Study Guide

Biology
By
Wendy ONeal

About the Author

Wendy ONeal has a Master of Science degree in biology from McNeese
State University in Lake Charles, Louisiana. While pursuing her
degree, she was the lead graduate assistant and acted as instructor
in the zoology and human anatomy and physiology laboratories. She
went on to become the senior lab technician in the water division of
the City of Lake Charles. Currently, shes continuing her education
with coursework in technology.

All terms mentioned in this text that are known to be trademarks or service marks
have been appropriately capitalized. Use of a term in this text should not be
regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark.

Copyright 2009 by Penn Foster, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the copyright owner.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be mailed
to Copyright Permissions, Penn Foster, 925 Oak Street, Scranton, Pennsylvania
18515.
Printed in the United States of America
06/17/09

LESSON ASSIGNMENTS

LESSON 1: THE CELL

EXAMINATIONLESSON 1

41

LESSON 2: GENETICS

45

EXAMINATIONLESSON 2

73

LESSON 3: EVOLUTION AND

THE DIVERSITY OF LIFE

79

EXAMINATIONLESSON 3

113

LESSON 4: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

117

EXAMINATIONLESSON 4

171

LESSON 5: ECOLOGY

175

EXAMINATIONLESSON 5

189

SELF-CHECK ANSWERS

193

Contents

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

iii

INTRODUCTION

The textbook for this course is Essentials of Biology by

Sylvia S. Mader.
The course consists of five lessons. Each lesson covers information from several chapters of the textbook. This study guide
gives you your reading assignments for each chapter of your
textbook. It also highlights and clarifies important information
in each chapter.
At the end of each lesson, you must submit an examination
covering information from all of the chapters in that lesson.

OBJECTIVES
When you complete this course, youll be able to

Describe the characteristics of living things

Identify the structure and function of eukaryotic cells

Explain the process of photosynthesis

Describe the characteristics of ionic and covalent bonds

List the steps involved in cellular respiration

Explain the processes of mitosis and meiosis

Discuss the basic principles of genetics

Describe the structure and function of DNA and RNA

List the domains and kingdoms of living organisms

Discuss Darwins theory of natural selection

Name the major plant groups and outline the

characteristics of each

Instructions

Welcome to the wonderful world of biology! Few subjects can

teach as much about the world around you. During this course,
youll gain insight into the origin of life, the relationships among
all living organisms, and even how your own body works.

List the characteristics of the major classes of invertebrates

Name and describe eight classes of vertebrates

Discuss the functions of four types of animal tissues

Identify the components and functions of major human

organ systems

Explain the factors that influence population growth

Describe how communities are organized and how

they develop

Explain the effects modern agriculture has had on

many of the worlds ecosystems

COURSE MATERIALS
This course includes the following materials:
1. This study guide, which includes an introduction to your
course, plus

A lesson assignments page with a schedule of

study assignments

Introductions to lessons and assignments, which

emphasize the main points in the textbook

Self-checks and answers designed to measure your

understanding of the course material as you proceed
through the course

An exam for each lesson that youll submit as you

progress through the course

2. Your course textbook, Essentials of Biology, by Sylvia S.

Mader, which contains your assigned readings

Instructions to Students

KNOW YOUR TEXTBOOK

Your textbook, Essentials of Biology, contains most of the detailed
information upon which your examinations are based. You
should read your assignments carefully and thoroughly. Your
textbook material is divided into chapters. The pages for each
chapter are clearly indicated in this study guide.
Listed below are some of the features of your textbook:

Key concepts to help you focus on what you should learn

in each chapter

Short questions that test your knowledge about what

youve read

Exercises that teach you to think critically

Suggested readings

A glossary of key terms

An index for fast, easy reference of topics

At the end of every chapter in your textbook is a Summary.

Please read this material carefully as a check to your understanding. Following the Summary are a number of tools you
can use to review the material youve just studied. We highly
recommend that you complete Thinking Scientifically,
Testing Yourself, Bioethical Issue, and Understanding
the Terms. The answers to these questions and problems
(except for the Bioethical Issue) are included in Appendix A,
beginning on page 597.

A STUDY PLAN
This study guide is intended to help you achieve the maximum
benefit from the time you spend on this course. It doesnt
replace the textbook in any way. It serves as an introduction
to the material that youll read in the book and as an aid to
assist you in understanding this material.

Instructions to Students

This study guide divides your course into five lessons. Each
lesson contains several assignments, with a self-check for
each assignment. A comprehensive examination covers the
material for each of the five lessons. Be sure to complete all
work related to a lesson before moving on to the next lesson.
Below is a suggested format for using this study guide.
Remember that this is only a suggested plan. If you feel that
another method would help you learn more effectively, by all
means use that method.
1. Note the pages for each assignment.
2. Scan the assigned pages in the textbook. Make a note of
the headings and illustrations. Write down questions to
yourself in the margin of the textbook or on a separate
sheet of paper.
3. Keep your textbook open to the chapter assignment and
read the assignment text in this study guide. When the
study guide makes references to passages or figures in the
textbook, refer to the text to complete your understanding.
It may answer your questions or inspire more.
4. Read the assigned pages in the textbook. This time, pay
more attention to details. Concentrate on gaining an
understanding of the concepts being presented.
5. Read the text in this study guide again. Check on anything thats still not clear, and reexamine the pages and
illustrations to which the study guide refers. Then complete the self-check. Dont submit your answers for the
self-checks to the school for grading. You can check your
own answers using the answers at the back of this study
guide. If you have problems completing any self-check
question, reread the sections of the textbook that pertain
to the problem area. If you still need assistance, contact
your instructor.
6. When youve completed all of the assignments for the
first lesson and you feel confident that you understand
the material covered in these assignments, take the lesson examination. Follow the directions for submitting
your exams.

Instructions to Students

7. When you receive the results of your examination, dont

dwell on the mistakes you made. Simply note which questions you answered wrong, go back to the textbook to
locate the right answer, and move on. A successful learner
isnt someone who never makes mistakes; a successful
learner is someone who learns to benefit from correcting
mistakes. After all, once youve corrected a mistake, you
know the right answer and shouldnt make the same
mistake again.
Repeat these steps for each lesson in this course.
Youre now ready to begin Lesson 1. Good luck and have fun!

Instructions to Students

NOTES

Instructions to Students

Lesson 1: The Cell

Read in the
study guide:

Read in the
textbook:

Assignment 1

Pages 912

Pages 114

Assignment 2

Pages 1416

Pages 1528

Assignment 3

Pages 1922

Pages 2946

Assignment 4

Pages 2426

Pages 4768

Assignment 5

Pages 2931

Pages 6982

Assignment 6

Pages 3335

Pages 8396

Assignment 7

Pages 3739

Pages 97110

Examination 00764600 Material in Lesson 1

Lesson 2: Genetics
For:

Read in the
study guide:

Read in the
textbook:

Assignment 8

Pages 4548

Pages 111126

Assignment 9

Pages 5153

Pages 127140

Assignment 10

Pages 5557

Pages 141158

Assignment 11

Pages 6062

Pages 159178

Assignment 12

Pages 6466

Pages 179194

Assignment 13

Pages 6871

Pages 195214

Examination 00764700 Material in Lesson 2

Lesson 3: Evolution and the Diversity of Life

For:

Read in the
study guide:

Read in the
textbook:

Assignment 14

Pages 8083

Pages 215230

Assignment 15

Pages 8587

Pages 231244

Assignment 16

Pages 8992

Pages 245264

Assignment 17

Pages 9497

Pages 265282

Assignment 18

Pages 99101

Pages 283304

Assignment 19

Pages 103109

Pages 305336

Assignments

For:

Examination 00764800 Material in Lesson 3

7

Lesson 4: Structure and Function in

Plants and Animals
For:

Read in the
study guide:

Read in the
textbook:

Assignment 20

Pages 118121

Pages 337354

Assignment 21

Pages 123126

Pages 355376

Assignment 22

Pages 128131

Pages 377394

Assignment 23

Pages 133135

Pages 395412

Assignment 24

Pages 137142

Pages 413434

Assignment 25

Pages 145146

Pages 435454

Assignment 26

Pages 148151

Pages 455470

Assignment 27

Pages 153157

Pages 471492

Assignment 28

Pages 159163

Pages 493510

Assignment 29

Pages 165168

Pages 511532

Examination 00764900 Material in Lesson 4

Lesson 5: Ecology
For:

Read in the
study guide:

Read in the
textbook:

Assignment 30

Pages 175178

Pages 533550

Assignment 31

Pages 180184

Pages 551574

Assignment 32

Pages 186187

Pages 575595

Examination 00765000 Material in Lesson 5

Lesson Assignments

The Cell

When you complete this lesson, youll be able to

Describe the characteristics of living things

Discuss the levels of biological organization and how

organisms are classified

Explain the atomic structure of matter and the different

kinds of chemical bonds

Explain why water is vital to life on Earth

Summarize the properties of organic compounds based

on carbon

Describe and explain the structural organization of cells

Explain how cells make adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Identify the basic processes of photosynthesis

Discuss the nature of cellular respiration

ASSIGNMENT 1: A VIEW OF LIFE

Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 1,
A View of Life, pages 114 in your textbook.

The Unity and Diversity of Life

Biology is the scientific study of life. Several characteristics
help to define the term life:
1. All living things are composed of cells, which inherit DNA
from a parent organism through reproduction.
2. All living things obtain energy from their surroundings
and use it to grow, develop, and maintain specific
internal conditions.

Lesson 1

Your first lesson consists of seven assignments that cover

Chapters 17 of your textbook, pages 1110. Chapter 1 introduces the science of biology. Chapters 27 cover the cell.

3. Living organisms can sense changes in their environment

and adjust their activities in response to those changes.
9

Review and study the illustrations on page 1 of your textbook.

As you examine these illustrations, think about lifes diversity.
Review Figure 1.1 on page 2 to consider the chain of biological
organization from molecules to cells and onward to tissues,
organs, organ systems, and complex organisms that live and
breath. The cell, which youll be studying throughout this
lesson, is the smallest unit of biological organization that displays all of the characteristics of life. Multicelled organisms
are made up of specialized cells that have been organized
into tissues and organs.

How the Biosphere Is Organized

Many organisms of the same kind that live in close proximity
to one another make up a population. All populations (of different types of organisms) that live in a certain area form a
community. A community together with its physical environment
forms the next level of organizationthe ecosystem.
Within an ecosystem are producers, consumers, and decomposers. Review Figure 1.4 on page 5 of your textbook for an
illustration of the three members that make up a grassland,
which is one kind of terrestrial ecosystem. The highest level
of organization is the biosphere. Looked at from space, the
biosphere is a thin, fragile layer over Earths surface. It includes
the areas of the lower atmosphere, the oceans, and various
land surfaces that are able to support life.

How Organisms Are Classified

Biologists use the science of taxonomy to classify organisms
into groups, according to the way in which theyre related to
one another. Classification categories range from the most
specific (a species) to the very general (a domain).

10

Biology

The standard system of classification separates all living

organisms into three domains (domain Archaea, domain
Bacteria, and domain Eukarya). Domain Eukarya is further
categorized into four kingdoms. Heres an explanation of each:
1. Domain Archaea is made up of prokaryotic, unicellular
organisms that live in extreme habitats, such as deep
ocean steam vents. (The term prokaryotic is used to
describe an organism that lacks the membrane-bounded
nucleus and membranous organelles typical of eukaryotes.)
2. Domain Bacteria consists of prokaryotic, unicellular,
bacteria. They inhabit a wide variety of environments
and display a remarkable range of adaptations.
3. Domain Eukarya consists of four kingdoms:
a. Kingdom Protista are organisms that may be
unicellular, multicelled, or colonial (living in
colonies). They have more internal complexity
than prokaryotes.
b. Kingdom Fungi are eukaryotic, multicelled organisms
that display extracellular digestion. That is, they break
down organic debris as a source of sustenance.
c. Kingdom Plantae are multicelled, eukaryotic,
photosynthetic producers with vascular tissues.
d. Kingdom Animalia are eukaryotic, multicelled,
consumers that are usually mobile.
Review the excellent photographs and accompanying text in
Figures 1.51.10 on pages 6 and 7 to get a feel for the nature
of the biological domains and kingdoms.

Science As a Way of Knowing

The scientific approach to studying biology should always
include the following steps:
1. Develop a question you would like to answer based on
observations youve made.
2. Based on your observations and on what others have found
in the past, develop a hypothesis, which is your best
guess of possible answers to the questions youve posed.
Lesson 1

11

3. Based on your hypothesis, predict what you think

will occur.
4. Find ways to test your predictions by conducting
experiments or by making further observations.
5. Develop conclusions by analyzing and reporting your
test results.
Figure 1.12 on page 9 presents a flow diagram describing the
scientific method. Study this figure and then read the example of a controlled study on pages 1011.

Science and Society

Technologies developed from the biological sciences have often
provided mixed blessings. For example, the use of fertilizers
produced spectacular increases in agricultural efficiency and
productivity. On the other hand, fertilizer runoff from farmlands has also contaminated groundwater and caused other
kinds of ecological damage. In a nutshell, human needs must
be evaluated in terms of the ecological pros and cons of new
technologies.

12

Biology

Self-Check 1
At the end of each section of Introduction to Biology, youll be asked to pause and check your
understanding of what youve just read by completing a Self-Check exercise. Answering these
questions will help you review what youve studied so far. Please complete Self-Check 1 now.

1. _______ are the smallest units of life.

a. Protons
b. Cells

c. Molecules
d. Proteins

2. Which one of the following lists shows the correct order of biological organization?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Ecosystem, population, community, biosphere

Community, population, biosphere, ecosystem
Population, community, ecosystem, biosphere
Biosphere, community, population, ecosystem

3. Organisms that depend on food energy stored in other living organisms are called
a. protists.
b. producers.

c. composers
d. consumers.

4. The processes in organisms by which internal conditionslike temperature and acidityare

kept about the same is called
a. homeostasis.
b. photosynthesis.

c. metabolism.
d. nutrition.

5. The life-domain whose members live in very harsh environments, such as salt lakes and
hot springs, is called
a. Fungi.
b. Eubacteria.

c. Archaea.
d. Protista.

6. During a scientific experiment, the control group is

a.
b.
c.
d.

identical to the experimental group.

not aware of the experiment taking place.
different from the experimental group in all respects.
identical to the experimental group in all areas except the variable being tested.

Check your answers with those on page 193.

Lesson 1

13

ASSIGNMENT 2:
THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF LIFE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 2, The
Chemical Basis of Life, pages 1528 in your textbook.

The Nature of Matter

Atomic Structure
The nucleus, or center, of an atom is composed of protons
(positively charged particles) and neutrons (uncharged particles).
Under most conditions, electrons (very light negatively charged
particles) balance the positive charges of nuclear protons.
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom represents
its unique atomic number. For example, oxygen contains eight
protons in its nucleus and has an atomic number of eight.
Hydrogen contains only one nuclear proton and has an atomic
number of one. On page 17 of your textbook, the diagram in
Figure 2.2 illustrates the protons, neutrons, and electrons in
an atom of helium. Study this illustration carefully.

The Periodic Table

The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical
elements according to atomic number. As shown on page 17,
the number that appears above the atomic symbol represents
the atomic number, or the number of protons in the nucleus,
of the element. Figure 2.3 illustrates a portion of the periodic
table of the elements.
Atoms of a particular element can vary in the number of
neutrons they contain. Atoms that vary in neutron number
are called isotopes. Some unstable isotopeslike carbon 14
are radioactive.
Electrons occupy cloudlike orbits around atomic nuclei.
Figure 2.6 on page 19 of your textbook illustrates the atoms
of the six elements that are important to lifeCHNOPS, or
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.
You should be able to recognize and draw the shell models
for these elements.

14

Biology

Types of Chemical Bonds

Based on how their electrons interact, two or more atoms
can join to form a molecule. For this course, you should
understand the following two types of atomic bonding:
1. Ionic bonding occurs when atoms either donate or accept
electrons from another atom. For example, ionic bonding
may occur when one atom has a vacancy in its outer shell
and another has only one electron in its outer orbital
that can be easily removed. The atom that donates an
electron becomes positively charged, while the atom that
gains an electron becomes negatively charged. The two
atoms are now attracted to each other and can join to
form a molecule. Review Figure 2.7 on page 20 to visualize the way chlorine and sodium join to form molecules
of sodium chloridecommon table salt.
2. Covalent bonding occurs when each of two atoms has an
unpaired electron in its outer electron shell. Each atom
exerts a force on the unpaired electron of the other, pulling
them together. The unpaired electrons are then shared
between the two atoms. This sharing of electrons may be
equal between the two atoms, producing whats called a
nonpolar bond. It may also be unequal, causing one end
of the molecule to have a slight positive charge and the
other end to have a slight negative charge. Unequal electron sharing produces a polar covalent bond. Covalent
bonding is illustrated in your textbook on pages 2021.

Waters Importance to Life

Water is the most important substance on Earth. Life couldnt
occur without it, because it has several important properties:
1. Water is a solvent. Water molecules attract other polar
molecules and can separate them. In a water solution,
for example, sodium chloride is dissociated into negative
(Cl) and positive (Na) ions.
2. Water is cohesive and adhesive. The cohesive quality
of water causes its molecules to cling to each other; the
adhesive quality of water causes water to stick to polar
surfaces. Both of these qualities make water an excellent
transport system.

Lesson 1

15

3. Water has a high surface tension. Because of the hydrogen bonding in water, it has a high surface tension. That
is, the molecules on the surface of the liquid are attracted
to each other, thereby creating a barrier between the air
and the liquid.
4. Water has a high heat capacity. Because of this quality,
water helps to stabilize temperature by absorbing large
amounts of heat energy.
5. Water is less dense as ice. That is, as water freezes, it
becomes less dense. Therefore, ice floats and forms on
top of bodies of water. If ice sank, bodies of water might
freeze completely, thus preventing life from existing in
the water.
If water molecules dissociate, they must yield an equal quantity of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH). But, for
example, when vinegar is in a water solution, the result is a
higher concentration of H+ ions. Thus, a vinegar solution is
acidic. By contrast, if ammonia is in a water solution, hydroxide ions (OH) are more prevalent, and the solution becomes
an alkali base. Review the information about acids, bases,
and pH levels in Figure 2.17 on page 26.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 2.

16

Biology

Self-Check 2
1. The subatomic particle that carries a positive electrical charge is the
a. electron.
b. proton.

c. isotope.
d. neutron.

2. When an atom has two or more outer electron shells, the outer shell will be most stable if it
contains eight electrons. This concept is called the
a. valence rule.
b. rule of eight.

c. octet rule.
d. isotope rule.

3. When two oxygen atoms join together, a _______ is formed.

a. mixture
b. shell model

c. compound
d. molecule

4. The type of bond in which atoms share electrons to produce a stable outer shell is a/an
_______ bond.
a. ionic
b. covalent

c. colloquial
d. isotonic

5. The polarity of water molecules causes them to be attracted to one another in whats called a
_______ bond.
a. covalent
b. polarized

c. hydrogen
d. hydrophilic

6. As the number of hydrogen ions in a solution increases, the pH of the solution

a. decreases.
b. stabilizes.

c. increases.
d. neutralizes.
(Continued)

Lesson 1

17

Self-Check 2
7. If youre looking for an atomic number of 8, which one of the following figures represents the
shell model for oxygen?
a.

c.

b.

d.

Check your answers with those on page 193.

18

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 3: THE ORGANIC

MOLECULES OF LIFE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 3, The
Organic Molecules of Life, pages 2946 in your textbook.

