Wireless Communications

Introduction

Primary Textbooks:
Theodore S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications,
Prentice Hall, 2nd Edition, 2002,
Andrea Goldsmith, Wireless Communications, Cambridge
University Press, 2005
Recommended Reading: John Proakis, Digital
Communications 4th Edition, McGraw Hill, ISBN 0072321113,
http://www.mhhe.com/engcs/electrical/proakis/

Wireless Communications ,

Page 2

Wireless Communications - Introduction

Wireless Communication History:

The first version of a mobile radio telephone being used in 1924.
source: www.bell-labs.com/technology/wireless/earlyservice.html

Wireless Communications ,

Page 3

Wireless Communications - Introduction

Some historical notes:

1946, the first public mobile telephone service in the USA. Single high-powered
transmitter on large tower (50 km coverage). Bandwidth 120 kHz for 3 kHz user
bandwidth.
Invention of the cellular concept: 1979, Verne H. MacDonald The Cellular Concept,
Bell System Technical Journal 58, No. 1 (January, 1979), pp 15-42
First cellular system: 1979, Nippon Telephone and Telegraph company (NTT) in
Japan (600 FM duplex channels, 25 kHz channel bandwidth, 800 MHz frequency
range)
In Europe: 1981, The Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT 450), (200 FM duplex
channels, 25 kHz channel bandwidth, 450 MHz frequency range)
In USA: 1983, The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), (666 FM duplex
channels, 30 kHz channel bandwidth, 800 MHz frequency range)
Read more in : T. K. Sarkar, R. J. Mailloux, A. A. Oliner, M. Salazar-Palma, and D. L.Sengupta, History of Wireless.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.

Wireless Communications ,

Page 4

Wireless Communications - Introduction

Paradigm shifts (
1980

10 Years

1990 10 Years

1st Generation

NMT, AMPS, etc.

analogue,
voice

):
2000+

2nd Generation

GSM, D-AMPS,
IS-95
digital,
voice

3rd Generation

4th Generation

UMTS,
cdma200,
TD-SCDMA

3GPP Advanced (EU)

WiMAX (USA)
WiBro (Korea)

digital,
data services

digital,
data services
multimedia

We are only at the beginning!

Rapid development poses great challenges to research
Wireless Communications ,

Page 5

Mobile Communication at a Glance

Migration to 3G:

3G

2.75G
Intermediate
Multimedia

2.5G

Multimedia

Packet Data

2G
Digital Voice

1G
Analog Voice

GPRS

GSM

EDGE

W-CDMA
(UMTS)

384 Kbps

Up to 2 Mbps

115 Kbps

NMT

9.6 Kbps

GSM/
GPRS

TD-SCDMA

(Overlay)
115 Kbps

2 Mbps?

TDMA
TACS

9.6 Kbps

iDEN
9.6 Kbps

iDEN
PDC

(Overlay)

9.6 Kbps

AMPS

CDMA 1xRTT
CDMA
14.4 Kbps
/ 64 Kbps

PHS

1984 - 1996+

Wireless Communications ,

1992 - 2000+

cdma2000
1X-EV-DV

PHS

144 Kbps

(IP-Based)

64 Kbps

2003+

2001+

Over 2.4 Mbps

2003 - 2004+
Source: U.S. Bancorp Piper Jaffray

Page 6

the 4 larges mobile markets

350

Europe

Subscribers (Mio)

300
250
200
China
150
USA
100
Japan
50
0
84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03

Wireless Communications ,

Page 7

Wireless Communications - Introduction

Wireless services:
Past: primarily voice (single service)
Future: multimedia (incl. video, TV, gaming) and wireless computing,
sensor networks (plurality of services)

New powerful terminals: Moores law (1965)

Processing speed and storage capacity double every 18 month (at same
price)
Bottleneck: battery technology
Cognitive radio

