.i
x

if

or X

1.39 i'

if

\'later discharge
d

. (20)'

(22)

log

:::

> 1.80

65

<

10.6 XX
d

65

Characteristic grain size

1.80

given with fig. 4

:::

0<.

65

(19)

Pressure correction term

PE
22
11. 72

25

Table 3

R'

Bed material load. calculations for sample problem

Gs

diX

y*

~*

0.495

0.1.78

1.99

1.00

1.15

6.7

0.140

13.202

13.202

0.351

0.402

1.25

1.01

0.82

9.6

0.271

25.555

38.757

0.248

0.320

1.00

1.13

0.65

12.2

0.160

15.088

54.637

0.175

0.058

0.70

1.60

0.65

12.2

0.018

1.697

56.334

1
0.61

gs

3
10 d

ZG s
10

.
m

kg/m-sec kg/sec

kg/sec

(1)

RH

(2)

taken fram fig. 10 and Table 1

grain size diameter

(3)

taken fram table 1

fraction of bed material whose

diameter is d

(4)

..s!.

(5)

fct (d/X)

(6)

Y*

(7)

. =

y [lOg 10.61 2 (

,0<

fct (Y*)
P

(9)

given "in fig .' 5

!p. '(s

Pgs

d
~ s - r) (RHs)

given in fig. 6

Jt ~ f r;. p

hiding factor

flow intensity on individual

grain size
intensity of transport for individual grain size
bedload rate in weight per unit
time and width for a size fraction

bedload rate ln weight per unit time for a size fraction

for the entire cross-section
bedload rate in weight per unit timefor all size
fractions for entire cross-section

50 according to Einstein's procedure the bedload rate is in the region

of 56 kg/s.

26

Table 3

(Continued)

103 A
E

11

Il

- I2

P I +I +1
E 1 2

12

13

14

15

16

gst

G
st

17

18

~Gst
19

0.97

0.063

2.43

0.15

0.95

1.760

0.246

23.198

23.198

0.61

0.045

1. 74

0.27

1.80

2.36

0.640

60.352

83.550

0.49

0.035

1.35

0.51

3.00

3.98

0.636

59.975

143.525

0.34

0.022

0.85

2.70

22.64

0.396

37.362

180.887

kg/rn-sec kg/sec

kg/3ec

10.0

mis

2d
D

(11)

~ =

( 12)

fct(d)

(13)

v
0.4 u~

( 14)

Il

f(~,

z)

given with fig. 8

(15)

f(~,

z)

given with fig. 9

(16)

P I +I +1
E 1 2

(17)

gst

(18)

G
st

ratio of bed layer to water depth

given with fig. 7

gs(P I +I +1)
E l
2

bed rnaterial rate in weight per unit time

and width for a size fraction

Pg

bed rnaterial rate in weight per unit time

for a'size fraction for the entire crosssection

st

. (P : wetted perimeter)
(19)

Z.

Sett1ing velocity

bed rnateria1 rate in weight per unit time

for aIl size fractions for the entire
cross section

Gst

Obviously

the digits (given by using a calculator) after the decima1

point in colurnn 19 are not significant/at best

figures is

the number of significant

3.

50 according to Einstein's pxocedure thebed rnaterial 10ad rate is in

the reqion of 180 kg/s.

27

CONCLUDING REMARKS
Several items in Einstein's method were questioned. For instance
to use

u'

in calculating

instead of

tion may seem

in the suspended load equa-

E ' upon
m
which the equation is based is likely to depend on the total shear stress

1;o

inapprop~iate b~cause

and not only on

the diffusion coefficient

\:' , let alone that taking 0.4 for

0

is also

questionable.
Anyway

any method has its own limitations and is at best for the

time being a mere estimate even though aIl pertinent variables are taken
into account to set it up as it is the case in the Einstein's method.

In the foregoing

chapt~rs

it was assumed that at any time the sedi-

ment bed could afford a continuous and full availability of its particles
to be transported under any likely hydraulic conditions, if not/that
the supply

were

i~if

partially exhausted the stream would obviously transport

less material and a bed material load equation which is supposed to give the
maximum capacity (load capacity) would fail.

Last but not least, wherever washload plays an essential role the bed
material equations.are merely helpful for the understanding of the problem
but cannot give correct results since not only such equations are of no help
to de termine the washload

rat~

but the parameters used to derive them are

most likely to undergo drastic changes due to the very presence of the
load (i.e. the factor

wash~

which is no longer equals to 0.4 when heavy sediment

laden flows are considered).