Organic Molecules
Organic chemistry is the study of the chemical compounds in
living things. Since living things are mainly composed of water,
water can be considered the medium of life. But the organic
compounds that depend on that medium are based on the
chemical properties of carbon and hydrogen. Carbon is the key
to life on earth because of its peculiar bonding properties. With
four electrons in its outer shell, carbon is more than happy
to make a home for four additional electrons to complete its
outer shell. Carbon-hydrogen compounds range from simple
methane (CH4) to incredibly complex compounds comprised
of long chains, or rings, of carbon atoms. Review Figure 3.2
on page 31 to consider the versatility of hydrocarbons (carbons
that are chains of carbon atoms bonded only to hydrogen atoms).
Organic chemists identify two basic parts of a hydrocarbon
skeletona functional group and a wide range of carbon-based
molecular arrangements that can be simply denoted as R.
Study Figure 3.3 on page 31 to see an illustration of a variety
of functional groups. And note yet again that most of the
weight of living things is made up of the CHNOPS elements
referred to earlier on page 16.

The Organic Molecules of Cells

Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are large
molecules based on carbon atoms. As the basic organic compounds of life, each carbon atom can share electrons with up
to four other atoms, forming stable covalent bonds. Carbon
atoms tend to link together into chains, forming a functional
group backbone to which R elements can become attached.

Lesson 1

19

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a
1:2:1 ratio. Cells use them for energy as well as structural
materials. There are three main classes of carbohydrates:
1. Monosaccharides are simple sugars composed that
have only one sugar molecule. Their carbon backbone
is composed of five or six carbon atoms that form a
ring. Examples are glucose, fructose, and ribose. As
youve already learned, glucose is the most basic source
of energy for living things. On page 33, study Figure 3.8
to review the nature of glucose.
2. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharides (sugars) bonded
together. Examples of disaccharides are lactose (milk
sugar), sucrose (table sugar), and maltose. Figure 3.9 on
page 33 illustrates the breakdown of the disaccharide
maltose.
3. Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates with
many monosaccharide molecules that form chains or
branches. Examples are glycogen, starch, and cellulose.
Polysaccharides can serve as structural components
of cells. Cellulose, abundant in plants, is the most common structural polysaccharide on our planet. Another
polysaccharide, chitin, forms the shells of crabs and lobsters as well as the exoskeletons of insects. Figure 3.10
on page 34 shows the structure and function of starch
and cellulose.

Lipids
Lipids are fats and other oily organic substances. Cells use lipids
for energy storage, for structural support, and as signaling
molecules. Lipids are nonpolar hydrocarbons that dont dissolve in water. (Recall that hydrocarbons are compounds made
only of hydrogen and carbon atoms.) Lipids are composed of
fatty acids attached to glycerol. Fatty acids may be saturated on
unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids, which are associated with
cardiovascular disease, should be avoided in foods. By contrast,
unsaturated fats protect against fat buildup in arteries.

20

Biology

Forms of fat (called triglycerides) are the most abundant lipids

in the body. When broken down, they provide more than twice
the energy of complex carbohydrates. Study Figure 3.13 on
page 36 to visualize saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
Note the carboxyl functional group.
Phospholipids are structurally important lipids found in the
plasma membranes that surround cells. Among these lipids
are steroids, which serve regulating functions in humans.
Cholesterol is a steroid in the plasma membranes of animals.
Its also a precursor of the male sex hormone testosterone
and the female sex hormone estrogen. Study Figure 3.15 on
page 37 to view the fused hydrocarbon rings of steroids.

Proteins
Proteins are the vital infrastructure of life. Proteins like keratin
(which makes up hair and fingernails) and collagen (which
supports skin and tendons) provide structural support. Proteins
called enzymes act as catalysts, which speed the basic chemical
reactions of life and sustain the life-energy economy called
metabolism. Proteins that make up hemoglobin in red blood
cells transport oxygen to cells throughout the body. Proteins
called antibodies help protect us from disease. Proteins called
hormones coordinate chemical communications among cells
and regulate levels of vital nutrients like glucose. Actin and
myosin are proteins that allow animals to walk, run, and fly.
Working together, these proteins permit muscle cells to contract
and relax in the rhythms of motion.
Proteins are composed of chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds. A peptide bond is formed when an amino group
bonds covalently to a carboxyl group. Study Figure 3.17 on
page 39 to learn the basic structure of the 20 kinds of amino
acids. (The sequence of amino acids in each type of protein
is highly specific, giving a protein its primary structure.) Also
on page 39, carefully study Figure 3.18, which illustrates
the hydrolysis and dehydration reactions that characterize
peptide bonds.
While all proteins have a primary structure, different kinds of
proteins take on characteristic shapes. Fibrous proteins, like
keratin and collagen, perform their support roles precisely
because they have a distinctive, secondary helical structure.

Lesson 1

21

Globular proteins have a tertiary structure. Very complex

proteinslike hemoglobinhave more than one polypeptide
bond. Therefore, they have a quaternary structure. The best
way to make sense of all this is by visualization. Carefully
study Figure 3.19 on page 40.

Nucleic Acids
Small organic compounds that contain one or more than
one phosphate group and a five-carbon sugar attached to a
nitrogenous base are called nucleotides. Adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) is an important nucleotide, produced in the body during
cellular respiration. ATP is used for energy storage. Cellular
respiration is a biological process used by eukaryotes to produce energy. Nucleic acids are either single (as in RNA) or
double (as in DNA) strands of covalently bonded nucleotides.
Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine are the bases that
occur in DNA. RNA is composed of the bases adenine, guanine,
cytosine, and uracil. Study Figure 3.20 on page 41 to review
the structure of nucleotides in general and DNA and RNA
specifically.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 3. Dont forget to use the summaries and
quizzes at the end of each chapter to check your progress.

22

Biology

Self-Check 3
1. Among living things, the most common among the polysaccharide structural carbohydrates is
a. starch.
b. glycogen.

c. keratin.
d. cellulose.

2. Which one of the following functional groups is associated with fatty acids?
a. Phosphate
b. Amino

c. Carboxyl
d. Hydroxyl

3. The hard body parts of insects and crabs are composed of a polysaccharide called
a. cellulose.
b. chitin.

c. glycogen.
d. glucose.

4. Cell membranes are composed mainly of which type of lipids?

a. Phospholipids
b. Waxes

c. Steroids
d. Glycerides

5. Proteins whose polypeptide chains are folded into rounded compact shapes are
a. fibrous.
b. pleated.

c. helical.
d. globular.

6. When joined by a dehydration reaction, the covalent bond between the carboxyl groups of two
amino acids is called a _______ bond.
a. peptide
b. carboxyl

c. hydrogen
d. hydroxyl

7. The sugar in RNA is

a. deoxyribose.
b. ribose.

c. glucose.
d. sucrose.

Check your answers with those on page 193.

Lesson 1

23

ASSIGNMENT 4:
INSIDE THE CELL
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 4,
Inside the Cell, on pages 4768 in your textbook.

Cells Under the Microscope

With very few exceptions, cells are too small to be seen without
a microscope. Why are cells so small? The answer has to do
with surface-area-to-volume ratios. A small cell has a greater
surface-area-to-volume ratio than a larger cell. Review this
topic on page 49 to make sure you understand this principle.
Because of this greater ratio, smaller cells are better adapted
to exchanging gases and nutrients with their fluid environments.
Carefully study Figure 4.2, which illustrates the relative sizes
of living things and their components.

The Two Main Types of Cells

The cell is the smallest unit that has the potential to live on
its own. There are two fundamentally different types of cells.
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus as well as other membranebound organelles. Prokaryotic cells, represented in your text
by bacteria, have no nucleus or other organelles. Figure 4.3
on page 50 compares these two types of cells. Figure 4.4 on
page 51 presents a detailed diagram of a prokaryotic cell.

The Plasma Membrane

The boundary between the inside and the outside of any cell
is the plasma membrane. In all cells, this cell boundary is
composed of a lipid bilayer whose hydrophobic (water-fearing)
tails are sandwiched between the hydrophilic (water-loving)
heads. Proteins embedded within or attached to the lipid bilayer
allow the movement of water-soluble substances into and out
of the cell. (Figure 4.5 on page 52 beautifully illustrates the
general features of a plasma membrane.)

24

Biology

The functions of the plasma membrane proteins include

channeling, transporting, cell recognition, receptor functions,
enzymatic processes, and junctions for cell-to-cell communication.
These functions are explained on page 53. Study Figure 4.6
on page 53 to master your understanding of the membrane
proteins.

Eukaryotic Cells
The vast majority of cells in nature are eukaryotic; therefore,
you should make sure youre quite clear on the structures
and functions of this type of cell. You should be able to label
drawings of plant and animal cells after studying Figures 4.7
on page 54 (for animal cells) and Figure 4.8 on page 55 (for
plant cells).
The nuclear envelope (double membrane surrounding the
nucleus of eukaryotic cells) protects the DNA within it. The
nucleus separates the DNA molecules from the cytoplasm, thus
making it easier for the cell to replicate its DNA before cell
division occurs. The presence of a double nuclear membrane
also allows for strict control of the passage of substances to
and from the cytoplasm.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is continuous with the nuclear
envelope and extends into the cytoplasm. ER with ribosomes
attached is known as rough ER. ER without ribosomes is called
smooth ER. Ribosomes are responsible for synthesizing polypeptide chains. Smooth ER curves through the cytoplasm and
functions in lipid synthesis. Figure 4.12 on page 59 illustrates
the organelles of the endomembrane system.
Golgi apparatus bodies modify polypeptide chains into mature
proteins before shipping them out to specific locations within
the cell. Theyre composed of flattened, membrane-bound
sacs that resemble a stack of pancakes.
The mitochondria (Figure 4.15) are often called the powerhouses
of a cell. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for energy is formed from
the breakdown of organic compounds within a mitochondrion.
Each mitochondrion has a double membrane system. The
inner membrane is folded to create compartments within the
organelle itself.

Lesson 1

25

Chloroplasts are specialized organelles in photosynthetic plant

cells. The first stage of photosynthesis begins in a special
area of the chloroplast called the thylakoid membrane, where
energy from sunlight is used to form ATP molecules. Review
and study Figure 4.14 on page 60 to visualize chloroplast
structures.
The cytoskeleton of a eukaryotic cell extends from the
nucleus to the plasma membrane. Comprised of different
kinds of protein filaments and microtubules, it serves as a
sort of framework or internal scaffolding for the cell. Study
Figure 4.16 on page 62 to learn the nature and functions of
microtubules. Figure 4.17 on the same page will help you
understand how actin protein filaments help maintain the
shape of a cell.

Outside the Eukaryotic Cell

All plant cells have cell walls that are connected by
plasmodesmata, which contain numerous tiny channels
that allow direct exchange among grouped cells. Animal
cells, on the other hand, dont have cell walls. Instead, they
have an extracellular matrix of polysaccharides and proteins.
Remember that many cell types are grouped as tissues by three
different types of junctions. Adhesive (stretchy) junctions form
between the cells of heart and bladder tissues. Tight junctions
make for tight cell connections as cell wall proteins actually
attached to each other. Gap junctionsas in muscle tissues
consist of channels that allow direct communication by way
of flowing ions.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 4.

26

Biology

Self-Check 4
1. Within cells, the synthesis of proteins occurs in
a. the nuclear envelope.
b. ribosomes.

c. chromatin.
d. nucleolus.

2. What is the main function of the mitochondria?

a. Assembling polypeptide chains
b. Digesting substances

c. Producing ATP
d. Moving internal structures

3. The _______ keep(s) the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells separate from the DNA.
a. Golgi body
b. ribosomes

c. chromosomes
d. nuclear envelope.

4. Vesicles that participate in cell apoptosisprogrammed cell deathare called

a. peroxisomes.
b. lysosomes.

c. ribosomes.
d. vacuoles.

5. The _______ are sometimes called the powerhouses of the cell.

a. ER
b. mitochondria

c. chloroplasts
d. nuclei

6. The cell-to-cell junctions that allow cells to communicate are called _______ junctions.
a. gap
b. adhesion

c. matrix
d. tight
(Continued)

Lesson 1

27

Self-Check 4
7. The drawing on the right illustrates a
eukaryotic cell. Which one of the following
parts is labeled in that drawing?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Golgi body
Mitochondria
Vesicle
Nucleus

8. The drawing on the right illustrates a

eukaryotic cell. Which one of the following parts is labeled in the drawing?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Vacuole
Rough ER
DNA
Ribosome

Check your answers with those on page 194.

28

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 5:
THE DYNAMIC CELL
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 5, The
Dynamic Cell, pages 6982 in your textbook.

What Is Energy?
All organisms must secure energy from their environment
to be used for metabolic processes in cells. The first law of
thermodynamics states that the total amount of energy in the
universe remains constant. That is, energy cant be created,
and it cant vanish. It can only be converted from one form to
another. For example, when a plant absorbs energy from the sun
and converts it into chemical energy, the cells of an organism
that eats the plant may convert that energy into mechanical
energy for movement, or perhaps use it for chemical energy
to build or break apart substances within its cells. But every
time this energy is converted to another form, some of its lost
to the environment as heat. The energy thats lost cant be
recaptured, which illustrates the second law of thermodynamics.
The second law states that the total amount of energy in the
universe is spontaneously flowing from usable to nonusable
forms.
Note: Make sure you understand the difference between
potential and kinetic energy.

ATP: Energy for Cells

ATP is the main molecule of stored energy used by cells. ATP
is a nucleotide, the kind of molecule that serves as a monomer
in DNA and RNA. ATP contains the sugar ribose, along with a
nitrogen-containing base adenine, and three phosphate groups.
(See Figure 5.3 on page 72.)
Figure 5.4 on page 72 illustrates the ATP cycle. The cycle is
driven by coupled reactions that occur in the process of cellular
respiration. Coupled reactions take place when an energyreleasing reaction occurs along with an energy-requiring
reaction. See Figure 5.5 on page 73. In that figure, note how

Lesson 1

29

coupled reactions occur during muscle contraction. The world

of living things is sustained in renewable cyclesillustrated
by the ATP cycle. Review and study Figure 5.6 on page 74,
and think about the energy flow from plants to animals and
back again.

Metabolic Pathways and Enzymes

A metabolic pathway is a chain or series of linked reactions
like those related to the ATP cycle. They start with a particular
chemical reaction and end with a product of a chain of reactions.
In an enzymatic reaction, the reactants are called substrates.
Metabolic reactions inside cells wouldnt occur fast enough to
keep an organism alive without enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins that speed up the rate of a metabolic
reaction. They dont cause reactions to occurthey just make
them occur many times faster than they would otherwise.
Enzymes arent used up once they jump-start a reaction;
rather, they may be used over and over again. Each type of
enzyme recognizes certain substrates and binds to them in
specific ways. As soon as the enzyme binds to an active site
on a substrate, it catalyzes, or sets into motion, a reaction.
Cells have control mechanisms to adjust how quickly enzymes
are produced and to stop an enzymes action when reactions
are no longer necessary. Figure 5.8 on page 75 illustrates the
idea of energy of activation, which is the amount of energy
needed to begin a chain of reactions in the first place. The
figure helps you visualize how catalytic enzymes add to the
energy available for a series of reactions.
Figure 5.9 on page 76 helps you visualize the way an enzyme
does its job. Figure 5.10, on the same page, helps you visualize how, through feedback, the products of a reaction can
serve to regulate a metabolic pathwaystopping it when
enough is enough.

30

Biology

Cell Transport
Substances (nutrients, enzymes, and so on) must get into
cells if the cells are to function properly. These substances
enter cells in one of three ways:
1. Passive transport, including osmosis, requires no energy
on the part of the cell. The energy of moving molecules
in a fluid does the trick. One type of passive transport is
simple diffusion. To see how this works, lay out a paper
towel. Drip some water onto one end of the sheet and notice
how the water spreads outward all of its own accord.
Another example of simple diffusion is illustrated for you
in Figure 5.11 on page 77. Osmosis, another type of passive transport, is illustrated in Figure 5.12 on the same
page and in Figure 5.13 on page 78. In osmosis, water
molecules diffuse across a membrane from an area of
greater concentration to an area of weaker concentration.
2. Active transport through a cells plasma membrane
requires energy from the cell. Figure 5.14 on page 78
illustrates the fact that transport proteins in a plasma
membrane require energy to move a solute across the
membrane. Proteins that do this kind of work are often
called pumps.
3. Bulk transport is illustrated in Figure 5.15 on page 79.
In this process, cell membranes form vesicles (pockets)
to capture groups of macromolecules for exocytosis
(export) or endocytosis (import).
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 5.

Lesson 1

31

Self-Check 5
1. In a/an _______ reaction, one reaction releases energy and the second uses energy.
a. paired
b. energetic

c. coupled
d. diverted

2. Which of the following is not a feature of enzymes?

a.
b.
c.
d.

They drive reactions only in a forward direction.

They can bind to many substrates.
Metabolic reactions destroy the enzyme molecules.
They speed up reaction time.

3. The term entropy refers to

a.
b.
c.
d.

the absorption of heat.

the relative amount of disorganization in a system.
an open system.
the first law of thermodynamics.

4 The term phagocytosis refers to a type of

a. vesicle.
b. exocytosis.

c. endocytosis.
d. passive transport.

5. The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher

concentration of water molecules to an area of lesser concentration is
a. active transport.
b. osmosis.

c. endocytosis.
d. diffusion.

6. _______ energy is the ability or capacity to do work.

a. Kinetic
b. Chemical

c. Thermal
d. Potential

Check your answers with those on page 194.

32

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 6:
ENERGY FOR LIFE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 6,
Energy for Life, pages 8396 in your textbook.

Overview of Photosynthesis
Plants, including algae, some protists, and all cyanobacteria
(bacteria that contain chlorophyll), use sunlight, carbon dioxide,
and water to make glucose by the process of photosynthesis.
As they do, they create most of the carbohydrates used by living organisms. Review Figure 6.1 on page 84 for an overview of
the photosynthesizing organisms. When activated by sunlight,
the general chemical equation for photosynthesis is
6 CO2 + 12 H2O  C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 6O2
This formula isnt given as such in your text, but you can use
it as a shorthand notation for thinking about what youve
studied in this assignment.
Among flowering plants, the photosynthesis reaction takes
place in the chloroplasts of cells. The first stage occurs in the
thylakoid membranes. Light energy is trapped and converted
to ATP during these light-dependent reactions. Stroma (a fluid
in the chloroplast) is where dark reactions, or second-stage
reactions, of photosynthesis occur. The stroma reactions dont
require light, but they do require the energy produced by light
during the first-stage reactions. Study Figure 6.2 on page 85
to review the role of plant leaves in photosynthesis. Keep
mind that there are two kinds of reactions in flowering-plant
photosynthesislight reactions and second-stage Calvin cycle
reactions.

Light Reactions
Pigments, such as chlorophyll, are molecules that absorb
certain wavelengths of light and reflect the rest. In fact, the
main photosynthetic pigments are the chlorophylls, which
are located in the thylakoid membranes. They absorb all
wavelengths of light and reflect only the green ones.

Lesson 1

33

Therefore, plants appear green to us. Carotenoids are plant

pigments that absorb blue-violet and blue-green wavelengths
and reflect red, orange, and yellow. Carotenoid pigments give
fall leaves their dramatic color.
Flowering plant pigments capture the energy of the sun to
split water into hydrogen, oxygen, and electrons. Electron
transport systems then move these electrons step by step
through a pathway containing enzymes and coenzymes that
help to move the reactions along. Energy that escapes at each
step drives the formation of ATP and NADPH (nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate).
An electron pathway is necessary for the production of ATP and
NADPH. This pathway uses two photosystems for electron
flow: PS II splits water, and PS I produces NADPH. Figure 6.6
on page 88 presents a summary of an electron pathway.
Figure 6.7 provides a graphic explanation of the organization
of a thylakoid, including the electron transport chain and the
processes that lead to the Calvin cycle reactions.