Wireless Communications ,

Page 8

Introduction Definitions / Nomenclature

mobile station (MS)

user
portable
handset
subscriber

mobile unit

access point
base station (BS)

fixed unit

uplink
reverse link

MS BS

downlink
forward link

BS MS

handover
handoff
Wireless Communications ,

Process of transferring a mobile from one

channel/BS to anther

Page 9

Introduction Definitions / Nomenclature

Roaming

The ability to use the same service in

different networks, usually in different
countries, with the same terminal

time slot (TS)

radio resource sub-unit in time domain

sub-carrier

radio resource sub-unit (frequency domain)

Wireless Communications ,

Page 10

Standardisation Bodies

IMT 2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications)

ITU-R

Radio frequency
spectrum and
radio system
aspects

Wireless Communications ,

ITU-D

Studies, activities
and assistance
related to
implementation of
IMT-2000 in
developing
countries

Page 11

ITU-T

Network aspects
of IMT-2000 and
beyond: Wireless
Internet,
convergence of
mobile and fixed
network mobility
management

Data rate [Mbps]

Mobile Communication at a Glance

Service Provider / Content

Applications / Software

0.05

2nd

Wireless Communications ,

3rd Generation
Cellular
Page 12

Wireless

nth Generation

4th Generation

WiMAX (802.16)

Dig. TV (DVB-H)
WLAN

4th Generation

Bluetooth

Cordless - DECT

Wireless and Cellular Air Interfaces

TD-SCDMA (China)
CDMA 2000 (USA)

UMTS (UTRA-TDD)

0.5

GSM (worldwide)

PDC (Japan)

50

D-AMPS, IS-95 (USA)

500

UMTS (UTRA-FDD)

IMT-2000

5000

Example: GSM Overview

GSM (200 kHz carrier bandwidth)

(see: 3GPP TS 45.001 V7.1.0 (2005-06) )

High Speed Circuit

Switched Data
(HSCSD)

General Packet
Radio Service
(GPRS)

4xTX 57.6kbps
(=4x14.4kbsp)

8xTX 171.2kbps
(=8x21.4kbps)

Wireless Communications ,

Page 13

Enhanced data rates

for GSM evolution
(EDGE)
8xTX, 8PSK, no error
protection
547.2kbps
(practical: 384 kbps)

Example: CDMA200 Overview

CDMA2000 (1.25 MHz carrier bandwidth)

1xRTT
(single carrier
radio
transmission
technology)
(307 kbps DL,
152 kbps UL)

Wireless Communications ,

1xEV
(evolutionary
advancement)

1xEV - DO
- DV

(data only, or data

incl. HDR (high data and voice)
rate technology
(up to 2.4 Mbps)
highly depending on
mobile speed,
propagation
conditions,
interference

Page 14

3xRTT
(Multicarrier
transmission)

Example: ISM band

Industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) bands unlicensed

Currently:
5150 5350 MHz
5725 5825 MHz
In the late 1980s the following frequencies were already specified as ISM bands:
902 928 MHz
2400 2483.5 MHz (Wireless LAN and Bluetooth)
WLAN, 802.11, standardised in 1997
2 Mbps user data rate
In 1999, 802.11(b) approved (Wi-Fi)
11 Mbps @ 5 GHz
In 2001, 802.11(a) approved
54 Mbps
802.11(g) = 802.11(b) @ 2.4 GHz + 802.11(a) @ 5 GHz (roaming)
In 2003, 802.11(e) approved
QoS features added

Wireless Communications ,

Page 15

Example: Bluetooth Overview

Bluetooth is a universal radio Interface working in the license free ISM band in the range 24002483.5 MHz.
The frequency range is divided in 79 RF frequencies separated by 1 MHz.
f=2402 GHz + k MHz, k=0, , 78
The channels are hopping between the 79 frequencies at 1600 hops/s (TS: 625s)
The frequency selection follows the Kernel algorithm defined in the specifications.
The basic Bluetooth network is called a
Piconet. It is formed by a Master and up
to 7 slaves.

slave 1
slave 2
slave 3

Each piconet is defined by a

different hopping pattern to which
users synchronize to.