28

Annex l

The following table shows that in the lower regime the values of

RH

are likely to be high as the form roughness predominates whereas in

the upper regime when grain roughness predominates

RH

is often negligeable

R'

and

CI~ssificatjon

l/CJ(>5) und

5"10:-;5 et

of bedforms

~nd

Bed lIlureriul
clJnc<'ntratilJlIs.
FllJ'" regilll<'

L.m .:r regiml:

Be"J"rm

. PP"'
100-1.200

dun~s

Washed,lul
dunes

: Plane b<:tfs
Antidunes
Upp.:r rcgimc:
ChutC'i anJ

.\tud~

SI'10:-.s "t ul.

lJI

s~dil/li!nr

T.r~uI

transport

rlJughll<'ss

Io-~OO

Rippk'S
Rippll:S ,ln
Dun.:s

Transilion

inform~tion (ufrer

other

al, (/966 JI

Discrl:ll:
sleps

200-2.000

; Variable

1.000-3.000

2,<>00-6.000
2,000 2.000 -

. Form
roughncss
predominales

. R(}/'3hn~ss ..
.("\
,

:;l

7.8-1~.4

7.0-13.~

7.0-:0.0

16.3-:0

Conlinuous

pools

Grain
10.8 :0
roughnl:SS
9A-10.i
pr.:dominalcs :

A useful flow regime criterion is the Froude number denoted

NF

and definedas :
_u_

JgO

where

is the stream mean velocity and

5 the mean depth over the entire

cross-section.

=l

classification is as follows:

tranquil (streaming) flow

lower regime

critical flow

transition regime

rapid (shooting) flow

upper reg ime

29

Annex l

(Continued)
Sketches of various bedforms are shown in the following figure

..,..
Ct'l Plane Dea

_-----c.:!!.~':.

lD:

::>unes ... fft flCDles

..

':~::___----

5yD@fOOStd

C9a,'

lc) Dunes

..,..
.

~-

/.\""'tI',

~
Poo'

(d) WO$h~d-ouT dunes or tranSITion

Ct'u!e

'

(/Il ChuTes and POOlS

Idcalized bcdrorms in alluvial channcls.

[Afte,

SIMO~S ~I

al. (196/).)

It is worth noting that should the bedforrn change for the same depth
(or stage) bath .the velocity and the water discharge would in turn do,
sornetirnes discontinuous rating curves or rating curves with loops may be .
interpreted in this way.
To explain the fact that in the upper regime the depth-discharge
relation

is reasonably stable we will quote Einstein and al.

The effect of irregularities (bedforrns) is to distort the flow
pattern. When the discharge is least, the distortion of the flow
pattern is greatest; as witness the meandering of natural streams
at low flows. As the discharge increases and hence the sediment
transport along the bed also increases, the distortion of the flow
pattern becomes less and less because the alinement of flow becomes
progressively straighter. Consequently, one rnay expect that the
additional friction loss, u~ , dirninishes as the discharge increases.

30

Annex 2
variations of

The value of

is approximately 0.4 for clear fluids, but it has

been observed to diminish to as low as 0.2 in flows with high concentration

of suspended material. The following figure shows that the logarithmic
velocity distribution

law holds true but with different values of

according to the mean concentration.

THE SUSPENOEO LOAO

1 O , . . - - - - - - - - - " ' r " ' - -.....

l~=_~~

O~===

0.9 > - - - - - - - - - f - - - - ' f - i

------+
-C.4 ------+---,...
0.6~,
O~'--

0.8 !---------t--~t-.

0.71----y

03 ----~-_,,I--

0.6,........-----

15 0.51----------t-4-.-J~o 4 :---------+---+-~

02 ~---+___"+--____.
y
[)
O' _

~.O

0.3 r----------J'--~---; 0.C8-~~-j~~~~~~

0.2'-':,--------j,-~--__I
0.06-=
1
0-0295 ft: o.c~
D".2?: !
~
0.C4.: o'
; - - - - s' )0025 1
1--.::::-.
.....J1 O.O~ l
'.
1.0
2.;)
3.0
40
'0
2C
30
4.0

-s.o.ooas

Veloe' ~ y

\'.~:\u:-"I

Il.

~cs

.. !IC-C, ~.,

J.

'C\

VelOl:llY protil~." fvr ,lear-\\;lIer and >.:Jiment-Iaden I1v\\ .. [Afra

,'1 ul, (/Y6UI.)

It has been suggested that a reduction of

means that mixing is

less effective and that the presence of sediment suppresses or damps the
turbulence.

Anyhow drastic changes may arise in the veloity distribution when

high concentrations take place but in that case it is likely that the bulk
of the

~otal

and

wash-Ioad is the predomlnant forro of transport.