Calvin Cycle Reactions

Calvin cycle reactions use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
to produce a carbohydrate. The reactions require energy from
ATP and NADPH formed during the light reactions. The first
step of the cycle is carbon dioxide fixation. During this step,
CO2 is attached to RuBP, a five-carbon molecule that acts as
a substrate for the enzyme RuBP carboxylase (rubisco). Rubisco
drives a reaction that ends up with three carbon molecules.
The next step, reduction of CO2, uses NADPH and some ATP
to produce a carbohydrate, which is usually glyceraldhyde-3phosphate (G3P). G3P can be broken down to produce glucose.
However, G3P is versatile stuff. Plants can use it to produce
all the hydrocarbon molecules they need to be healthyfrom
glucose to fatty acids.
The final step in the Calvin cycle is the regeneration of RuBP.
This step is necessary to proceed to another turn of the cycle.
(It takes three turns of the Calvin cycle to produce one G3P
molecule.) Study Figure 6.8 to better understand the Calvin
cycle reactions.

34

Biology

Other Types of Photosynthesis

The three other types of photosynthesis discussed in your
textbook are C3 photosynthesis, C4 photosynthesis, and CAM
photosynthesis.
Some plants, including most of the familiar flowering plants,
are adapted to areas of moderate rainfall. These plants are
said to utilize a C3 photosynthesis system, because the first
detectable molecule after CO2 fixation is a C3 molecule.
C4 photosynthesis occurs in plants that have adapted to
arid conditions and/or environments with high levels of
light intensity. These plants, called C4 plants, include corn
and sugarcane.
CAM photosynthesis occurs in flowering succulents like pineapple
and cactuses, which thrive in warm, arid environments. The
CAM system is unique because it divides different stages of
photosynthesis into nighttime and daylight phases. Figures 6.11
and 6.12 on page 93 compare carbon dioxide fixation in C4
and CAM plants.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 6.

Lesson 1

35

Self-Check 6
1. In the electron pathway for light reactions in photosynthesis, PS II involves
a. splitting water.
b. the production of NADPH.

c. producing coenzymes.
d. the production of ATP.

2. In plants that absorb blue-violet-green wavelengths of light, what color do they reflect?
a. White-yellow
b. Blue

c. Yellow-orange
d. Green

3. _______ is an example of a CAM plant.

a. Corn
b. Pineapple

c. Sugarcane
d. Crabgrass

4. The final step of the Calvin cycle is the regeneration of

a. ATP.
b. electrons.

c. RuBP.
d. G3P.

5. Atmospheric carbon dioxide enters leaves through

a. stroma.
b. grana.

c. thylakoids.
d. stomata.

Check your answers with those on page 194.

36

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 7:
ENERGY FOR CELLS
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 7,
Energy for Cells, pages 97110 of your textbook.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration produces ATPthe energy source absolutely
basic to organic processes. In cellular respiration, oxidation
of substrates is crucial. However, unlike the case of burning
wood, where oxygen is (rapidly) added, oxidation in cellular
respiration amounts to removing hydrogen atoms from glucose.
Glucose, in turn, is broken down to release energy.

Outside the Mitochondria: Glycolysis

The four phases in the complete breakdown of glucose are
summarized in Figure 7.2 on page 99. Review it when in doubt.
Glycolysis, the first phase in the breakdown of glucose takes
place in the cytoplasm outside the mitochondria. In glycolysis,
a molecule of glucose, a 6-carbon molecule, is broken down
into two 3-carbon pyruvate molecules. Glycolysis has two
steps. In the energy-investment steps, two ATP molecules are
broken down to release energy used in subsequent reactions.
In the energy-harvesting steps, oxidation produces substrates
with energized phosphate groups. The end result of a chain of
reactions is a yield of two pyruvate molecules for each glucose
molecule. If oxygen is present in the cytoplasm, the pyruvates
then enter mitochondria for further processing. To follow the
glycolysis reactions, study Figure 7.3 on page 100.

Inside the Mitochondria

As you just learned, glycolysis, the first phase of cellular
respiration, takes place outside the mitochondria. The next
three phases happen inside the mitochondria.

Lesson 1

37

The second phase, preparatory reaction, occurs in the matrix

of the mitochondria. During this phase, pyruvate is oxidized,
releasing the carbon dioxide we exhale when we breathe.
NAD+ gains a hydrogen atom to become NADH. A C2 acetyl
group is attached to a coenzyme A (CoA), forming acetyl CoA.
All of this activity is preparation for the citric acid cycle.
The third phase of cellular respiration is the citric acid cycle,
also called the Krebs cycle. During this phase, the acetyl group
is oxidized, releasing more carbon dioxide. NAD+ and FAD accept
hydrogen atoms to produce NADH and FADH2. Substrate-level
ATP synthesis now occurs, producing ATP. Carefully study
Figure 7.6 on page 103. Make sure you completely understand
the citric acid cycle.
The final phase of cellular respiration is the electron transport
chain, which is located in the cristae of mitochondria. Highenergy electrons enter the chain; low-energy electrons leave the
chain. In the process, the energy released is used to make ATP.
More specifically, electrons are transferred through a system
that causes the unbound hydrogen ions to be pushed into
the inner compartment of the mitochondrion. Electric gradients then cause the hydrogen ions to be pumped back out of
the mitochondrion through a series of reactions that drive the
formation of an additional 28 ATP.
From start to finish, the process of aerobic respiration produces a net yield of 36 ATP molecules for every molecule of
glucose! Review Figure 7.7 on page 104 to master ideas about
the electron transport chain. Study Figure 7.8 on page 105 to
see how the organization of mitochondrial cristae allows for
the production of ATP by using the enzyme ATP synthase.

Fermentation

Anaerobic means in the

absence of oxygen.

38

Fermentation is the anaerobic breakdown of glucose to produce

ATP and a toxic end product of some kind. In effect, 1 molecule
of glucose yields 2 ATP and an end product. Bacteria and
yeasts use fermentation to get their needed energy. The end
products in the case of bacteria may be lactate or alcohol.
For yeasts, used in baking breads, the end product is ethyl
alcohol and carbon dioxide.

Biology

After you complete Self-Check 7, review the material youve

learned in this study guide as well as in the assigned pages in
your textbook for Assignments 17. A good way to review the
chapters is to reread the summaries at the end of each one.
If you find you dont understand something in the summary,
go back to the textbook pages and review the material. When
youre sure that you completely understand the information
in Assignments 17, complete your examination for Lesson 1.

Lesson 1

39

Self-Check 7
1. The largest energy yield during aerobic respiration occurs after which stage?
a. Pyruvate cycle
b. Electron transport chain cycle

c. Krebs cycle
d. Glycolysis

2. A molecule of glucose contains

a.
b.
c.
d.

12 carbon atoms, 6 oxygen atoms, and 6 hydrogen

6 carbon atoms, 6 hydrogen atoms, and 12 oxygen
6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen
8 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms, and 6 oxygen

atoms.
atoms.
atoms.
atoms.

3. What process results in 2 ATP and a toxic end product?

a. Fermentation
b. Citric acid cycle

c. Preparatory reaction
d. Energy harvesting

4. Besides carbon dioxide, the other end product of cellular respiration is

a. oxygen.
b. water.

c. lactate.
d. nitrogen.

5. In cellular respiration, the number of ATP molecules produced is as many as 38, which is
about 40% of the energy available from a glucose molecule. The remainder of the energy
is lost as
a. water.
b. pyruvate

c. heat.
d. carbon dioxide.

Check your answers with those on page 195.

40

Biology

EXAMINATION NUMBER

00764600
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com

When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in
Lesson 1, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit
your answers online. If you dont have access to the Internet,
you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for
this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until
another examination is ready.
Questions 120: Select the one best answer to each question.

1. An element that speeds up chemical reactions is called a/an

A. enzyme.
B. calorie.

C. substrate.
D. solvent.

2. A substance thats attracted to water molecules is called

A. hydrophobic.
B. cohesive.

C. hydrophilic.
D. adhesive.

3. Short, hairlike projections called _______ enable the motion

of some eukaryotic cells.
A. cilia
B. actinites

C. centrioles
D. microtubules

4. Biology is the study of

A. animals.
B. the physical world.

C. plants.
D. life.

Examination

Lesson 1
The Cell

41

5. Plants and algae are remarkable in that they can make all the organic compounds they
need from the end product of the Calvin cycle, which is
A. carbon dioxide.
B. NADH+.

C. G3P molecules.
D. RuBP carboxylase.

6. Which one of the following events occurs during Calvin cycle reactions?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Chlorophyll energizes electrons.

Carbohydrates are produced.
ATP is produced.
An enzyme helper becomes NADPH.

7. The monomers of nucleic acids, such as DNA and RNA, are known as
A. nucleotides.
B. proteins.

C. nuclei.
D. polypeptides.

8. What happens during glycolysis?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Hydrogen ions combine to form water.

Oxidation takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.
The oxidation of pyruvate forms NADH and CO2.
Glucose breaks down into two molecules of pyruvate.

9. The process by which a biologist uses creative thought to find a pattern among isolated
facts is called
A. inductive reasoning.
B. proving a theory.

C. simple reasoning.
D. proving a hypothesis.

10. In a eukaryotic cell, a network of protein filaments called _______ help maintain the
shape of the cell.
A. organelles
B. the cytoskeleton

C. ribosomes
D. the nucleolus

11. Glycerol is a subunit molecule of a

A. carbohydrate.
B. lipid.

C. protein.
D. nucleic acid.

12. In the electron transport chain, the main purpose of the _______ we breathe is to
keep electrons moving along from the first to the last chemical carrier.
A. carbon dioxide
B. nitrogen

42

C. atoms
D. oxygen

Examination, Lesson 1

13. The tiny particles that comprise an element are called

A. ions.
B. protons.

C. atoms.
D. nuclei.

14. In cells, a form of active transport is

A. osmosis.
B. a sodium-potassium pump.

C. simple diffusion.
D. facilitated diffusion.

15. In the leaves of flowering plants, where does the process of photosynthesis occur?
A. In chloroplasts
B. In stomata

C. In glucose
D. Between chlorophylls

16. According to the octet rule, an atom with two electron shells is most stable when it
contains eight
A. protons.
B. isotopes.

C. electrons.
D. neutrons.

17. The least usable form of energy is

A. a calorie.
B. ATP.

C. food.
D. heat.

18. The energy used by living organisms on Earth comes from

A. the sun.
B. fossil fuels.

C. the oceans.
D. volcanoes.

19. A carbon molecule that has a different arrangement of atoms is known as a/an
A. monomer.
B. peptide.

C. isomer.
D. nucleotide.

20. Single-celled organisms that do not have a membrane-bound nucleus are called
A. prokaryotes.
B. organelles.

Examination, Lesson 1

C. Golgi bodies.
D. eukaryotes.

43

NOTES

44

Examination, Lesson 1

Genetics
When you complete this lesson, youll be able to

Explain the basics of cellular reproduction

Outline the stages in the cell cycle

Describe the phases of mitosis

Describe the cell cycle control system

Describe and explain the basics of meiosis with respect

to sexual reproduction

Compare the phases of meiosis and mitosis

Identify some effects of abnormal chromosome inheritance

Outline and explain Mendels laws of inheritance

Relate the basic concepts of sex-linked inheritance

Describe and explain the structures and functions of

DNA and RNA

Explain the control of gene expression and some results

of control failures

Discuss issues related to counseling of chromosomal and

genetic disorders

ASSIGNMENT 8:
CELLULAR REPRODUCTION
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 8,
Cellular Reproduction, pages 111126 in your textbook.

The Basics of Cellular Reproduction

Multicellular organisms have two types of cells: somatic cells
(all the body cells of an organism) and reproductive cells
(gamete-producing cells). New cells arise from the division

Lesson 2

Your second lesson consists of six assignments. It covers Part II

of your textbook, Genetics, which includes Chapters 813.

45

of these existing cells. Somatic cells divide by a process called

mitosis, and reproductive cells divide by meiosis. Mitosis aids
in the growth and development of an organism, as well as in
the replacement of old and injured cells. Mitosis results in
two genetically identical daughter cells, which are identical to
the parent. Meiosis, on the other hand, produces gametes for
sexual reproduction. The gametes have a reduced number of
chromosomes from the parent cell.
The process of cellular reproduction involves two basic processes:
growth and cell division. During the growth phase, a cell duplicates the contents of its cytoplasm and its DNA. During cell
division, the cytoplasm and DNA of a parent cell are distributed to two daughter cells. During the growth phase, nuclear
DNA appears as chromatin. During cellular reproduction, the
DNA sorts itself into chromosomes. Figure 8.2 on page 113
illustrates the levels of chromosome organization.

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle consists of two stages: interphase and the
mitotic (M) stage. Both of these stages are further divided
into smaller phases. The time necessary to complete one cell
cycle varies greatly depending on the type of organism and
the type of conditions. For example, in bacteria, it may take
as little as 20 minutes; in higher plants and animals, it may
occur over 1224 hours.
Figure 8.3 on page 114 gives a nice summary of the eukaryotic
cell cycle. Youll notice in this figure that interphase is the
part of the cell cycle in which the cell increases in mass and
duplicates its DNA. Its the longest portion of the cell cycle
and is broken down into three parts:
1. During G1, a cell grows and builds proteins, carbohydrates,
and lipids.
2. During S, the chromosomal DNA is replicated in preparation
for nuclear division.
3. During G2, a cell produces proteins necessary for mitosis
and then prepares to divide.

46

Biology

During the mitotic stage, both the nucleus and the cytoplasm
of a cell divide. The result is a pair of daughter cells that are
identical to each other and to the parent cell.

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

After a cell completes interphase, its then ready to begin the
mitotic (M) phase. As you can see in Figure 8.3 (page 114),
the process of mitosis involves five phases. These phases are
clearly explained and diagrammed in Figure 8.5 (plant cells)
and Figure 8.6 (animal cells). Carefully study these illustrations
and review the accompanying material until you understand
how a cell duplicates itself.
Mitosis involves the division of the nucleus of a cell. Cytokinesis
involves the division of the cytoplasm. Cytokinesis begins at the end
of mitosis, during telephase.

The process of cytokinesis occurs differently in plant and

animal cells. In plant cells, a cell plate forms between the
two daughter cells (Figure 8.8 on page 118). In animal cells,
the cytoplasm is basically pinched in two after an indentation
called a cleavage furrow forms in the plasma membrane
(Figure 8.7 on page 118).

The Cell Cycle Control System

The cell cycle has a series of checkpoints to make sure that
everything is proceeding properly. These checkpoints delay
development from one phase of the cycle to the next until
everything that should happen in a particular phase has
happened. The G1 checkpoint is important because once its
crossed the cell is committed to division. In the G1 phase, if
all isnt as it should be, a remedial phaseG0kicks in to
make adjustments. If the cells DNA is fatally damaged, the
cell doesnt proceed toward division. At the G2 checkpoint, cell
mechanisms check to assure that the cells DNA has replicated.
Figure 8.9 on page 119 illustrates some cell cycle checkpoints.

Lesson 2

47

Both internal and external signals control the cell cycle

checkpoints. Internal cell signals are conveyed by enzymes
called kinases. Figure 8.10 illustrates the internal signals of
the cell cycle. External signals include growth factors and
hormones that stimulate cells to go through the cell cycle.
In a multicelled organism, cells are constantly dying and
being replaced. The programmed chemical process that manages this is called apoptosis. Apoptosis and cellular division
are opposite processes. Basically, apoptosis serves the purpose of keeping the cell level in the body roughly constant.

The Cell Cycle and Cancer

The essential challenge in this section is mastering a few ideas
about the nature of cancer. Carcinogenesis is the development
of cancer. It often occurs over many months or years. Cancer
cells are nonspecialized and undifferentiated; they serve no
bodily function. The nuclei and the chromosomes of cancer
cells are abnormal. As cancer cells multiply, they cluster
together as tumors. In the context of learning a bit about
the treatments of cancers, review Figure 8.14 on page 123
to consider how diet can help to prevent cancer.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 8. Dont forget to use the summaries and
quizzes at the end of each chapter to check your progress.

48

Biology

Self-Check 8
1. Eukaryotic cells generally rely on a cytoskeletal structure called a _______ to pull
chromatids apart.
a. controsome
b. centromere

c. spindle
d. aster

2. The process of nuclear division called _______ keeps the chromosome number constant from
one cell generation to the next.
a. meiosis
b. mitosis

c. eukaryotic fission
d. prokaryotic splitting

3. In the cell cycle, DNA replication occurs during the _______ interval of interphase.
a. G1
b. G2

c. S
d. cytoplasmic division

4. Which of the following lists the correct order of the stages of mitosis?
a.
b.
c.
d.

Metaphase, anaphase, telophase, prophase

Prophase, telophase, metaphase, anaphase
Metaphase, prophase, anaphase, telophase
Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

5. During which stage of mitosis does the nuclear envelope start to break down?
a. Prophase
b. Metaphase

c. Anaphase
d. Telophase

6. During _______, the two copies of each chromosome separate from each other and begin to
move to opposite poles.
a. prophase
b. metaphase

c. anaphase
d. telophase

7. Angiogenesis is
a.
b.
c.
d.

the formation of new blood vessels.

programmed cell death.
the formation of somatic cells.
the process of contact inhibition.
(Continued)

Lesson 2

49

Self-Check 8
8. Which one of the following illustrations represents an animal cell at the anaphase stage
of mitosis?
a.

c.

b.

d.

Check your answers with those on page 195.

50

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 9:
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 9,
Sexual Reproduction, pages 127140 in your textbook.

In asexual reproduction, one parent organism produces

offspring. Each offspring inherits the same genes that are
present in the parent. Therefore, asexual reproduction can
produce only exact clones of the parent organism. In sexual
reproduction, offspring inherit a copy of each gene from both
a female and a male parent organism. These genes may have
slightly different molecular forms, called alleles, which produce different traits in the offspring. Therefore, offspring
produced sexually arent exactly like their parents. Most
eukaryotic organisms reproduce sexually. The basic events
that occur during sexual reproduction are meiosis, gamete
formation, and fertilization.

The Basics of Meiosis

Meiosis is a type of cell division in which the number of
chromosomes is reduced from the diploid number (2n) to
the haploid number (n). The result of meiosis is four gametes
(eggs in females and sperm in males). During meiosis the
chromosomes divide once, but the nucleus (and sometimes
the cytoplasm) divides twice. In this way, four haploid daughter
cells are produced from one diploid mother cell. Later, when
fertilization occurs, two haploid gametes combine to form a
diploid zygote (fertilized egg). This combination restores the
diploid condition necessary for the life cycle to continue. As
the zygote develops, each diploid somatic cell produced has
a pair of each type of chromosome, one inherited from the
mother and one from the father. We call these homologous
chromosomes. Figure 9.1 on page 128 illustrates the homologous
chromosomes of a male.

Lesson 2

51

The Phases of Meiosis

Meiosis occurs in two stagesmeiosis I and meiosis II. Each
stage has its own prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
Figures 9.5 and 9.6 on pages 132133 illustrate meiosis in
an animal cell. As you read the material on the phases of
meiosis, refer to these two figures. Keep in mind what you
learned in your study of mitosis. Youll be comparing these
two processes next.

Meiosis Compared to Mitosis

As youve already learned, both mitosis and meiosis are
processes that cause cells to divide. Mitosis results in two
cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. Meiosis
results in four cells that have half the number of chromosomes
as the parent cell.
Meiosis I is what makes the two processes different. Meiosis II
is really the same as mitosis, except the process is occurring
with haploid cells. Pages 134135 in your textbook clearly
explain the similarities and differences between these two
processes. The text provides tables, figures, and words to
illustrate this concept.
Also, notice that the two processes differ in occurrence. That is,
meiosis occurs only at certain times during the life of sexually
reproducing organisms. Mitosis occurs more consistently during
the life cycle.

Abnormal Chromosome Inheritance

The normal number of human chromosomes is 46. Therefore,
a normal gamete (egg or sperm) contains half that number,
or 23 chromosomes. But errors may occur during meiosis.
For example, an egg or a sperm may end up with 22 or 24
chromosomes. When one of these abnormal gametes is involved
in fertilization, the result is a fertilized egg with either an extra
chromosome (trisomy) or one chromosome too few (monosomy).
Down syndrome, described in your text on page 136, is an
example of trisomy 21 because chromosome 21 has three
instead of two copies of the chromosome.