Wireless Communications ,

master

Page 16

Overview of basic system techniques - Two way communication

Wireless Communications ,

Page 17

Overview of basic system techniques - Duplexing

Wireless Communications ,

Page 18

Overview of basic system techniques - Multiple access

Wireless Communications ,

Page 19

The Assignment of Radio Resources in Practice: Europe

GSM

GSM
915

880

925

960

f / MHz

UMTS

UMTS

UMTS

UMTS

UTRA-TDD

UTRA-FDD

UTRA-TDD

UTRA-FDD

1900

1920

Challenge:
Goals:

1980 2010 2025 2110

2170 f / MHz

Scarce, limited, expensive radio resources

1) Full coverage with limited resources
2) Many subscribers (high revenue)
3) High Quality of Service

Wireless Communications ,

Page 20

The Cellular Concept

Location Area

VLR
(visitor
location
register)

VLR
(visitor
location
register)
Wireless Communications ,

Page 21

HLR
(home
location
register)

Overview of key system techniques

Network
layer
&
Data-link
layer

Wireless Communications ,

Page 22

High Altitude Platform Stations (HAPS)

 European HeliNet Project

 Heights 17 20 km
 Advantages:

High speed communication in 20 50

GHz frequency band
Low multi-path and line-of-sight
conditions
Large coverage
Low Doppler

 Disadvantages:

Source: J. Thornton, et al., Broadband

communications from a high altitude platform, IEE
Electronics & Communications Engineering Journal,
June 2001
Wireless Communications ,

Page 23

Antennas with high gain required due to

high attenuation
Scattering causes interference

Example: GSM Overview

1 hyperframe = 2 048 superframes = 2 715 648 TDMA frames (3 h 28 mn 53 s 760 ms)
0

2042

2043

2044

48

49

50

2045

2046

1 superframe = 1 326 TDMA frames (6,12 s)

(= 51 (26-frame) multiframes or 26 (51-frame) multiframes)
0

1
0

47

3
1

1 (26-frame) multiframe = 26 TDMA frames (120 ms)

0 1

25

24

1 (51-frame) multiframe = 51 TDMA frames (3060/13 ms)

22 23 24 25

0 1

46 47 48 49 50

1 TDMA frame = 8 time slots (120/26 or 4,615 ms)

0

NOTE: GMSK modulation: one symbol is one bit

8PSK modulation: one symbol is three bits

1 time slot = 156,25 symbol durations (15/26 or 0,577 ms)

(1 symbol duration = 48/13 or 3,69 s)
(TB: Tail bits - GP: Guard period)

Normal burst (NB)

The number shown are in symbols

TB
3

Frequency correction burst (FB)

TB
3

Synchronization burst (SB)

Access burst (AB)

TB
3
TB
8

Encrypted bits
58

Training sequence
26
Fixed bits
142

Synchronization sequence
41

Page 24

Encrypted bits
36

TB GP
3 8,25
TB GP
3 8.25

Synchronization sequence
64

Encrypted bits
39

3GPP TS 45.001 V7.1.0 (2005-06) )

Wireless Communications ,

Encrypted bits
58

TB
3

Encrypted bits
39
GP
68,25

TB GP
3 8,25

2047

The Cellular Concept

Wireless Communications ,

Page 25

The Cellular Concept

Wireless Communications ,

Page 26

The Cellular Concept

Power

BS1

Concept:

BS2

Location

Frequency Re-Use
 more users can be served

Drawback: Generation of interference

 reduction of users which can be served!
Wireless Communications ,

Page 27

The Cellular Concept

S
K

Number of duplex channels in the cellular system

Number of channels per cell

N
M

Number of cells (4, 7 or 12)

Number of times a cluster is repeatedly used

Available Channels are grouped in blocks and assigned to cells

S
K=
N
The system capacity (total number of channels) in the system is:

C=MS=M NK
If the cluster size, N, is reduced while the cell size is constant, more
clusters, M, are required and thus the greater the capacity. But, the smaller,
N, the smaller the frequency re-use distance and the higher the
interference.
Wireless Communications ,

Page 28

The Cellular Concept

Cell clustering

Wireless Communications ,

Page 29

The Cellular Concept

The frequency reuse factor of a cellular system is given by:

1
N
1
Each cell within a cluster is only assigned N of the total
available channels in the system.

Wireless Communications ,

Page 30

j=1

i=3
j=1

i=1

3-cell cluster

Wireless Communications ,

Page 31

The Cellular Concept

Co-Channel Interference
Interference between
two cells using the same
frequency due to
frequency reuse

f1

f1

Interference
(TDD & FDD)
Interference
(TDD only)

Wireless Communications ,

Page 32

The Cellular Concept

The number of cells per cluster, N, can

N = i2 + j 2 + i j

only have values which satisfy:

HW2: Prove that for a hexagonal geometry, the co-channel reuse

ratio is given by Q = 3 N . (Hint: use the cosine law and the
hexagonal cell geometry).

D=rQ
i

Wireless Communications ,

Page 33

i, j

The Cellular Concept

Adjacent-Channel Interference
f1

Page 34

tor
era
Op

Solutions:
Careful filtering
Proper channel assignments

Wireless Communications ,

f2
tor
era
Op

Interference resulting from

signals which are adjacent in
frequency to the desired signal
This is due to imperfect receiver
filters which allow nearby
frequencies to leak into the
passband.

Multihop Communication

 FUTURE:

Investigation of techniques which allow low

power transmission while maintaining high transmission
rates

Possible solution:

Ad-hoc routing
(protocols)

Wireless Communications ,

Page 35

Ad hoc Communications

Quelle: WWRF

Wireless Communications ,

Page 36

Resource Allocation

Scheduling QoS support

HDR (High data rate)
Round robin
Proportional fair scheduling
Greedy rate packing
Channel assignment strategies:
Intra-cell vs inter-cell
Fixed channel assignment (FCA)
Dynamic channel assignment (DCA)
Combinatorial optimisation problem
NP-hard
Advantages/disadvantages of DCA:
- Radio signal strength measurements required
- Knowledge of traffic distribution required
- Control overhead
+ Reduced likelihood of blocking
+ Increased trunking capacity
Wireless Communications ,

Page 37

Scheduler

Queue of service 1 with data rata, R1

MS1

Queue of service 2 with data rata, R2

MS2
Scheduler

DL UL UL UL DL UL DL UL
Slot

Scheduling Parameters:

Queue of service n with data rata, Rn

Priority
Security
Delay
State of Queue

MSn

Instantaneous channel state

Channel state statistics

Wireless Communications ,

Frame

Page 38

Power Control

Constant SINR
Near-far effect
Impact on inter- and intracell interference
Uplink vs downlink power control
DL: point-to-multipoint
UL: Multipoint-to-point

Suppose B1 and B2 transmit at

the same power
A1

B2

BSA

BSB
A2

B1

Cell B
Wireless Communications ,

Cell A

Page 39

Handover

Dwell time:
The time a mobile is served by a particular BS

Dwell time is a random variable and an important

parameter for HO algorithms

The smaller the cell, the small the dwell time

Loss of spectral efficiency
Umbrella cells

Wireless Communications ,

Page 40

Handover

Requirements for successful MAHO

One carrier with constant Tx power in every cell
Free channel in target cell
Reservation of channels for handover
+ Minimising the risk of HO failure
Decreasing available traffic channels
Alternative: queuing of HO requests
Delay
Increased risk for signal falling below minimum threshold

In CDMA systems: Soft-handover

Exploitation of macro-diversity
Instantaneous link to several BSs
Combine receive signals

Wireless Communications ,

Page 41