50

load is made up of particles finer than the bed mate rial ones

31

Annex

Derivation of the Rouse Equation

We have the following set of equations
vc

- Es ~.
dy

1: y =
Es

du
dy

Em

Equilibrium equation

(2)

diffusion coefficient in the diffusion theory

~ Em

(3)

OSD

(4)

Bottom shear stress, often simply called shear stress

(5)

Ratio of the local shear stress to the bottom

shear stress

(6)

Shear stress velocity or friction velocity

(7)

Karman-Von Prandtl law

''
D-y
~-=
l'V
D

\"0

ft

u...

(1)

u-umax

2.3
Y
- 1 09k
D

u ...

constant

Let's take the derivatille in equation (7) noting that 2.3 logL= ln:L
D
D
we get
du
dy

(8)

ky

Let's' express
equation (5)

(D-Y)

't'
0

1i in

we get :

(9)

terms of

~o

in equation (2) by means of

32

Annex 3 (Continued)
Substituting equation (8) into equation (9) and expressing
terms of

u*

/'\,.

in

by means of equation (6) we get :

D - y
D

u*

Em

(10)

ky

Combining equation (3) and (10)

Es

can be expressed by

(11)

Substituting equation (11) into equation (1) and separating the

variables we get :

~ =

v
---

Ddy

(12)

y(D -y

Let us assume that the concentration of suspended sediment at a

point

is

c . Then integrating (12) from

a

_~D...;;d:.l.Y__

Ya

y(l~

[ln

y)

D-y

The quantty

\Jku*

[a(D-Y)]
y (D-a)

Pku*

is. often ca11ed

(-.:L..)] Y

and taking the antilogarithms

c
c

to

z.

we get :

-:L- log a (D-y)

~ku*

Y (D-a)

33

Annex

Derivation of the Suspended Load Equation

We have the following three relations

5.75 log 30.2 xy

d
65

c [a
y

(D-Y)]
y (D-a)

ca

gss

Substituting

gss

5.75 u* c a

c u

dy

(3)

into (3) we get

j: [a <D-YU

30.2 x

y(D-a)

d'65

a
D

=-

respectively.

dy

r
a

ra (D_Y)]Z
y (D-a)

10

(~f
(l-~J
l-A
Y
E

dyJ

(5)

-D

u=:L
D

then we have

D du

and the new limits of integration are

=D

then we have

Let us take as new variable

(1)

65

(2)

a (D-Y)] Z
Y(D-a)

dy

and (2)

Let us introduce

ln 30.2 xy

y Y

(1)

~oq

0.4

u = Ae: and

u = 1

for

y = a

and

(4)

34

Annex 4 (Continued)
Consequently we get

D Ga (D-y) ]
y(D-a)
a

D [a (D-yil
y(D-a)

dy

A
D(_E_)Z

(l-u)
u

Substituting (6) and (7) into (4)

)%

(6)

log Y dy

or taking the Naperian

and

l-A

~Og

30.2 Dx
d
65

Z
log u du + log D ~ (l-u
u)
du
l

(7)

we finally get:

l-u Z
( - ) log u

(-l-u)z du
u

(8)

logarithms

30.2 Dx
d
65

du
.

(l-u)z ln u
u

(8

35

Annex

Derivation of the

Be~-Material

Load Equation

Einstein foun& that in the so-called laminar sub-layer whose depth is

the bottom velocity, u

' is related to the shear stress velocity by

50 assuming that the particles in the sublayer move with an average

veloci ty equal to

Ua' the bed.. load per unit wid th

as the product of the concentration

50

may be considered

g5

and the discharge per unit width,

we can write:

and with

9s

::

9s

2 d

a u

or

a 11.6 u.

we get
gs
Ca

(1)

Il. 6 u. 2d

Let us resume the suspended load equation

[Annex 4, equation (8 '

(l~Y)Z dy + J~ (l~y)Z

i]

ln y dy

(2)

which may be rewritten as follows:

- - u Oc
0.4 *
a

z-l

rI

(l-A )z JA

(l-y)zln y dyJ
y

(3)

36
Annex 5 (Continued)
Substituting (1) into (3) and noting that
a

~=D

ss

2d

=0

= 2d

and consequently

we get

2d

0.4

Il.6

= - u. D -

gs

[ . ] = 0.216

[-

Finally we get for the bed-material 10ad

gg (P E Il + I 2 + 1)

gs + g9S

gst

where
PE

Il

""

ln (30.2 Dx)
d
65

0.216

z-l

(l_~)z

\:z-l
12

0.216

(l_~)Z

(l-Y) z dy
y

J:

(l-Y) z Iny dy
y

...

-]

(4)

37

REFERENCES
Hydraulics of Sediment Transport. GRAF, W. H., MacGraw Hill.
Sedimentation Engineering. American Society of Civil Engineers.
River Sedimentation. EINSTEIN, H. A.
Hydrology{VEN TE CHOW~

in Handbook of Applied

These books are available at the DPMA library.