52

Biology

Other genetic abnormalities involve the sex hormones. For

example, in Klinefelter syndrome, the sex chromosome group
is XXY. In Turner syndrome, a female has only one sex chromosome (X). Figure 9.10 on page 137 illustrates the effects of
Klinefelter and Turner syndrome.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 9.

Lesson 2

53

Self-Check 9
1. How many chromosomes are located in a single human somatic cell?
a. 21
b. 23

c. 42
d. 46

2. _______ occurs in cells especially set aside for reproduction, but not in somatic cells.
a. Mitosis
b. Meiosis

c. Metaphase
d. Formation of sister chromatids

3. In meiosis, the exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids occurs during
a. interphase.
b. prophase I.

c. metaphase I.
d. anaphase II.

4. The first cell formed when two gametes come together at fertilization is the
a. zygote.
b. sporophyte.

c. gametophyte.
d. homologue.

5. How many daughter cells result when a cell undergoes the process of meiosis?
a. One
b. Two

c. Four
d. Eight

Check your answers with those on page 195.

54

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 10:
PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 10,
Patterns of Inheritance, pages 141158 in your textbook.

Mendels Laws
Heredity is the transmission of characteristics from one generation to the next. Variations in heredity are the visible
differences between parents and offspring, or between two
offspring of the same parents. During the second half of the
nineteenth century, a monk named Gregor Mendel conducted
experiments with pea plants to try to determine just how parent genes are transmitted to offspring. His experiments tested
his idea that the plants inherited two units of information
(now called genes) for a trait, one from each parent. Mendel
conducted his pea plant experiments in three stages:
1. Mendel identified parent plants that he knew to be truebreeding for a particular trait. That is, when the plants
self-pollinated, the offspring were just like the parent
plants and like each other. For example, true-breeding
tall plants always produced tall plants; true-breeding
short plants produced short plants.
2. Mendel selected a true-breeding plant from each group
(for example, one that produced tall plants and one that
produced short plants) and performed a cross between
the selected parents. That is, pollen from the male parts
of one plant was dusted on the female stigma of the other.
The true-breeding plants were the first generation in his
experiments. He called them the P generation. The hybrid
offspring resulting from such a cross Mendel called the
F1 generation. This generation inherited a trait for tallness
from each parent. Mendel found that all of the F1 hybrids
resembled only one parent; the other trait wasnt seen.
He called the trait seen in the F1 generation dominant,
and he named the other unseen trait recessive.

Lesson 2

55

3. Mendel allowed each F1 hybrid to self-pollinate and produce the next generation, known as F2. The resulting F2
offspring showed the characteristics of both parental forms
in the ratio of 3 dominants to 1 recessive. Figure 10.6 on
page 144 illustrates the results of a one-trait (monohybrid)
cross.
Mendels pea plant experiments led to the development of two
important genetic principles:
1. The law of segregation. The four elements of this law are
listed on page 145.
2. The law of independent assortment. The two elements of
this law are listed on page 146. Figure 10.6 illustrates a
two-trait cross and its associated ratio. Review and study
this figure and Figure 10.3 to understand the logic of a
Punnett square.
Also review Figure 10.8 on page 148 to understand how
Mendels laws are expressed in meiosis.

Beyond Mendels Laws

Mendels laws are correct, but theyre insufficient in explaining
the nature of genetic inheritance. In fact, as we now understand,
the genotype (the pattern of genes at fertilization) has to be
considered as an integration of all the genes. Thus, some
patterns of inheritance involve incomplete dominance, multiple
alleles, and polygenes.
Incomplete dominance occurs when the heterozygote has an
intermediate phenotype between that of either homozygote.
Figure 10.9 on page 149 illustrates degrees of dominance in
a particular flowering plant.
When more than two alleles control a trait, that trait is called
a multiple-allele trait. Figure 10.10 on page 149 shows how
multiple alleles work with blood types.
Polygenic inheritance is illustrated in Figure 10.11 on page 150,
as the result of the influence of three pairs of alleles. Review
the figure carefully to understand the concept of polygenic
inheritance.

56

Biology

Environmental conditions can also influence gene expression.

Figure 10.12 on page 150 illustrates different coloration in
Himalayan rabbits. This variation is thought to result from
differing ambient temperaturesand thus differing body
temperatures.
When a single gene has multiple effects, one mutation can
affect many parts of the organism, causing a syndrome. Such
a pattern is called pleiotropy. Review Figure 10.13 on page 151
for an example of pleiotropy called Marfan syndrome, which can
impact bones, the heart, blood vessels, eyes, lungs, and skin.

Sex-Linked Inheritance
Some traits unrelated to gender are controlled by genes on
the X chromosome. Therefore, a gene on the X chromosome
can produce a pattern of inheritance that differs from what
one may expect from the genes on the 22 pairs of autosomes
(matched chromosomes). Your text discussion of this topic
relies heavily on the study of Drosophila, the common fruit fly.
These insects are ideal subjects because they breed rapidly
and they carry the same kind of XY sex chromosome pattern
as humans. Figure 10.15 on page 153 illustrates X-linked
inheritance in fruit flies.

Inheritance of Linked Genes

Each gene has a specific location on a chromosome. Genes at
different locations on the same chromosome are linked together
in groupsthat is, they dont sort independently of one another
during meiosis. These linkage groups can be disrupted by
crossing-over. This factor is the basis for genetic recombination in offspring, which produces recombinant gametes. The
farther apart two genes are on a chromosome, the greater the
chance of crossing-over. Figure 10.18 on page 155 illustrates
complete versus incomplete gene linkage in the context of
estimating the occurrence of recombinant phenotypes.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 10.

Lesson 2

57

Self-Check 10
1. If an individuals alleles for a certain trait arent identical, the individual is said to be
a. true-breeding.
b. homozygous.

c. heterozygous.
d. recessive.

2. Assume that the allele for curly hair dominates the allele for straight hair. If a homozygous
man with straight hair marries a homozygous curly-haired woman, we would expect their
children to display which phenotypes?
a.
b.
c.
d.

All would have straight hair.

All would have curly hair.
Three out of four would have straight hair.
One out of four would have straight hair.

Use the Punnett-Square method to answer Questions 35. Assume that the allele for
brown hair (B) dominates the allele for red hair (b) and that the allele for curly hair (C)
dominates the allele for straight hair (c).
BBCC

BBCc

BbCC

BbCc

BBCc

BBcc

BbCc

Bbcc

BbCC

BbCc

bbCC

bbCc

BbCc

Bbcc

bbCc

bbcc

3. If two terriers are heterozygous for these alleles, what is the expected phenotypic outcome for
their offspring?
a.
b.
c.
d.

9/16 red curly, 3/16 brown straight, 3/16 red straight, 1/16 red curly
9/16 brown curly, 3/16 brown straight, 3/16 red curly, 1/16 red straight
1/4 brown curly, 1/4 brown straight, 1/4 red curly, 1/4 red straight
All will have brown, curly hair.

4. What will result if two terriers are homozygous dominant for these alleles?
a.
b.
c.
d.

All offspring will be brown with curly hair.

All offspring will be red with straight hair.
One half of the offspring will be brown with curly hair.
One fourth of the offspring will be red with straight hair.
(Continued)

58

Biology

Self-Check 10
5. If the two terriers produced pups that were reddish-brown with curly hair, then
a.
b.
c.
d.

brown displays incomplete dominance over red.

red displays partial dominance over brown.
curly hair displays incomplete dominance over straight hair.
a mutation must have occurred.

6. What outcome would you expect if you cross a homozygous red tulip with a homozygous
yellow tulip if red is incompletely dominant over yellow?
a.
b.
c.
d.

All offspring will be red.

One-half of the offspring will be yellow.
One-fourth of the offspring will be orange.
All of the offspring will be orange.

7. The ability of primroses with the same genotype to express different phenotypes for flower
color is an example of
a.
b.
c.
d.

a dihybrid cross.
codominance.
an environmental effect on gene expression.
pleiotropy.

Use the following information to answer questions 8 and 9: In pea plants, tall (T) is
dominant to short (t), a smooth pod (S) is dominant to a wrinkled pod (s), and a
yellow pea color (Y) is dominant to green (y).
8. a.

Consider the gene for height. If we have two plants, one being heterozygous for the trait
and the other is homozygous recessive, what are the genotypes of the two plants?

b.

Perform a monohybrid cross between these two plants. (Hint: Youll need to construct a
Punnett square.)

c.

What percentage will be tall? What percentage will be short?

9. a.

What are the genotypes of two plants if one is homozygous for yellow, heterozygous tall
and the other is heterozygous for both traits. What would be the possible genotypes of
the gametes?

b.

Perform a dihybrid cross between these two plants.

c.

What percentage will be yellow and tall, yellow and short, green and tall, and green
and short?

Check your answers with those on page 195.

Lesson 2

59

ASSIGNMENT 11: DNA BIOLOGY

AND TECHNOLOGY
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 11,
DNA: Biology and Technology, pages 159178 in your textbook.

DNA and RNA Structure and Function

Structure of DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a long chain of repeating units
called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a five-carbon sugar,
a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogen-containing
basesadenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T).
Adenine and guanine are two-ringed structures called purines;
cytosine and thymine are single-ringed structures known as
pyrimidines.
DNA consists of two strands that spiral around each other in
a pattern known as a double helix. The two strands are held
together by hydrogen bonds and complement each other with
regard to the arrangement of the bases. For example, where
adenine occurs in one strand, thymine is present in the corresponding position in the opposite strand. Wherever guanine
is present, the opposite strand will contain cytosine. As a result,
if the base sequence of one strand of a DNA molecule is known,
you can easily figure out the base sequence of the other.
Figure 11.5 on page 163 offers you a beautiful illustration
of DNA structure and complementary base structure.

Replication of DNA
At the time of replication, the two strands of DNA are separated by the enzyme helicase. Complementary nucleotides in
the nucleus pair up with the bases. The nucleotides joint to
form new strands with the help of an enzyme called DNA
polymerase. In each new DNA molecule, one strand is old
and one is newly formed. Figure 11.6 on page 164 illustrates
DNA replication.

60

Biology

RNA Structure and Function

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a single-stranded molecule that consists of nucleotides arranged in a long chain. It contains a
five-carbon sugar called ribose, a phosphate group, and four
nitrogen-containing basesadenine, guanine, cytosine, and
uracil. Figure 11.8 on page 165 illustrates the structure of RNA.
There are three types of RNA:
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries information for protein
synthesis from the DNA to the ribosomes of the cell.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries the required amino acids
from the cytoplasm to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
In the ribosome, tRNA helps to arrange the amino acids
into the proper sequence for the synthesis of a protein.
3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) makes up about 80 percent of the
total RNA. Molecules of rRNA bind with certain proteins
to form a complex called a ribosome. A ribosome is a
complex that reads the mRNA to link amino acids into
the specified proteins.

Gene Expression
From DNA to RNA to Protein
Gene expression occurs as amino acid codons are translated
and organized to produce the very wide range of proteins used
in multicelled organisms. Figure 11.12 on page 168 illustrates
mRNA processing from DNA. Figure 11.13 on page 169 illustrates
tRNA structure and function.
DNA translation has three phases: initiation, the elongation cycle,
and termination. After studying this material in your textbook,
review Figures 11.15 and 11.16 on page 170. Fig. 11.15 illustrates how initiation involves the organization of a ribosome.
Fig. 11.16 illustrates the elongation cycle, which also relates
to ribosome configuration. Termination occurs at a codon
that means stop, because its not a codon for an amino acid.
Study Figure 11.17 on page 171 for an excellent summary
illustration of gene expression in eykaryotes.

Lesson 2

61

Genes and Gene Mutations

Gene mutations are caused by an error in replication, by a
transposon, or by environmental influences like radiation and
pesticides. A transposon is a specific kind of DNA sequence thats
able to move about within or between chromosomes. These
so-called jumping genes are found in a number of species,
including humans. Environmental influences, called mutagens,
may also cause mutations. Radiation, chemicals, and cigarette
smoke are recognized as mutagens. We know a mutagen has
had an influence when we detect genetic disorders and cancers.
Point mutations involve a change in a single DNA nucleotide.
Just which nucleotide determines what effects may result.
Frameshift mutation happens when a codon triplet sequence
doesnt spell a functional protein. A protein produced from
a frameshift will be entirely nonfunctional.

DNA Technology
Humans are purposefully bringing about genetic changes by
isolating gene sections, cutting them, and then splicing them
together with genes from other species. The genes that interest scientists can be amplified in number in the laboratory to
be used for research and practical applications. Figure 11.19
on page 173 illustrates recombinant DNA technology used to
produce insulin. Figure 11.20 on page 174 illustrates the
uses of a polymerase chain reaction, which may be used to
produce millions of copies of a DNA segment in a short
period of time.
Applications of DNA technology include DNA fingerprinting and
the creation of transgenic organisms. Transgenic organisms
are naturally occurring organisms, which have been genetically modified for various purposes. Currently, transgenic
organisms include bacteria, plants, and animals. The latter
applications of biotechnology have included the successful
cloning of a few different animalsmost famously a sheep
named Dolly.
Before proceeding to you next assignment, take time to
respond to Self-Check 11.

62

Biology

Self-Check 11
1. Which type of RNA carries the instructions for building proteins?
a. mRNA
b. tRNA

c. rRNA
d. xRNA

2. Which one of the following bases occurs only in RNA?

a. Thymine
b. Cytosine

c. Uracil
d. Adenine

3. In DNA replication, one of the two old strands of DNA remains as it was. Therefore, DNA
replication is called
a. semiconservative.
b. unwinding.

c. templative.
d. template redundant.

4. The Watson and Crick model of DNA led to the discovery of

a. messenger RNA.
b. complementary base paring.

c. X-ray diffraction.
d. consequential pairing.

5. Which one of the following examples is the correct base pairing for DNA?
a. A-C, G-T
b. A-T, G-C

c. A-G, C-T
d. A-A, C-C, G-G, T-T

6. During DNA replication, enzymes called DNA _______ helps fill in the gaps between the
portions of replicated DNA to form a continuous strand.
a. polymerase
b. replicase

c. ligase
d. lactase

7. Which of the following strands of DNA is a complement to T-A-G-G-T-C-A?

a. G-C-T-T-G-A-C
c. A-T-C-C-A-G-T

b. C-G-A-A-C-T-G
d. A-T-G-G-A-G-T

8. In the context of gene mutations, if a codon triplet makes no sense in respect to any protein
used by the organism, its called a
a. transposon mutation.
b. point mutation.

c. transgenic mutation.
d. frameshift mutation.

Check your answers with those on page 197.

Lesson 2

63

ASSIGNMENT 12:
GENE REGULATION AND CANCER
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 12,
DNA: Gene Regulation and Cancer, on pages 179194 in your
textbook.

Control of Gene Expression

Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning
With a few exceptions, like red blood cells, every cell in
your body has a nucleus that contains the full DNA menu
for your entire body. With this understanding, biotechnology
has undertaken practical research into two kinds of cloning.
Reproductive cloning is undertaken to produce a genetically
exact clone of an organism. Figure 12.1 on page 180 illustrates the cloning of carrots from its root cells. Therapeutic
cloning is aimed at producing mature cells of different kinds.
Beyond research interests, possible objectives include producing tissues for medical treatments of spinal cord injuries
and conditions like diabetes. The two types of cloning are
illustrated in Figure 12.1 on page 181.

Levels of Gene Expression Control

Gene expression is controlled within cells. But there are different levels and types of gene expression control depending
on the specialized functions of, say, muscle cells, skin cells,
or neurons. In effect, this means that most of the genes in a
specialized cell are switched off. Figure 12.4 on page 182
illustrates gene expression in specialized cells.
The simplest of organisms, the prokaryotes (such as bacteria),
use only one level of control over gene expression. Specifically
a gene sequence, called an operon, controls gene expression.
To review the details of how this works, study Figure 12.5 on
page 182. Note that the process involves a regulator gene located
outside the operon which codes for a repressor, a protein that
keeps the operon inactive. It takes the presence of lactose to
switch on the gene needed to produce the enzymes necessary
to metabolize lactose.

64

Biology

By contrast, eukaryotes have several different levels of gene

expression. These include DNA unpacking, DNA transcription,
mRNA processing, mRNA translation, and protein activity.
These mechanisms are summarized for you in Figure 12.6
on page 183 and explained on pages 184186.
All of these activities depend on signaling between cells. In
eukaryotic cells, a cell-signaling pathway is initiated when a
receptor protein is activated in the cell membrane. The receptor
protein then initiates a series of chemical reactions within a
signal-transduction pathway. The end product of this pathway
not the chemical signaldirectly affects the metabolism of a
cell. The chemical signal simply serves as a cue for cellular
response. Figure 12.13 on page 187 illustrates whats involved
in a cell-signaling pathway.

Cancer: A Failure of Genetic Control

In a sense, cancer has a mind of its own. Cancer cells release
a growth factor that causes nearby blood vessels to branch into
the cancerous clump of cellsa process called angiogenesis.
Refer to Figure 12.14 on page 188 for an illustration of how
cancer develops. Also note the table at the bottom of this page
to compare normal and cancerous cells. Apoptosis, cell death,
isnt present in cancer cells.
Mutations in proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes bring
about the onset of cancer tumor growth. Proto-oncogenes are
proteins that code for the cell cycle and inhibit apoptosis. Two
factors are central to cancer growth. First, proto-oncogenes
mutate to become oncogenes, and second, tumor suppressor
genes mutate. Oncogenes are cancer-causing genes. Tumor
suppressor genes are proteins that inhibit the cell cycle and
promote apoptosis. When they mutate, these functions may
be deleted. With both of these factors present as a result of
mutation, the result is uncontrolled growth and the deletion
of cell death. Figures 12.15 and 12.16 on page 189 help you
compare normal cells and cancer cells.
Other genetic changes that lead to cancer are discussed on
page 190. These include the absence of telomere shortening,
angiogenesis, and metastasis. Telomeres act like DNA caps at
the ends of chromosomes. They serve to keep chromosomes

Lesson 2

65

from fusing to each other. In that context, some undifferentiated

cells, like embryonic stem cells, contain an enzyme called
telomerase, which serves to build or regenerate the telomere
caps. The genes that code for telomerase are switched on in
cancer cells, allowing them to divide over and over again
especially when apoptosis is deleted. Angiogensis, as youve
already learned, is the formation of new blood vessels diverted
to feed a cancer tumor. Metastasis occurs when malignant
(evil-doing) tumors spread to other parts of the body from
the original tumor.
In some rare cases, mutated proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes may be inherited. That doesnt mean that the
inheritor will necessarily develop cancer, but it does mean
that the occurrence of a cancer is more likely. Increasingly,
genetic tests for detecting the likelihood for developing cancer
are being researched and developed.
Before proceeding to your next assignment, take time to
complete Self-Check 12.

66

Biology

Self-Check 12
1. A DNA sequence that controls transcription in a prokaryote is called
a. a repressor.
b. polymerase.

c. an operon.
d. a cloning factor.

2. Loosely packed chromatin in eukaryotic cells is called

a. a nucleosome.
b. euchromatin.

c. an operon.
d. heterochromatin.

3. In eukaryotes, transcription _______ are DNA-binding proteins that assist RNA polymerase to
bind to a promoter.
a. activators
b. factors

c. enhancers
d. translators

4. Reproductive cloning refers to growing an organism; _______ cloning refers to producing cells
that might be used to repair spinal tissue injuries.
a. nuclear
b. specific

c. specialized
d. therapeutic

5. In general, a cell-signaling pathway begins when

a.
b.
c.
d.

a chemical signal is emitted from a transmitter protein.

an end product activates reactions within a cells cytoplasm.
a chemical signal binds to a receptor protein.
a transcription activator reacts to the chemical signal.

6. A mutation that activates cancer-causing genes is called a gain-of-function mutation

because it causes the gene to
a. overexpress some function.
b. become a proto-oncogene.

c. to stop the cell cycle.

d. promote apoptosis.

7. _______ occurs when new tumors are established distant from the original tumor.
a. Oncogeneis
b. Angiogenesis

c. Vascularization
d. Metastasis

Check your answers with those on page 197.

Lesson 2

67

ASSIGNMENT 13:
GENETIC COUNSELING
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 13,
Genetic Counseling, on pages 195214 in your textbook.

Counseling for Chromosomal Disorders

Autosomes are the pair of chromosomes that are the same in
males and females of any given species. Humans have a total of 23
pairs of chromosomes; 22 of these pairs are autosomes. The final
pair of chromosomes determines whether an individual is male or
female. These are the sex chromosomes. Each somatic cell of a
human male contains one X and one Y chromosome; each somatic
cell of a human female contains two X chromosomes.

Today, genetic counseling helps parents deal with concerns

about the likelihood that a fetus will be impacted by a genetic
disorder. A basic tool of genetic counseling is the karyotype, a
visual display of a persons autosomes and sex chromosomes
arranged as pairs. An adult persons white blood cells are
normally used to create a karyotype. Different procedures
apply for a fetus. They include amniocentesis and chorionic
villi sampling. In amniocentesis, fluid is drawn from a pregnant womans amniotic sacthe membrane that contains the
fetus. Fetal cells that form the amniotic fluid can be used to
create a karyotype. Chorionic villi sampling (CVS) involves
drawing tissue samples from the region where the placenta
will develop. Cells from the tissue can be used to produce a
karyotype. Both of these procedures come with the relatively
slight risk of spontaneous abortion.
Chromosomal mutations may produce a change in chromosome
number. In this regard, there are four types of structural changes
that may occur spontaneously in nature:
1. Deletions may occur when a segment of a chromosome is
lost due to some environmental factor such as a viral attack
or the impact of some kind of chemicalsuch as one
derived from a pesticide. (See Figure 13.3 on page 198.)

68

Biology

2. Duplications occur when a gene segment is repeated on

a chromosome. The result is that the person has more
than one allele for a trait. (See Figure 13.4 on page 198.)
3. Translocations occur when a broken piece of a chromosome
attaches to a nonhomologous chromosome. (See Figure 13.5
on page 199.)
4. Inversions occur when a stretch of DNA on the chromosome
becomes reversed in direction. Inversions are known to
occur in chromosome 15. (See Figure 13.6 on page 199.)

Counseling for Genetic Disorders:

The Present
A genetic pedigree may be constructed to show the genetic
inheritance pattern for an individual in the context of a family history. The pedigree can be used to predict the likelihood
that a genetic disorder will be passed on to offspring.
An autosomal disorder is one that involves any chromosomes
except those that determine a persons gender. Autosomal
recessive disorder occurs when an offspring inherits two
recessive alleles from either heterozygous or homozygous
recessive parents (Figure 13.7). Autosomal dominant disorder
occurs when an offspring inherits either two dominant alleles
or one dominant and one recessive allele from its parents
(Figure 13.8).
X-linked recessive disorders occur when a recessive allele on an
X chromosome is inherited from a parent. This recessive allele
is expressed more often in male offspring than in females,
since males have only one X chromosome. A dominant allele
on the other X chromosome in female offspring often masks
the recessive allele. Common examples of X-linked recessive
disorders are color blindness and hemophilia A. Figure 13.9
on page 201 illustrates an X-linked recessive pedigree for
color blindness.
On pages 202204 of your textbook are capsule summaries of
several autosomal disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, sickle cell
disease, and Huntington disease. On page 204, several X-linked
recessive disorders are explained, including color blindness and
hemophilia. Be sure to read these carefully so you understand
how they result.
Lesson 2

69

Tests for genetic disorders employ several different strategies.

For example, in search of the risk for Tay-Sachs disease,
tests may determine whether or not a single proteina vital
enzyme (PKU)is present or missing. DNA testing may also
seek genetic markers like those characteristic of Huntington
disease. Figure 13.16 on page 205 illustrates the use of a
genetic marker to test for a genetic mutation. Another test
involves the use of a DNA probe, a single-stranded piece of
DNA that will bind to complimentary DNA. In a new technology called a DNA chip, several rows of probes are laid out on
a very small glass square. Figure 13.17 on page 205 illustrates
and explains the use of a DNA chip. The procedure can be
used to test for many genetic disorders at one time.
Beyond these noted strategies are procedures for testing a
fetus, an embryo, and an egg. A common and popular test of
the fetus employs ultrasound (Figure 13.18), which produces
an image of a fetus. Fetal cells can also be tested for genetic
defects. Testing an embryo involves removing a cell one the
embryo has six to eight cells (Figure 13.19). Testing an egg is
usually carried out in the context of in vitro fertilization (IVF).
The polar-body product of female meiosis is removed for testing
in IVFa procedure that doesnt impact the later development
of the egg.

Counseling for Genetic Disorders:

The Future
The human genome project has revealed the sequence of all
of the base pairs in the human genome. From this has emerged
the new science of genomicsthe study of genomes. Figure 13.21
on page 208 illustrates the comparative study of human and
chimpanzee genomes to discover that the genes for speech,
hearing, and smell may have influenced human evolution.
DNA chips (DNA microarrays) can be used to display the
entire genome of a person, thereby producing a genetic profile
for an individual. Thus, full-spectrum genetic counseling is
nowor soon will bea viable option in genetic counseling.
In this context, the field of proteomics deals with the development of new drugs for the treatment of genetic disorders.

70

Biology

Proteomics explores the structure, function, and interactions

of cellular proteins. Meanwhile, the new field of bioinformatics
allows the application of computer technology to the study of
the genome.

Gene Therapy
Gene therapy is a method of treating a genetic disorder. Ex vivo
techniques in gene therapy involve the genetic engineering of
a persons cells outside the body. Review Figure 13.23 on
page 210 to help you understand ex vivo therapy applied to
bone marrow.
In vivo gene therapy techniques attempt to alter cells without removing them from the body. This type of treatment is
increasingly used in cancer therapy. Figure 13.25 on page 211
show you sites where ex vivo and in vivo somatic techniques
may be applied.
After you complete Self-Check 13, review the material youve
learned in this study guide as well as in the assigned pages in
your textbook for Assignments 813. A good way to review the
chapters is to reread the summaries at the end of each one.
If you find you dont understand something in the summary,
go back to the textbook pages and review the material. When
youre sure that you completely understand the information in
Assignments 813, complete your examination for Lesson 2.

Lesson 2

71

EXAMINATION

Self-Check 13
1. The scientific study of genomes is called
a. genomics.
b. proteomics.

c. bioinformatics.
d. genetics.

2. Chorionic villi sampling (CVS) involves drawing tissue samples from the region where
the _______ will develop.
a. fetus
b. placenta

c. egg
d. X chromosome

3. The process of transferring normal or modified genes into an individual in an attempt to

correct some type of genetic defect is called
a. DNA fingerprinting.
b. gene mutation.

c. cloning.
d. gene therapy.

4. The international attempt to map out the entire human genome is known as the
a. Eugenic Engineering Project.
b. Human Genome Project.

c. Genetic Engineering Consortium.

d. DNA Blueprint System.

5. By testing, Ive identified an autosomal recessive disorder in which the red blood cells are
misshapen and irregular. This person probably suffers from
a. Huntington disease.
b. hemophilia.

c. sickle cell disease.

d. Marfan syndrome.

6. To get an overall sense of the anatomy of a fetus, I should use _______ for my examination.
a. embryonic testing
b. genetic markers

c. amniocentesis
d. ultrasound

7. In a pedigree chart, female offspring are represented by

a. squares.
b. vertical lines.

c. triangles.
d. circles.

8. Ive produced a karyotype of a fetus to find that there are three number 21 chromosomes.
I now know that his child will be afflicted with
a. Down syndrome.
b. Tay-Sachs disease.

c. chromosomal deletion.
d. cystic fibrosis.

9. Williams syndrome results when a _______ occurs in chromosome 7.

a. translocation
b. inversion

c. deletion
d. duplication

Check your answers with those on page 197.

72

Biology

EXAMINATION NUMBER

00764700
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com

When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in
Lesson 2, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit
your answers online. If you dont have access to the Internet,
you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for
this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until
another examination is ready.
Questions 120: Select the one best answer to each question.

1. Which one of the following statements would most clearly

refer to a persons genotype?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Susan has blue eyes.

Bill is recessive for height and dominant for hair color.
Karen has broad shoulders, long legs, and green eyes.
Harold inherited high cheekbones.

2. In one kind of abnormal chromosome inheritance called

Down syndrome, a child has three copies of
A.
B.
C.
D.

chromosome
chromosome
chromosome
chromosome

X.
23.
Y.
21.

Examination

Lesson 2
Genetics

73

3. The process of reproductive cloning begins by

A.
B.
C.
D.

genetically modifying an embryo.

genetically modifying a stem cell.
placing an adult nucleus in a cell without a nucleus.
isolating cells to learn more about how they specialize.

4. In humans, blood type inheritance is an example of

A.
B.
C.
D.

complete dominance.
codominance.
incomplete dominance.
predominance.

5. During division in cellular reproduction, the DNA and cytoplasm of the parent cell is
distributed to two
A.
B.
C.
D.

clones.
chromosomes.
daughter cells.
simplified cells.

6. Suppose youre looking through a microscope and you see an exchange of chromosome segments between chromosome pair 7 and chromosome pair 15. This condition
is an example of
A.
B.
C.
D.

translocation.
duplication.
inversion.
relocation.

7. A DNA molecule has a unique design that resembles a spiral staircase. Scientists call
this design a
A.
B.
C.
D.

74

spiral purine.
double helix.
double nucleotide.
spiral structure.

Examination, Lesson 2

8. During meiosis, the shuffling exchange of genetic material is called

A.
B.
C.
D.

synapsis.
crossing-over.
tetrad formation.
allele distribution.

9. The scientific field devoted to developing new drugs for treating genetic disorders is
A.
B.
C.
D.

bioinformatics.
proteomics.
genetic profiling.
genomics.

10. Animal cells actively replicate their genetic material during

A.
B.
C.
D.

interphase.
the mitotic stage.
metaphase.
cytokinesis.

11. Proteins are synthesized in

A.
B.
C.
D.

messenger RNA.
the cell nucleus.
transfer RNA.
ribosomes.

12. What cell parts have been compared to the protective caps on the ends of shoe laces?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Oncogenes
BRCA1
Angiogenes
Telomeres

13. The human chromosomes that are responsible for the gender of a child are the
A.
B.
C.
D.

homologues.
autosomes.
X and Y chromosomes.
alleles.

Examination, Lesson 2

75

14. A visual display of the chromosomes of a person, arranged by size, shape, and
patterns of banding is called
A.
B.
C.
D.

a karyotype.
a genetic profile.
a gene map.
bioinformatics.

15. In the development of a cancer cell, the formation of new blood vessels is called
A.
B.
C.
D.

metastasis.
angiogenesis.
carcinogenesis.
differentiation.

16. Transgenic bacteria can be used to produce

A.
B.
C.
D.

food.
proteins.
medicines.
antibodies.

17. Let T mean tall and t mean short. If Claras mother is Tt and her father is Tt, what is
the chance that shell be tall?
A.
B.
C.
D.

1 in 4
2 in 4
3 in 4
Zero

18. Which statement about Chargaffs rules is correct?

A.
B.
C.
D.

In each species, the amount of adenine equals the amount of guanine.

In each species, the amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine.
In each species, the amount of adenine equals the amount of cytosine.
The amount of adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine is the same in
every species.

19. Once the _______ checkpoint is passed in the cell cycles, the cell is committed
to division.
A.
B.
C.
D.

76

M
G2
S
G1

Examination, Lesson 2

20. A change in a single DNA nucleotide is called a

A.
B.
C.
D.

point mutation.
mutagen.
transposon.
ligase.

Examination, Lesson 2

77

NOTES

78

Examination, Lesson 2

Your third lesson consists of six assignments covering Part

III, Evolution, and Part IV, Diversity of Life, Chapters
1419 of your textbook.
When you complete this lesson, youll be able to

Explain Darwins theory of natural selection and cite the

evidence for his theory

Discuss and explain the genetic processes of microevolution

Describe the differences between directional, stabilizing,

and disruptive selection

Discuss the concepts of adaptive radiation in

different environments

Explain the gradualistic and punctuated equilibrium

models of speciation

Discuss the principles of taxonomy and classification in

differentiating species

Discuss the first forms of life, including viruses,

prokaryotes, and protists

Describe and explain the origins of land plants and

describe their diversity

Discuss the nature of fungi as distinct from both plants

and animals

Outline an overview of the evolution of animals

Discuss and describe the invertebrates

Compare and differentiate between protostomes

and deuterostomes

Discuss and differentiate molluscs, annelids, and

the arthropods

Discuss and differentiate echinoderms and chordates

Explain selected basic understandings about the

evolutions of humans

Lesson 3

Evolution and the

Diversity of Life

79

ASSIGNMENT 14:
DARWIN AND EVOLUTION
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 14,
Darwin and Evolution, on pages 215230 in your textbook.

Darwins Theory of Evolution

The theory of evolution states that life forms have changed throughout
geologic time. This theory, however, is only one way to characterize
the life forms in our world. One other theory, intelligent design,
holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are
best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process
such as natural selection. Highly respected scientists support both
of these proposed explanations.

The influence of Darwins ideas about evolution radically

transformed the science of life, but his concepts of evolution,
especially the theory of natural selection, were also a catalyst
for changing educated peoples views about the nature of our
world. Table 14.1 on page 218 compares pre-Darwinian and
post-Darwinian worldviews.
Simply put, evolution is genetic change in a line of descent
over time. The primary importance of this theory is that it
presumes present-day organisms have arisen from simpler
ancestral organisms. In general, changes in the genetic composition of a population take place through the inheritance of
slight variations that occur generation after generation. This
results in the development of new characteristics within a
species, and the eventual formation of new species.

Darwins Conclusions
In 1831, Charles Darwin was hired as a naturalist aboard a
ship called the H.M.S. Beagle. His five-year voyage took him
around the world and gave him the opportunity to study species
in a great variety of habitats. After returning to England,

80

Biology

he studied his extensive notes and came up with many ideas

about how evolution occurs. These ideas led to the development of his theory of natural selection.

Natural Selection and Adaptation

Here are some key elements that Darwin used to develop
his theory:
1. If there were no environmental checks on reproduction,
populations would show a rapid increase in number.
However, Darwin found that the number of individuals
in a population remains relatively constant over time,
which suggests a struggle for existence.
2. Competition exists between organisms for food, water,
nesting sites, shelter, and other factors necessary for
survival and reproduction. This struggle affects both
plants and animals.
3. Genetic variations arise from changes that occur in DNA.
These variations are passed to offspring from the parent
organisms. Individuals with favorable variations have a
better chance of survival and reproduction. The advantageous
traits are passed from generation to generation, and these
organisms become better suited for survival. Darwin
stated that nature itself selects these organismshence
the term natural selection.
4. The physical environment is always changing. Therefore,
organisms are continually tested by these changes. New
advantageous mutations will occur and be selected in
response to the environment. After a period of time, the
resulting organisms may appear so different from the
original species that a new species evolves.
Study Figure 14.6 on page 220 for an illustration of beak
variations in finches. These variations are related to the
different species feeding habits. Also study Figure 14.8 on
page 222 for an illustration of the mechanism of evolution.

Lesson 3

81

Evidence for Evolution

Several bodies of data support the idea that species have
evolved from very simple to increasingly complex organisms
over many millions of years. In particular, four bodies of evidence support this view: fossil evidence, biogeographical
evidence, anatomical evidence, and biochemical evidence.

Fossil Evidence
Proponents of intelligent
design point to gaps in
the fossil record as one of
the main problems with
the theory. The fossil
record doesnt show any
transitions, or intermediate forms, proposed
by Darwin.

For the most part, fossils are impressions, or casts, in sedimentary rocks of long-deceased organismsor fragments of
organisms. Sedimentary rocks include shale, limestone, and
sandstone. See Figure 14.3 on page 218 to see how sedimentary strata are formed. With a few very early exceptions, the
fossil record begins to be nearly continuous beginning some
600 million years ago. From that distant time onward, were
able to trace a progression of plant and animal species that
evolved from earlier ancestors. Modern birds, for example, have
physiological features that relate them to dinosaurs. The fossil
record is a rich source of information about ancient species
now long been extinct. Figure 14.11 on page 224 illustrates a
re-creation of Archaeopteryx, an extinct species with feature
of both modern birds and ancient reptiles. Figure 14.12 illustrates the interesting fact that whales evolved from ancient
land mammals.

Biogeographical Evidence
Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plant and
animal species. A primary finding derived from studying the
global distribution of plant and animal species is that land
regions separated from each other have led to different paths
of evolution. Australia, for example, long separated from other
landmasses, permitted the domination of ecological niches
and habitats by marsupialsas opposed to the placental
mammals found elsewhere on the planet. Figure 14.13 on
page 225 illustrates a few of the marsupials of Australia.

82

Biology

Anatomical Evidence
Anatomical evidence takes three general forms.
1. Vestigial structures found in some species indicate evolutionary adaptation from earlier ancestors. Some species
of snakes, for example, have vestigial (nonfunctional)
structures that once were pelvises and legs.
2. Homologous structures are very common across many
animal species. The upper arm bone (humerus) of birds,
cats, humans, whales, and horses are homologous, as
illustrated in Figure 14.14 on page 226. Homologous
structures imply common ancestors.
3. Analogous structures may serve the same function but
be constructed differently. The wings of birds and insects
are analogous as to function but their distinct anatomy
and construction imply different evolutionary paths.
Figure 14.15 illustrates the fact that the embryos of
species with common ancestors follow fascinatingly
similar paths of development. The human embryo, for
example, has vestigial gills at one phase of development.

Biochemical Evidence
Nearly all organisms on Earth use the same common elements.
All contain DNA, and all use the same 20 amino acids that
spell proteinsusing the same triplet code. Nearly all use
ATP as well as many of the same enzymes. Figure 14.16 on
page 227 illustrates the significance of biochemical differences.
Specifically, it focuses on cytochrome c, a molecule used in
the electron transport chain. Comparing interspecies data on
the sequence of amino acids used in producing cytochrome c,
one finds degrees of genome relatedness. Thus, humans differ
from monkeys by only one amino acid. They differ from ducks
by 11 amino acids and from Candida (a yeast), by 51 amino
acids.
Before going on to your next assignment, take a few minutes
to respond to Self-Check 14. Also, read the Summary on
page 228 and complete the questions on pages 228230. The
answers to these questions are in Appendix A in the back of
your textbook.

Lesson 3

83

Self-Check 14
1. The study of the distribution of organisms around the world is known as
a. biodiversity.
b. biogeography.

c. comparative morphology.
d. evolutionary biology.

2. How can you tell a population is evolving?

a.
b.
c.
d.

Variations in traits are affecting an individuals survival.

Individuals are reproducing only in particular environments.
Forms of heritable traits are changing over generations.
Population size is growing rapidly.

3. Humans have a tailbone but no tail. This fact illustrates a/an _______ structure.
a. vestigial
b. analogous

c. elusive
d. analogous

4. From the Darwinian point of view, when humans breed cattle for certain traits, theyre
engaged in _______ selection.
a. fitness
b. artificial

c. commercial
d. population

5. As a result of reading Thomas Malthus on the topic of human population increase,

Wallace came up with the concept of
a. selective reproduction.
b. natural selectivity.

c. speciation.
d. survival of the fittest.

6. Evidence suggests that lifes diversity has come about as the result of very slight differences
in certain genes. This sort of observation is most likely to have arisen through examining
_______ evidence.
a. biochemical
b. fossil

c. biogeographical
d. anatomical

Check your answers with those on page 198.

84

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 15:
EVOLUTION ON A SMALL SCALE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 15,
Evolution on a Small Scale, on pages 231244 in your
textbook.

Microevolution
For the science of biology, a population is all of the members
of a species living and reproducing within a particular area.
Microevolution refers to evolutionary changes within a population. In terms of genetics, all of the alleles and various gene
locations within a population make up its gene pool.

Evolution in a Genetic Context

Individual sexual reproduction by itself cant change allele
frequencies. Put simply, a Punnett square for individual
breeding couples doesnt give the proportions (percentages) of
alleles in a breeding population over time. Study the explanation for this fact on page 233 of your text.
To work out the relative percentages of dominant versus recessive alleles in the genotypes of a reproducing population, we
can apply a version of the binomial equation, p2 + 2pq + q2.
Review Figure 15.3 on page 234 to see how the calculations
work out for a selected set of two alleles.
The proportions of alleles in a population will remain the
same as long as there are no mutations, gene flow, random
mating, genetic drift, and mating selection factors. Be sure
you have a good understanding of each of these factors before
you go on.

Lesson 3

85

Causes of Microevolution
Your textbook covers the following causes of microevolution:
1. Mutations create the raw material for evolution. Mutations
are the cause of variations within a breeding population.
While many mutations are either neutral or destructive,
some may favor an adaptive advantage in the phenotype
of some individuals in a population.
2. Gene flow occurs when alleles are exchanged between
migrating populations of the same species. Basically, the
interbreeding of two adjacent animal populations tends
to work in favor of stable allele combinations and may
actually prevent speciation. Figure 15.6 on page 236
illustrates examples of gene flow related to several
subspecies of one species of snake.
3. Random mating occurs when males and females mate by
chance according to the laws of probability. Its nonrandom
mating, or inbreeding, that can lead to microevolution. Thus,
in assortative mating, people tend to mate with people who
have the same genotype. Tall people tend to marry tall
people, for example. In sexual selection, particular phenotypic traits may increase the likelihood of mating and
reproduction. For example, more assertive males in a
population may mate more often than less assertive males.
4. Genetic drift refers to the tendency of allele ratios to change
simply by chance, especially given a sufficiently long period
of time. For example, the genotypes of members of species
that live in separated habitats tend to gradually drift
apartalthough usually in only minor ways. Figure 15.7
illustrates genetic drift.

86

A bottleneck effect may occur when some kind of

natural catastrophe greatly reduces the size of a
species population. The genotypes of the survivors
will become dominant; the genotypes of nonsurvivors
will be erased. Figure 15.8 on page 237 cleverly
illustrates a bottleneck effect.

A founder effect may occur when populations are separated to interbreed more or less exclusively over time.
Figure 15.9 on page 238 illustrates a founder effect
related to the Amish people of Lancaster, Pennsylvania.

Biology

Natural Selection
As particular phenotypic traits favor adaptation, survival, and
reproduction, allele frequencies within breeding population
change from generation to generation. This is the essence of
ongoing natural selection. However, there are types of selection.
Directional selection occurs when an extreme phenotype is
favored. The increase in the size of the horse over time is an
example of directional change related to environmental changes
that favored larger size. Figure 15.10 on page 239 illustrates
directional selection among horses. Another example discussed
in your text is selection for genetic traits that protect people
against the malaria Plasmodium.
Stabilizing selection takes place when extreme phenotypes are
selected against, thus resulting in average or intermediate
phenotypes. See Figure 15.11 on page 240.
Disruptive selection occurs when two or more extreme phenotypes are favored over intermediate types. See Figure 15.12
on page 240.
Before going on to your next assignment, take a few minutes
to respond to Self-Check 15.

Lesson 3

87

Self-Check 15
1. The mechanism that creates new alleles is
a. independent assortment.
b. random mating.

c. industrial melanism.
d. mutation.

2. If we observe small changes in the frequency of an alleles appearance in a populations

offspring due to mutation, natural selection, and genetic drift, were observing
a. microevolution.
b. mutation rate.

c. genetic equilibrium.
d. polymorphism.

3. Gene flow is the movement of alleles into and out of a population as a result of
a. fertilization.
b. migration.

c. mutation.
d. stabilizing selection.

4. A group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area is a

a. gene pool.
b. phenotype.

c. generation.
d. population.

5. The genes shared by an entire group and their offspring constitutes a/an
a. gene pool.
b. population.

c. allele frequency.
d. phenotypic variation.

6. If were looking for the proportions of recessive to dominant alleles A and a under the
Hardy-Weinberg equation p2+ 2pq + q2, and p2 is the frequency of homozygous dominant
(A) individuals, then q2 must represent the frequency of
a. heterozygous individuals.
b. random mating.

c. homozygous recessive individuals.

d. homozygous genetic drift.

7. When we see that two or more extreme phenotypes of field mice are favored over any
intermediate phenotype for this species, were detecting _______ selection.
a. maintenance
b. disruptive

c. stabilizing
d. directional

Check your answers with those on page 198.

88

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 16:
EVOLUTION ON A LARGE SCALE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 16,
Evolution on a Large Scale, on pages 245264 in your
textbook.

Macroevolution
Defining Species
A species is considered to be the smallest, most basic unit of
classification among organisms. Individuals of a species are
capable of breeding with each other under natural conditions,
but are unable to breed successfully with members of another
species. Simply stated, a species is a group of fertile organisms
that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring only among
themselves. Figure 16.2 on page 247 shows three species of
flycatchers. Though similar in appearance, theyre separate
species because each reproduces only within their phenotype.
Certain reproductive barriers exist that prevent reproduction
attempts and fertilization. For example, prezygotic isolating
mechanisms (those occurring before the formation of a zygote)
include habitat isolation, temporal isolation related to the
time of year individuals mate, behavioral isolation as in the
case of different courtship patterns, mechanical isolation,
and gamete isolation.
Postzygotic isolating mechanisms (those occurring after a
zygote is formed) include such things as the death of nonviable hybrid zygotes and hybrid sterility, in which the adult is
reproductively sterile. Mules, the hybrid offspring of donkeys
and horses, are an example illustrated in Figure 16.6 on
page 249. Figure 16.4 on page 248 presents an overview of
both prezygotic and postzygotic reproductive barriers.

Lesson 3

89

Models of Speciation
Speciation is the process by which a daughter species forms from
a population of a parent species. This is caused by mutation,
natural selection, and genetic drift. There are three ways
speciation can occur:
1. In allopatric speciation, some type of physical barrier
prevents gene flow between subpopulations of the same
species. Reproductive isolating mechanisms begin to
evolve as changes occur in the separated populations.
Eventually, the changes are so great that the populations
can no longer successfully interbreed. Figure 16.7 on
page 250 illustrates allopatric speciation of salamanders.
2. In sympatric speciation, a daughter species arises within
an existing population with no physical barrier present.
This type of speciation has been important in the evolution of flowering plants that engage in self-fertilization.
Mutations in gene number sometimes cause no harmful
effects, but they keep the plants from being able to breed
with others of the same species, and a new species is
formed. See Figure 16.8 for an illustration with respect
to modern bread wheat.
3. Speciation through adaptive radiation occurs when neighboring populations become separate species even though
their territories overlap in a certain area. Its sometimes
difficult to determine whether these populations are actually
separate species, or merely subspecies (geographically distinct populations of the same species) since they sometimes
produce hybrid offspring where the territories overlap.
Figure 16.9 on page 251 illustrates adaptive radiation
in the case of Darwins famous Galapagos finches.

The History of Species

Table 16.1 on page 252 should get your serious and repeated
attention. It presents the geological time scale, major divisions
of geological time, and a summary of major evolutionary events
that occurred from Precambrian time to the present.

90

Biology

The information from Table 16.1 is explained further in The

Geological Timescale and The Pace of Speciation on pages
253254. Today, there are two basically opposed ideas about
the pace of speciation. In the gradualisitc model, illustrated in
part (a.) of Figure 16.11, evolution over time has been steady
and orderly. In the punctuated equilibrium model, illustrated
in part (b) of Figure 16.11, new species appear suddenly and
then remain largely unchanged until they go extinct.
As you read the information in Mass Extinctions of Species,
pages 254255, refer to Table 16.1 to see where these extinctions occurred. These mass extinctions resulted from radical
changes due to such things as volcanism, plate tectonics (as
illustrated in Figures 16.12 and 16.13), as well as radically
fluctuating atmospheric and climate conditions.

Classification of Species
Taxonomy is a branch of biology concerned with identifying,
naming, and classifying organisms. The taxonomic hierarchy
begins with the species. A species, in turn, belongs to a genus,
a family, an order, a class, a phylum, and a kingdom. More
recently, as you may recall, a higher taxonomic category, the
domain, has been added. Figure 16.14 on page 256 gives you
the taxonomic hierarchy for a species of orchid.

Classification and Phylogeny

Taxonomy and classification are included a in a broader field of
biology called systematics. The objective of systematics is the
study of the diversity of organisms at all levels of organization.
Part of the field of systematics involves the tracing of evolutionary relationships between species, known as phylogeny.
Scientists rely on both the fossil record and on molecular
data to analyze various kinds of clues. Figure 16.15 illustrates the classification of a phylogenetic tree showing the
evolution of sheep, cattle, deer, and reindeer from common
ancestors. Figure 16.16 on page 258 illustrates the use of
molecular data (like DNA base sequences) to discover the
relative evolutionary distance between the galago and
modern humans.

Lesson 3

91

The goal of cladistic systematics is determining testable

hypotheses about the evolutionary relationship between
organisms. A cladogram is a diagram that illustrates phylogenetic relationships. The logic and procedures for creating a
cladogram are illustrated for you in Figure 16.17.
Study Figure 16.18 on page 260, which illustrates the differences
between traditional and cladistic approaches to phylogeny.
The differences derive from different assumption about how
to determine traits derived from common ancestors. All of
this should remind you that science is an ongoing process.

Classification Systems
Youve already seen that there are different approaches
to taxonomic schemes for classifying species and phyla. Be
sure to become familiar with the differences between the traditional five-kingdom system and the newer approach based
on systematics. Figure 16.19 on page 261 allows you to visualize the three-domain system that includes Bacteria and
Archaea as Prokaryotes, differentiating these organisms from
the kingdoms that comprise the Eukaryotes.
Before going on to your next assignment, take a few minutes
to respond to Self-Check 16. Are you remembering to read the
chapter summaries and complete the exercises at the end of
each chapter? You can check your work with the answers
given in Appendix A of the textbook.

92

Biology

Self-Check 16
1. The evolution of many new species from a single lineage is likely to involve
a. adaptive radiation.
b. anagenesis.

c. gametic mortality.
d. mass extinction.

2. In _______ evolution, two species acquire traits similar to those of very distantly related
evolutionary ancestors.
a. homologous
b. parallel

c. phylogenetic
d. convergent

3. Which of the following is a postzygotic isolating mechanism?

a. Habitat isolation
b. Behavioral isolation

c. Hybrid sterility
d. Gamete isolation

4. The courtship rituals performed by some male birds to attract females of the same species are
an example of _______ isolation.
a. temporal
b. ecological

c. behavioral
d. mechanical

5. Speciation due to geographic barrier separating populations is called _______ speciation.

a. allopatric
b. archipelago

c. parapatric
d. sympatric

6. All of the following factors have been implicated in mass extinctions, except
a. continental drift.
b. punctuated equilibrium.

c. meteorite impact.
d. loss of habitat.

7. Sympatric speciation may occur in plants due to

a. geographic isolation.
b. mechanical isolation.

c. polyploidy.
d. gametic mortality.

Check your answers with those on page 198.

Lesson 3

93

ASSIGNMENT 17:
THE FIRST FORMS OF LIFE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 17,
The First Forms of Life, on pages 265282 in your textbook.

The Viruses
Viruses are organic systems that have some properties of living
things, yet arent classified as organisms. First discovered in
the late 1800s, viruses are the causative agents of many dreaded
diseases of both plants and animals. Common human viral
diseases include mumps, measles, chicken pox, and the common
cold. A virus consists of a protein coat, or capsid, wrapped
around a chromosome of genetic material (either DNA or
RNA). Viruses can reproduce only by commandeering the
metabolic machinery of a host cell. Once they infect host
cells, viral cycles proceed through five phases called the lytic
cycle. Figure 17.3 on page 267 summarizes the lytic cycle as
it relates to the lysogenic cycle, in which the virus is integrated
into the DNA of the host cell.
Viruses are adapted to plants and animals in distinct ways.
Viruses tend to enter plants through damaged tissues and to
move about in the plasmodesmata, the cytoplasmic strands
that extend between plant cell walls. In animals, viruses tend
to behave like the bacteriophages that invade bacteria, except
theyre invading eukaryotic cells. On page 268, Figure 17.4
illustrates infected tobacco plants. On the same page, Figure
17.5 illustrates the reproduction of the HIV retrovirus in an
animal cell. A retrovirus has an RNA genome although it goes
through a DNA stage. Figure 17.6 on page 269 illustrates the
rather appalling incidence of emerging diseases around the
globereminding us that viruses tend to evolve as they utilize
the nuclear material of host cells.

94

Biology

Viroids and Prions

Unlike viruses, viroids are naked strands of DNA that have
been implicated in serious crop diseases. Meanwhile, recently
discovered prions are protein-like particles that act as agents of
disease by altering the nature of proteins in host organisms
in a destructive direction.

The Prokaryotes
The prokaryotes are sorted into two domains, Bacteria
and Archaea. Both are simple unicellular creatures that
lack a nucleus.

Bacteria
Domain Bacteria is comprised of 400 known genera that are
found in practically every environment on Earth. Some bacteria
are photoautotrophs (often called autotrophs), which are capable of oxygen-based photosynthesis. Most bacteria, however,
are chemoheterotrophs (heterotrophs), which arent capable of
using solar energy directly. The heterotrophic varieties are
mostly decomposers that are beneficial to humans. Theyre used
to produce food items such as yogurt and pickles, as well as
antibiotics. Other heterotrophs are pathogenic, causing a
variety of illnesses including botulism, tetanus, and Lyme
disease. Figure 17.8 on page 271 shows you different shapes
taken by bacteria.
Bacteria (as well as Archaea) reproduce through binary fission,
the splitting of a parent cell into two daughter cells. Bacteria
may also reproduce by three means of genetic recombination. In
conjugation (which occurs only in closely related species), DNA
goes from a donor cell to a recipient cell through tiny tubes
called sex pili. In transformation, fragments of DNA are picked
up from surrounding living or dead bacteria. In transduction,
bacteriophages carry portions of bacterial DNA from one cell
to another. On page 272, Figure 17.10 illustrates concepts
about bacterial reproduction and survival; Figure 17.11 illustrates cyanobacteria, which are capable of photosynthesis,
and chemoautotrophic bacteria that live inside tubeworms.

Lesson 3

95

Archaea
Domain Archaea consists of ancient prokaryotes sometimes
referred to as living fossils. Theyre adapted to extreme habitats like those that were found on the early Earth. Today,
they thrive in oxygen-free environments such as sewage,
swamps, and animal guts; salty environments such as salt
lakes; and hot environments such as hot springs; and highly
acidic soils. Types of archaea include methanogens, which
release methane into the air, and halophiles, which depend
on environments rich in salts. Figures 17.1517.17, all on
page 275, illustrate three typical archaea habitats.

The Protists
The Protists include all the eukaryotic unicellular organisms
that may resemble either animals or plants. Theyre primarily
aquatic and are widely distributed all over the world in lakes
and ponds. Because some protests live in very inhospitable
environmentslike deep ocean steam ventstheyre considered to be among them most ancient life forms on our planet.
Figure 17.18 on page 276 illustrates the evolution of the
eukaryotic cell.
There are three major groups of protests: algae, protozoans,
and slime and water molds.
Algae are plantlike protists, which are generally photosynthetic.
They may be single-celled, or they may cluster in colonies as
in the case of red, brown, and green types of algae. Algal
diversity is illustrated for you in Figure 17.20 on page 227.
On the same page, Figure 17.19 presents an inside view of a
Chlamydomonas, an autotrophic green alga.
Protozoans are categorized by the types of locomotion they
employ. Ciliates have hairlike cilia for swimming about to
capture food such as bacteria, algae, or other protozoans.
Amoeboids use pseudopods (false feet) for moving around and
capturing prey. Radiolarians and foraminiferans are marine
amoeboids that form calcium carbonate shells. The accumulation of these shells in sediments leads to the formation of
limestone. The zooflagellates move about by means of long
slender extensions called flagella. Under a microscope, flagella
look bit like whips. They flail about to propel the creature

96

Biology

from place to place. Sporozoans arent motile (capable of

self-propulsion) They complete part of their life cycle inside
specific host cells, and are the cause of many human diseases,
including malaria.
Slime molds and water molds resemble fungi in many respects.
Theyre heterotrophic and form spore-bearing structures. Unlike
fungi, however, they produce motile cells during their life cycle.
The life cycle of plasmodium slime molds is illustrated in
Figure 17.23 on page 279. Slime molds feed on (and thus
help recycle) dead plant matter. They also feed on bacteria,
providing checks on bacterial populations. Water molds
decompose remains, but theyre also parasitic on plants
and animals.
Before going on to your next assignment, take a few minutes
to respond to Self-Check 17.

Lesson 3

97

Self-Check 17
1. Infectious, disease-causing agents are
a. bacteria.
b. pathogens.

c. microorganisms.
d. protistans.

2. Self-feeders that depend on sunlight to split water and for the reduction of carbon dioxide
are called
a. chemoautotrophs.
b. photoheterotrophs.

c. chemoheterotrophs.
d. photoautotrophs.

3. A rod-shaped prokaryotic cell is a

a. bacillus.
b. coccus.

c. spirillum.
d. flagellum.

4. Methanogens, extreme halophiles, and extreme thermoacidophiles are all classified as

a. photoautotrophs.
b. eubacteria.

c. archaea.
d. protists.

5. In which of these phases of the lyctic cycle do we observe the assembly of viral components
within a host cell?
a. Penetration
b. Attachment

c. Maturation
d. Biosynthesis

6. Complete this analogy: Among protozoans, ciliates are to cilia as _______ are to pseudopods.
a. amoebas
b. trypanosomes

c. radiolarians
d. sporozoans

7. Slime molds differ from water molds in that

a.
b.
c.
d.

water molds are actually amoebas while slime molds are parasitic.
water molds are unique in their capacity to consume plant remains.
slime molds are unique in their capacity to consume plant remains.
water molds may be parasitic to both plants and animals.

Check your answers with those on page 199.

98

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 18:
LAND ENVIRONMENT:
PLANTS AND FUNGI
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 18,
Land Environment: Plants and Fungi, on pages 283304 in
your textbook.

Onto Land
Plants (kingdom Plantae) are multicelled eukaryotes that are
photosynthetic autotrophs. Most plants are vascular. That is,
they have internal tissues that conduct water and solutes
through roots, stems, and leaves. Green plants are the major
producers for land ecosystems.
To track the evolution of land plants, we can begin with green
algaea water-dwelling plant that appears to be the common
ancestor of land plants. Major evolutionary changes then began
with the development of vascular tissues, the development of
seeds, and the arrival of the flowering plants (angiosperms)
during the age of dinosaurs. The evolution of the different
kinds of plants is illustrated in Figure 18.2 on page 285.
The life cycle of all plants is different from that of animals.
As illustrated in Figure 18.3 on page 286, plants reproduce
in alternating generations. Study the illustration to better
understand how the diploid sporophyte alternates with the
haploid gametophyte.

Diversity of Plants
The four major divisions in the plant kingdom are illustrated
in Figure 18.1 on page 284.
1. The nonvascular plants include mosses (bryophytes). These
plants are well adapted for growth in moist habitats. As
noted, a mosss leaflike, stemlike, and rootlike parts have
no xylem or phloem (vascular tissues). Instead, they have
threadlike structures called rhizoids for absorbing water
and solutes. Bryophytes include mosses, liverworts, and
hornworts. Mosses are illustrated in Figure 18.5 on page 287.

Lesson 3

99

2. Seedless vascular plants include club mosses, horsetails,

and ferns. All of these kinds of plants reached heroic proportions during the Carboniferous period (286 to 360 million
years ago). They eventually formed the sediments we now
mine as coal. Today, seedless vascular plants include
maidenhair, royal, and harts tongue fernsillustrated
for you in Figure 18.8 on page 289. Ferns have true roots,
and their vascular tissue include xylem and phloem. Most
ferns are found in wet, humid environments since they
require a dependable water supply for metabolism and
reproduction. Figure 18.9 on page 289 illustrates the
fern life cycle.
3. Seed-bearing vascular plants, gymnosperms, and
angiosperms have adapted tissue structures for life
in dry climates. They produce seeds that encase their
embryonic sporophytes inside a protective coat. They
also produce pollen grains as a means for sperm dispersal in the absence of water. Figure 18.11 on page 290
illustrates whats involved in the production of a seed.
a. Gymnosperms produce naked seeds, seeds
with no fruit wall covering. In fact, gymnosperm
pollination occurs mostly by the wind. This group
includes conifers, cycads, and the ginkgo. On page 291,
Figure 18.12 illustrates the ancient cycads. Figure 18.13
illustrates different conifers.

A eudicot is a flowering
plant that has two
cotyledons. Youll study
more about eudicots
later in this course.

100

b. Angiosperms are flowering plants in which the seed is

enclosed in a fruit wall. The flowering angiosperms
are the most highly evolved and diverse in the plant
kingdom. Most coevolved with pollinators, such as
bees and other insects, allowing the plants to ship
pollen grains to the female reproductive parts of
other plants. There are at least 240,000 species of
angiosperms thriving all over the world. Study
Figure 18.15 on page 292 to learn the general parts of
a flower, including the petals, the parts of the stamens,
and those of the carpel. Figure 18.6 on page 293 portrays the life cycle of a flowering eudicot, illustrating
the reproductive mechanisms involved in alternating
generations.

Biology

The Fungi
Fungi are distinct from both plants and animals. Review
Table 18.1 on page 296 for an overview of the ways fungi differ
from plants and animals. In general, fungi are non-green,
somewhat plantlike heterotrophic organisms that grow in dark,
moist habitats. Fungi include mushrooms, molds, and yeasts.
Figure 18.20 on page 296 illustrates several types of fungi.
Figure 18.23 on page 298 illustrates the sexual reproductive
cycle of mushrooms.
Most fungi are saprotrophs, which decompose dead organic
matter. Some fungi, however, like the fungal pathogens noted
below, are parasitic. Fungi may have mutualistic relationships
with other organisms. Lichens, for example, involve a mutualistic
relationship between a fungus and photosynthetic organism.
Varieties of lichens are illustrated in Figure 18.25 on page 299.
Mycorrhizal fungi sustain mutualistic, symbiotic associations
between a fungus and the roots of a young plant.

A mutualistic relationship
is a relationship in
which both species benefit in terms of growth
and reproduction.

The main body of a fungus is called a mycelium. The chains

of cells (filaments) that compose the mycelium are called
hyphae. Fungal hyphae greatly expand the surface areas of
plant root systems, allowing them greater efficiency in
extracting water and nutrients from soils.
Some fungilike mushroomsare a popular source of food
for humans and other animals. Fungal pathogens, however,
are another matter. Plant fungal diseases are illustrated for
you in Figure 18.28 on page 300. Mycosesdiseases caused
by fungiinclude several that can plague humans. Candida
albicans produces the widest variety of fungal diseases.
Candida infections are generally called yeast infections
when they infect women, but Candida infestations can also
cause whats called oral thrush (common in newborns and
AIDS patients). In people with suppressed immune systems,
Candida can attack other tissues, including those of the
heart and brain. Ringworm, a cause of so-called athletes foot,
is a cutaneous (skin-surface) infection that may appear in other
skin areas besides ones feet. Figure 18.29 on page 301 illustrates oral thrush and ringworm infections.
Before going on to your next assignment take a few minutes
to respond to Self-Check 18.

Lesson 3

101

Self-Check 18
1. If you observe a fungus intertwined with one or more photosynthetic organisms,
youre looking at a
a. mycorrhiza.
b. heterotrophic decomposer.

c. fungal pathogen.
d. lichen.

2. The main body of a fungus is composed of a mass of hyphae called a

a. hypha.
b. chitin.

c. mycelium.
d. filament.

3. The pollen sacs in the flower of an angiosperm are located in the

a. ovary.
b. stamens.

c. anther.
d. style.

4. The two halves within a peanut shell are actually

a. sporophytes.
b. cotyledons.

c. pollen grains.
d. stigmas.

5. Drought-resistant male gametophytes are called

a. ovules.
b. conifers.

c. pollen grains.
d. seeds.

6. In vascular plants, _______ conducts water and minerals, while _______ conducts organic
nutrients.
a. lignin, phloem
b. xylem, phloem

c. phloem, lignin
d. phloem, xylem.

7. The most common bryophytes include

a. common mosses and club mosses.
b. liverworts and Irish moss.

c. mosses and ferns.

d. liverworts and mosses.

8. Where does germination take place in a flowering plant?

a. Stigma
b. Anther

c. Ovary
d. Stamen

9. In terms of numbers and diversity, _______ are the most successful plants.
a. gymnosperms
b. angiosperms

c. ferns
d. bryophytes

Check your answers with those on page 199.

102

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 19:
BOTH WATER AND LAND: ANIMALS
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 19,
Both Water and Land: Animals, on pages 305336 in
your textbook.

Evolution of Animals
Domain Eukarya, Kingdom Animalia contains multicelled
organisms with cells arranged into tissues and organs. The
more complex animals have their organs arranged into organ
systems. All animals are heterotrophic and require oxygen for
aerobic respiration. Most are motile at some point during their
life cycle, which includes stages of embryonic development.
Study Figure 19.1 on page 306 and think about how a frog
develops from a single fertilized egg.
Some scientists believe that ancient ancestors of all of the
animals now living on Earth appeared all at once at the outset
of the so-called Cambrian explosion. Figure 19.2 on page 307
illustrates the sea life of the Cambrian period. Turn then to
Figure 19.3 for an overall view of the theory behind the evolution of animals. Note the basic characteristics developed along
the 600-million-year path to the animals we know today. They
include true tissues, which are specialized cells organized for
specific functions; radial symmetry, in which the animal is
organized circularly; and bilateral symmetry, in which the
animal has definite right and left halves. Use Figure 19.6 on
page 309 to review the proposed evolutionary tree of animals
in terms of molecular data.

Introducing the Invertebrates

Invertebrates are animals that dont have a backbone. Theyre
separated into different phyla with respect to symmetry, type
of gut, type of body cavity, and segmentation. The invertebrates
include sponges, cnidarians, flatworms, and roundworms.

Lesson 3

103

Sponges
Sponges, which belong in phylum Porifera, dont display any
type of symmetry, tissues, or organs. There are 800 species
ranging in size from less than one inch to several feet. Water
flows into a sponges body through microscopic openings and
out through larger openings. Collar cells that line the inside
of the sponge trap small food particles. Sponges reproduce
sexually by releasing sperm into the water. After the eggs are
fertilized, a swimming larval stage is formed that will later
develop into an adult sponge. Figure 19.7 on page 310 illustrates
the anatomy of a sponge.

Cnidarians
Phylum Cnidaria display true tissues. The phylum includes
jellyfishes, the hydra, sea anemones, and corals. The cnidaria
have radial symmetry. Theyre also famous for tentacles with
stinging cells called nematocysts. Two common body forms
among these creatures are the bell-shaped medusa and the
tube-like polyp. Cnidarians are organized to allow their tissues (specialized cells) to cooperate. They feature a saclike
gut for food processing. Figure 19.8 on page 310 illustrates
the hydra and the sea anemone. Figure 19.9 on page 311
gives you great illustrations of the Portuguese man of war,
corals that form and live in a calcium carbonate shell (thus
producing coral reefs), and one of the many kinds of jellyfish.

Flatworms
Phylum Platyhelminthes includes a group of animals called
flatworms. Flatworms were the first animals to display bilateral
symmetry and actual organ systems. Often these organisms
are hermaphrodites. That is, they have both male and female
reproductive parts. They reproduce sexually by exchanging
sperm with another individual. Classes of flatworms include
planarians, which are free-living organisms. As shown in
Figure 19.10, planarians have many of the features found in
animals higher up the evolutionary ladder. Rather unpleasant
parasitic flatworms, the tapeworm and the blood fluke, are
illustrated in Figure 19.11 on page 312.

104

Biology

Roundworms
Phylum Nematoda classifies the roundworms. Roundworms
display bilateral symmetry, and the body is usually tapered
at both ends. A protective covering called a cuticle surrounds
the body. Roundworms are the simplest animals to have a
complete digestive system. Most are free-living, but some are
parasitic species that do great harm to humans, cats, dogs,
cattle, and sheep. Roundworms are male or female, not both
as in the case of flatworms. Their anatomy is illustrated for
you in Figure 19.12 on page 312.

Protostomes and
Deuterostomes Compared
Protostomes can be distinguished from deuterostomes on the
basis of their embryonic development. The differences are
illustrated in Figure 19.13 on page 313. (Notice the reversed
position for the mouth and the anus.) Protosomes include
mollusks, annelids (segmented worms), and the enormous family
of arthropods (which includes insects, crustaceans, and spiders).
Deuterotomes include echinoderms (starfish and seas urchins)
and chordates (creatures with backbone structures).

Molluscs, Annelids, and Arthropods

Molluscs
Phylum Mollusca includes organisms that are bilaterally
symmetrical, with a fleshy, soft body. Most have a calcium
carbonate shell called the mantle that drapes over the body.
There are three major classes of molluscs:
1. Gastropods include some 90,000 species of snails and
slugs. Most have a spirally coiled shell, although some
species have a reduced shell or no shell at all.

Lesson 3

105

2. Cephalopods include squids, octopuses, cuttlefish, and

the chambered nautilus. This class contains the fastestswimming invertebrates (squids) and the smartest
(octopuses). These are the only molluscs to display a
closed circulatory system for advanced oxygen uptake.
3. Bivalves include oysters, clams, and scallops. Theyre
called bivalves because their shells have two halves.
Figure 19.14 on page 314 illustrates the body plan of molluscs.
The three main classes of mollusks are illustrated in Figure 19.15
on the same page.

Annelids: Segmented Worms

Phylum Annelida, the segmented worms, are organisms with
highly pronounced segmentation as well as bilateral symmetry.
Their body plans permit complex internal organs and systems.
The phylum contains earthworms and leeches. Earthworms
are valuable aids to soil formation; leeches are parasitic fluid
(blood) feeders. Figure 19.16 on page 315 illustrates the
anatomy of an earthworm.

Arthropods: Jointed Appendages

Phylum Arthropoda includes an enormous diversity of species
and, in that respect, may be considered the most successful
animal phylum. The term arthropod means joint-footed. Extant
(living) arthropods include crustaceans (crabs and lobsters),
arachnids (spiders, ticks, and scorpions), and the more than
one million species of insects.
Six characteristics are considered to have contributed to the
success of the arthropods. Carefully study all six of these
adaptive-success features on page 316 of your text.
Figure 19.18 illustrates an exoskeleton and jointed appendage
in a lobster. Figure 19.19 illustrates the metamorphosis of
a monarch butterfly. Figures 19.20 and 19.21 on page 317
give you a look at crustacean diversity as well as assorted
arthropodsfrom the black widow spider to the living fossil
known as the horseshoe crab. Figure 19.22 on page 318 offers
you a short visual tour of the amazing world of insects.

106

Biology

Echinoderms and Chordates

Echinoderms
Phylum Echinodermata includes sea stars, sea lilies, sea
cucumbers, brittle stars, sea urchins, and sand dollarsall
of which are illustrated for you in Figure 19.23 on page 319.
The echinoderm body wall contains a number of spines that
are used for defense. Most have a well-developed inner skeleton
and most often display radial symmetry with some bilateral
features during larval stages. In spite of having no brain, they
have a well-developed decentralized nervous system.

Chordates
Phylum Chordata (the chordates) is divided into invertebrates
and vertebrates. Compared to the vertebrate group, the invertebrate group is rather small. It includes tunicates and lancelets
(Figure 19.25 on page 320). Review Figure 19.26 on page 321
to get a good overview of the chordates.
In general, chordates include bilaterally symmetrical animals
that have a backbone composed of either cartilage or bone.
There are four distinct features present at some stage of
development:
1. A notochord, a long rod of stiff tissue, supports the body
2. A nerve cord running parallel to the notochord and gut,
providing the framework from which the nervous system
develops
3. Pharyngeal pouches, openings in the wall of the muscular
tube, which serve functions related to feeding or respiration
4. A tail formed in embryos and extending past the anus
Phylum Chordata is further classified into classes. These
classes are shown in Figure 19.26 on page 321 and explained
on pages 322327.

Class Agnatha (jawless fish) includes the hagfish

and lamprey.

Class Chondrichthyes includes cartilaginous fishes like

sharks, skates, and rays.

Lesson 3

107

Class Osteichthyes (bony fishes) is the most diverse and

abundant vertebrate class. Illustrations on page 322
offer you some visual clues about these creatures.

Class Amphibia includes frogs, toads, and salamanders.

Figure 19.29 offers some striking illustrations of the
evolution of amphibians.

Class Reptilia includes turtles, snakes, alligators, and

crocodiles. Reptiles are the first vertebrate class to
escape dependency on water in their habitat due to
development of internal fertilization, tough skin, and
amniotic eggs, which have internal membranes that conserve water and protect the embryo. Figure 19.31 on
page 324 illustrates reptile reproduction on land.

Class Aves includes birds. These are the only animals with
feathers that are derived from skin and used for flight and
insulation. Like mammals, birds rely on metabolic heat
and a four-chambered heart to maintain body temperature.

Class Mammalia includes the mammalsthe only organisms with hair and mammary glands that produce milk
for their young. Humans are included in this class.

Most mammals care for their young for extended periods of

time, with adults actively teaching certain behaviors. Almost
all female mammals develop a placenta, a spongy tissue that
delivers oxygen and nutrients to the developing embryo and
disposes of its wastes. However, marsupials and monotremes
are mammals that dont have a placenta. Monotremes lay eggs;
marsupials give birth to underdeveloped young that mature
in the mothers pouch. Monotremes and marsupials are illustrated in Figure 19.34 on page 326. Placental mammals are
illustrated on page 327 in Figure 19.35.

Human Evolution
Those propounding the theory of evolution believe that human
evolution begins with prosimians, like the ring-tailed lemur,
and proceeds across the spectrum of anthropoids onward to
the hominids. Anthropoids include all kinds of New World and
Old World monkeys, apes, and humans. Hominids are mammals

108

Biology

that have an anatomy suitable for standing erect and walking

on two feet. Figure 19.6 on page 328 presents the suggested
evolutionary tree of primates. Note that the common ancestor
of the whole group is closest in appearance to modern lemurs.
The evolution of hominids remains clouded in degrees of
mystery, largely because the fossil record is thin and new
discoveries keep rattling the proposed family tree. Basically,
however, what you see in Figure 19.37 is what evolutionists
propose as the progress of our species through basic stages,
including the australopithecines, Homo habilis, and Homo
erectus. Virtually all of the early fossil evidence is out of
Africa. Homo erectus, however, immigrated out of Africa into
Asia and Europe.
The final pages of Chapter 19 present one possible theory of
how humans evolved.
After you complete Self-Check 19, review the material youve
learned in this study guide as well as in the assigned pages
in your textbook for Assignments 1419. A good way to review
the chapters is to reread the summaries at the end of each one.
If you find you dont understand something in the summary,
go back to the textbook pages and review the material. When
youre sure that you completely understand the information in
Assignments 1419, complete your examination for Lesson 3.

Lesson 3

109

Self-Check 19
1. A sand dollar or a brittle star displays _______ symmetry.
a. radial
b. cephalized

c. bilateral
d. segmented

2. The most diverse and numerous of the vertebrates are the

a. lobe-finned fishes.
b. reptiles.

c. birds.
d. bony fishes.

3. Sponges belong to Phylum

a. Cnidaria.
b. Platyhelminthes.

c. Porifera.
d. Mollusca.

4. Among cephalopods, the _______ has been found to be highly intelligent.

a. snail
b. nautilus

c. squid
d. octopus

5. Jellyfish are examples of the _______ body form of cnidarians.

a. polyp
b. medusa

c. nematocystic
d. planula

6. Among mammals, the spiny anteater is distinctive in that its a/an

a. egg layer.
b. prosimian.

c. placental mammal.
d. marsupial.

7. The first hominid group known to use fire is now called

a. Cro-Magnon.
b. Neanderthals.

c. Homo Erectus.
d. Australopithicines.

8. Free-living (nonparasitic) flatworms are called

a. planarians.
b. nematodes.

c. tapeworms.
d. flukes.
(Continued)

110

Biology

Self-Check 19
9. Animals with repeating segments that exhibit bilateral symmetry are the
a. chitins.
b. annelids.

c. mollusks.
d. deuterostomes.

10. Sea cucumbers, brittle stars, and sea urchins belong to the phylum of
a. arthropods.
b. echinoderms.

c. crustaceans.
d. mollusks.

11. Sharks and skates are classified as _______ fishes.

a. bony
b. ray-finned

c. cartilaginous
d. amphibioius

Check your answers with those on page 199.

Lesson 3

111

NOTES

112

Biology

EXAMINATION NUMBER

00764800
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com

When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in
Lesson 3, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit
your answers online. If you dont have access to the Internet,
you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for
this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until
another examination is ready.
Questions 120: Select the one best answer to each question.

1. Scientists believe that modern humans appeared during the

_______ epoch.
A. Pleistocene
B. Pliocene

C. Miocene
D. Paleocene

2. In a population of horses, an extreme phenotype is favored

and the distribution of genes in that population shifts toward
that phenotype. This process is called _______ selection
A. random
B. stabilizing

C. disruptive
D. directional

3. Which of these creatures are annelids?

A. Gastropods
B. Earthworms

C. Planarians
D. Sponges

4. Which of the following is a type of archaea?

A. Algae
B. Mold

C. Halophiles
D. Spirilum

Examination

Lesson 3
Evolution and the Diversity of Life

113

5. What is the process by which a species becomes better suited to its environment?
A. Variation
B. Adaptation

C. Selection
D. Adjustment

6. Of the four plant groups, which one probably evolved first?

A. Angiosperms
B. Ferns

C. Mosses
D. Gymnosperms

7. Which one of the following is an example of a postzygotic reproductive barrier?

A. Hybrid sterility
B. Habitat isolation

C. Incompatible anatomy
D. Gamete isolation

8. Most fungi live by decomposing the remains of plants, animals, and microbes found in
soil. That is why most fungi are called
A. mushrooms.
B. saprotrophs.

C. lichens.
D. mycelium.

9. Scientists who argue that modern humans evolved from a single population believe
that humans came from the continent of
A. Europe.
B. Africa.

C. Asia.
D. South America.

10. Any trace of a dead organism, such as an imprint in a rock, is called a

A. homologous structure.
B. transitional form.

C. strata.
D. fossil.

11. Most scientists now believe that birds evolved directly from bipedal
A. amphibians.
B. lizards.

C. dinosaurs.
D. marsupials.

12. The similarity of the characteristics of sheep and reindeer is due to their having a
common ancestor. This sort of phenomenon is called
A. homology.
B. convergent evolution.

C. taxonomy.
D. parallel evolution.

13. What do biologists call the process when allele frequencies in a population of a species
change over time due to chance?
A. Gene flow
B. Nonrandom mating

114

C. Genetic drift
D. Bottleneck effect

Examination, Lesson 3

14. In vascular plants, which of these parts conducts water and minerals upward from
the roots?
A. Xylem
B. Lignin

C. Phloem
D. Fronds

15. Amoebas move by using extensions of their cytoplasm called

A. cilia.
B. pseudopods.

C. vacuoles.
D. sporozoa.

16. The structure of the forelimb of a bird is similar in structure to that of the forelimb of
a mammal, suggesting that both descended from a common ancestor. This similarity is
an example of _______ evidence that supports the theory of evolution.
A. biochemical
B. vestigial

C. anatomical
D. biogeographical

17. The varieties of beak structures among Galapagos finches is a good example of
A. adaptive radiation.
B. allopathic speciation.

C. random radiation.
D. sympatric evolution.

18. Which one of these creatures is an echinoderm?

A. Grasshopper
B. Spider

C. Crab
D. Sea star

19. In biology, the members of a single species occupying the same area and reproducing
with one another is called a
A. herd.
B. gene pool.

C. group.
D. population.

20. A virus that reproduces in a bacterium is called a

A. lysogene.
B. retrovirus.

Examination, Lesson 3

C. phage.
D. viroid.

115

NOTES

116

Examination, Lesson 3

Your fourth lesson consists of 10 assignments. Part V, Plant

Structure and Function, covers plant anatomy and growth;
Part VI, Animal Structure and Function, covers anatomy,
body transport and maintenance systems, nutrition, defenses
against disease, and the control systemsas these topics
relate to the human body.
When you complete this lesson, youll be able to

Identify types of plant tissues

Explain how water is transported through plants

Discuss plant reproduction and development

Describe the process of homeostasis

Describe human the nervous system and explain the

importance of neurons

Identify the hormones that make up the endocrine system

Explain the human senses and the nature of

motor functions

Discuss the structure and function of skeletal muscle

Describe the circulatory system and the characteristics

of blood

Identify the roles of antibodies in the bodys defenses

against disease

Describe and explain basic principles of human nutrition

Describe the functions of the digestive, respiratory, and

urinary systems

Discuss male and female reproductive systems

Lesson 4

Structure and Function in

Plants and Animals

117

ASSIGNMENT 20: PLANT

ANATOMY AND GROWTH
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 20, Plant
Anatomy and Growth, on pages 337354 in your textbook.

Plant Organs
The above-ground parts of vascular plants include the shoots
stems, leaves, and flowerswhile the underground portion is
composed of the root system, or roots. Roots are specialized
structures for the absorption of minerals and water from the
soil. Roots also support and anchor the aboveground portion
of the plant.
Perennial plants are those that can outlast winter because
their roots can survive to produce new shoots in the spring.
Annual plants survive for only one season. Figure 20.1 on
page 338 gives you a good overall representation of the body
of a plant.
Flowering plants are divided into two types, based on the
nature of their embryonic leaves, called cotyledons. Monocots
have a single cotyledon in their seeds. Eudicots (dicots) have
two cotyledons in their seeds. Figure 20.4 on page 340 illustrates the differences between monocots and eudicots.

Plant Tissues and Cells

Plants have three types of specialized tissues:
1. The outside of a plant is made up of a single layer of
cells called the epidermis, which consists of closely
packed epidermal cells. Epidermal cells exposed to air
are covered with a waxy cuticle. The cuticle restricts
water loss and resists attacks by microorganisms.
Specialized guard cells present in the epidermis allow for
the opening and closing of the stomata. Stomata are like
pores. They control the movement of water vapor, oxygen,
and carbon dioxide across the epidermis. (A periderm
replaces epidermis in plants with secondary growth; periderm is what forms the outer bark of woody plants.)

118

Study Guide Title

2. The ground tissue makes up the bulk of the plant body. It

includes three types of simple tissues. Parenchyma cells,
which have thin walls, are active in photosynthesis and
storage. Collenchyma cells provide support for primary
tissues. Sclerenchyma cells are fibrous cells that give
stalks their gravity-resisting strength. Figure 20.6 on
page 341 illustrates these three kinds of ground tissue
cells.
3. The vascular tissue of a plant is composed of two types
of tissues. Xylem conducts water and dissolved minerals
through the plant body. It also functions as a mechanical
support for the plant. The cells of this tissue are actually
dead at maturity, and the cell walls interconnect to form
pipelines for water flow. Phloem conducts sugars and
other solutes throughout the plant. The cells are alive at
maturity. Sugars traveling through the phloem pipelines
are unloaded where theres cell growth or where food
storage is needed. Figure 20.7 on page 342 illustrates
vascular tissue.

Organization of Leaves
The interior of a leaf is composed of mesophyll, the tissue that
carries out the work of photosynthesis. Leaf veins are transport
highways to and from the mesophyll cells. They carry water
and minerals in and transport sugar out. There are two distinct regions among mesophyll cells. The palisade mesophyll
has elongated cells. The spongy mesophyll contains irregularly
shaped cells surrounded by air spaces. The latter arrangement
facilitates a maximum exposure of cell surface areas for gas
exchange and water loss. Stomata on the leaves allow carbon
dioxide to enter and oxygen (a byproduct of photosynthesis)
to leave. Figure 20.8 and Figure 20.9 on page 343 illustrates
different kinds of leaf arrangements and details of leaf structures.

Organization of Stems
Read pages 344 and 345 carefully to make sure you have a
clear sense of the differences between nonwoody stems and
woody stems. Nonwoody stems, like those on daisies, are
illustrated in Figure 20.11 on page 344.

Lesson 4

119

Woody stems include bark, which is composed of cork,

cork-cambium, cortex, and phloem. Wood like that used
for lumber is secondary xylem, which builds up year after
year in a tree trunk or branch. Since this buildup follows
the seasons, we can estimate the age of a tree by counting
the annual rings on a cross section of its trunk. Figure 20.12
on page 345 illustrates the organization of a woody stem.

Organization of Roots
Eudicot roots have five different types of specialized tissues.
These tissues are listed and explained on page 347 and illustrated
in Figure 20.13. Monocot roots are very similar to eudicot roots,
but they dont produce the secondary growth that forms wood.
Also, the tissues of monocots are arranged differently to include
a central ground tissue called the pith.

Plant Nutrition
Nutrients are elements essential for a given organism because
theyre necessary for growth and survival. Essential plant elements include oxygen and hydrogen (from water) and carbon
(from carbon dioxide). Plants also rely on the uptake of a wide
range of different elements dissolved in soil water. Those
required in greater amounts are called macronutrients. The
others, called micronutrients, make up only traces of a plants
dry weight. Youll find a display in your text on page 348 that
specifies essential macro and micro plant nutrients.
Plants have special adaptations that aid in the uptake of
water and nutrients from the soil:
1. Root hairs (Figure 20.1 on page 338) are slender extensions
of epidermal cells specialized for absorption. A plant may
develop millions or even billions of these to increase
absorptive surface area during primary growth.
2. Root nodules have a mutualistic relationship with certain
bacteria. The bacteria convert nitrogen to usable forms for
the plant, while the plant supplies bacteria with organic
compounds produced during photosynthesis. Another
mutualistic relationship, called mycorrihizal association,
exists between roots and fungi. Basically, certain fungi
attached to root cells and break down inorganic matter
to release minerals for the plants use.
120

Biology

Soil is any plants vital partner. Soil is composed of mineral

particles and decaying organic matter called humus. Water
and oxygen fill in the spaces between these substances.
Mineral particles come in three sizessand, silt, and clay.
How suitable a particular soil is for plant growth depends on
the proportions of each of these minerals. Plants grow best in
loams, which are soils containing equal amounts of sand, silt,
and clay.

Transport of Nutrients
In plants, water and mineral in solutes are taken up in
roots hairs and then transported upward in xylem. The
mechanism by which water and minerals travel in xylem is
called the cohesion-tension model, illustrated in Figure 20.17
on page 349. Another concept involved in the transport of
nutrients is a phenomenon called transpiration. Transpiration
occurs by way of the stomata of leaves. As dry air crosses a
leaf surface, water in the plant evaporates into the air. The
evaporation creates a tension thats sufficient to draw water
upward from the root hairs, through the xylem and onward
into the atmosphere. At least 90% of the water taken up by
roots hairs evaporates from leaves.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 20.

Lesson 4

121

Self-Check 20
1. The centrally located ground tissue of a monocot is the
a. pith.
b. endodermis.

c. cortex.
d. pericycle.

2. Of the types of simple plant tissues, _______ has a number of commercial uses.
a. eudicot
b. collenchyma

c. sclerenchyma
d. phloem

3. The plant tissue in which photosynthesis occurs is called

a. sieve tubes.
b. xylem.

c. mesophyll.
d. phloem.

4. The ground tissue that has thick secondary walls full of lignin is called
a. parenchyma.
b. sclerenchyma.

c. the epidermis.
d. the cuticle.

5. In the process of _______, the evaporation of water creates a tension that draws water
upward from the root hairs.
a. cohesion
b. adhesion

c. transpiration
d. mycorrhizal association

6. What is the function of the root cap?

a. Growth
b. Absorption

c. Reproduction
d. Protection

7. A secondary form of xylem that builds up year after year is called

a. wood.
b. bark.

c. cork.
d. cork cambium

8. _______, which help plants fix needed nitrogen, are located in root nodules.
a. Fungi
b. Bacteria

c. Stems
d. Cotyledons

Check your answers with those on page 200.

122

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 21: PLANT

RESPONSES AND REPRODUCTION
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 21,
Plant Responses and Reproduction, on pages 355376 in your
textbook.

Responses in Flowering Plants

Plant Hormones
In flowering plants, different classes of small molecular
hormones are associated with specific responses. There
are five currently recognized groups of plant hormones.
Auxins are produced in the shoot apical meristem (located in
the terminal bud of the shoot system as well as in the root
tip). Auxins are found in young leaves as well as in flowers
and fruits. Auxins inhibit lateral bud growth in the vicinity of
the root tip. This process is called apical dominance. (Clipping
a shoot tip on purpose aims at encouraging further bud growth.)
When a plant is exposed to light from only one side, auxin
moves to the shady side causing the leaves on the shady
side to elongate and therefore bend toward the light source.
Figure 21.1 on page 356 illustrates this phenomenon. Apical
dominance is illustrated in Figure 21.2.
Gibberellins were originally thought to originate with a fungus
in the context of a plant disease. In 1956 it was discovered
that gibberellins are also produced by plants. Gibberellins are
growth-promoting hormones. Applied externally, they encourage
dwarf plants to grow by elongating leaves and stems. The effect
of gibberellins is illustrated in Figure 21.3.
Cytokinins are hormones that promote cell division. (Recall
that cytoplasm division is called cytokinesis.) Cytokinins
applied to plants can restore aging leaves and also encourage
new leaf growth. In overall plant metabolism, cytokinins work
interactively with auxins, given the relative acidity of the plant
environment, to promote or retard plant growth. A correct
ratio of the two hormones is best.

Lesson 4

123

Abscisic acid (ABA) is produced by any plant tissue with

chloroplasts as well as in monocot endosperm and roots.
ABA is sometimes called the plant stress hormone because
it maintains the dormancy of seeds and buds and closes off
stomata. In general, you can assume, that stress means cold
or adverse weather. In fact, the closing of stomata is a specific
response to water stress under drought conditions. Effects
of abscisic acid are illustrated in Figure 21.4 on page 358.
Ethylene is a gas that moves freely in the air. It works with other
plant hormones to produce varying effects. One of these effects
is the speeding up of fruit ripening. Ripening bananas and
other fruits give off ethylene. Study Figure 21.5 to learn
about the effects of ethylene. Note that one of them is
abscissionthe falling off of leaves.
For an overall review of these five main plant hormones,
consult Table 21.1 on page 359.

Environmental Stimuli and Plant Responses

Plants respond to their changing environment. For example,
stomata open quickly in the presence of light. Also, a plant turns
toward a primary source of light through growth mechanisms.
Differential growth in a plant is called a tropism. Phototropism
causes plants to turn toward light; gravitropism causes plant
stems to curve away from gravity.

Photoperiodism
In some plants, flowering occurs in response to the ratio of
light to darkness over a 24-hour period. In a given plant, this
ratio is its photoperiod. To the extent that plant responses are
controlled by the photoperiod, they rely on phytochromea
blue-green leaf pigment. Figure 21.8 on page 361 contrasts
length of darkness photoperiods in cocklebur (a short-day
plant) and clover (a long-day plant).

124

Biology

Sexual Reproduction in
Flowering Plants
Most plants reproduce sexually by alternating the production
of sporophytes (spore-producing bodies) with the production
of gametophytes (gamete-producing bodies). A sporophyte forms
in the vegetative body composed of roots, stems, leaves, and
flowers. The gametophytes form in the male and female floral
parts. Figure 21.10 summarizes the alternation of generations
in flowering plants (angiosperms).
As flowers form, they differentiate into nonfertile parts (sepals
and petals) and fertile parts (stamens and carpels). Stamens
are the male reproductive parts made up of anthers on a long
stalk (filament). The anthers contain pollen sacs. Haploid spores
form in the anthers and give rise to the male gametophytes,
which are the pollen grains. The female reproductive structures are the carpels (formerly called pistils). A carpel is
composed of a stigma, a style, and an ovary (the location
of egg development).
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther to
a stigma. The pollen grain then germinates and develops into
a pollen tube that grows down into the ovary, carrying the
sperm nuclei with it. Double fertilization occurs, and a
diploid zygote forms along with the nutritive tissue needed to
sustain it. These two structures form a seed. While the seeds
are forming, the ovaries begin to develop into fruits, which help
to protect and disperse the seeds. Figure 21.14 on page 364
illustrates the life cycle of flowering plants. Figure 21.16 on
page 366 illustrates the development of a seed in a eudicot.
To get a basic sense of the differences between monocots and
eudicots, review Figures 21.19 and 21.20 on page 368. The
figures contrast the two patterns of seed germination.

Asexual Reproduction in
Flowering Plants
Asexual reproduction in flowering plants can be thought of as
an alternative or default option. Plants contain nondifferentiated
meristem tissue. The cells of this tissue routinely reproduce
asexually. For example, white (Irish) potatoes are actually

Lesson 4

125

stem extensions. Each eye of the potatoes is a bud that can

generate a new potato. Indeed, potato fields are seeded by
planting buds. Sweet potatoes are modified roots, and sections of the root can be planted to produce sweet potatoes.
Review Figure 21.21 for two examples of vegetative reproduction.
Plant cells are totipotent. That is, each plant cell can, in principle,
become an entire plant. Thus, plant cells can be cultured, or
developed, as illustrated in Figure 21.22 on page 369. Today,
tissue cultures are widely used in the genetic engineering
of plants.
Genetically modified plants (GMPs) are also called transgenic
plants. Today, the modification of plants to encompass desirable genetic traits is a very big global business. And since the
commercial potential of genetically modified plants is very
large, there are also very large concerns among many people
about whats sometimes called Frankenfood. The concerns
mainly have to do with unintended consequences of genetically modified corn, wheat, tomatoes, and so on. However,
the long-term effects of GMPs arent presently crystal clear.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment
to complete Self-Check 21. Also, dont forget to review this
assignment by studying the chapter summary on page 373
and completing the exercises on pages 374376. The answers
to these exercises are in Appendix A in your textbook.

126

Biology

Self-Check 21
1. _______ is the so-called stress hormone in plants.
a. Abscisic acid
b. Cytokin

c. Ethylene
d. Auxin

2. The most leaflike part of a flower is called the

a. petal.
b. sepal.

c. stigma.
d. anther.

3. Initially, a pollen grain is an immature male gametophyte made up of two cells. One of these
cells will become a pollen tube, and the other will become
a. an embryo sac.
b. an ovule.

c. sperm.
d. a pollinator.

4. Which of the following groups represents the female parts of a flower?

a. Pollen grains, anther, style
b. Ovary, style, stigma

c. Stigma, ovary, filament

d. Anther, filament, stamen

5. If you needed to make spaghetti sauce for dinner but your tomatoes arent yet ripe, you need
to treat them with
a. cytokinins.
b. ethylene.

c. auxins.
d. gibberellins.

6. Plants growing upward along a trellis are exhibiting a type of

a. thigmotropism.
b. phototropism.

c. gravitropism.
d. mechanical stress.

7. To say that plant cells are totipotent is to say that

a.
b.
c.
d.

theyre composed of nondifferentiated meristem.

each plant cell is devoted to vegetative propagation.
theyre capable of phototropism.
each plant cell can become an entire plant.

Check your answers with those on page 200.

Lesson 4

127

ASSIGNMENT 22:
BEING ORGANIZED AND STEADY
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 22, Being
Organized and Steady, on pages 377394 in your textbook.

The Bodys Organization

The cells of most animals interact at three levels of organization.
Namely, tissues are combined into organs, which are components of organ systems. Review Figure 22.1 on page 378 to
visualize this idea. Tissues are groups of similar cells performing particular functionslike motility or respiration.
There are four major types of tissues: epithelial, connective,
muscular, and nervous. The types of vertebrate tissues, as
well as their relationships to organs and organ systems, are
beautifully illustrated in Figure 22.2 on page 379.

Epithelial Tissue Protects

Epithelial tissue covers all the outer surfaces of the body and
also lines the body cavities. Although the primary function of
epithelial tissue is protection, it also performs other functions.
Based on these functions, the cells differ in shape. Use
Figure 22.3 on page 380 and 22.4 on page 381 to help you
differentiate among the different shapes and functions of
epithelial tissue cells.

Connective Tissue Connects and Supports

Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed type of animal tissue. There many varieties of connective
tissue depending on the bodily functions with which theyre
associated. In general, connective tissues are connected in a
noncellular material called a matrix. The matrix may be fluid,
semifluid, or solid (as in bones).
Loose connective tissue, like that which lies under the skin to
provide elasticity, contains fibers that are loosely arranged in
a semifluid substance. Adipose tissue, a type of loose connective tissue, is composed of large, tightly packed fat cells. Its
commonly found under the skin and around the heart and
kidneys where it stores energy storage as well as insulation.

128

Biology

Dense fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons and ligaments.

Cartilage is a pliable intercellular material thats very strong.
Its found in the nose, ears, and parts of the respiratory system.
Bone is composed of collagen fibers that are strengthened by
calcium salts. Bones form the animal skeleton, which supports the body and helps allow for movement. Figure 22.5 on
page 382 illustrates some of these types of connective tissue.
In spite of its other functions, blood is also classified as connective tissue because its derived from connective tissue. Blood,
of course, serves to transport oxygen and nutrients. As tissue,
blood contains two kinds of cells. Red blood cells are tiny,
disc-shaped cells that lack a nucleus. Theyre red because
they contain the complex iron-based molecule hemoglobin,
which serves to transport oxygen to all the cells of the body.
White blood cells are nucleated and specialized for different
purposes, mainly related to defense against pathogens. Platelets
are actually fragments of large cells that are present only in
bone marrow. They serve to assist the clotting process in the
event of injury. Figure 22.6 on page 383 illustrates the three
main types of blood cells as they move about in bloods protein
fluid called plasma.

Muscle Tissue Moves the Body

Muscle tissue is composed of cells arranged in parallel arrays.
Layers of muscles contract (shorten) and then relax in a coordinated fashion. This pattern of contraction and relaxation
helps to move the body and specific body parts. There are
three types of muscle tissue:
1. Skeletal muscle, which is attached to bones, functions
in moving the body and its parts. This type of tissue is
under voluntary control by way of the nervous system.
2. Cardiac muscle is present only in the heart. It allows
for the contraction and relaxation of heart tissue, which
provides for the flow of blood throughout the body.
3. Smooth muscle is present in the walls of the stomach,
bladder, lungs, and other internal organs. The contractions
of smooth muscles are slower than those in skeletal muscle.
Smooth muscles normally function involuntarily in gut
motility, bladder emptying, and other organ functions.
Figure 22.7 on page 384 illustrates the types of muscular tissue.

Lesson 4

129

Nervous Tissue Communicates

Nervous tissue conducts impulses throughout the body,
coordinating body movements and organ functions. The
workhorse of all nervous tissue is the neuron, which is illustrated in Figure 22.8. Neurons, in turn, are supported by
neuroglia cellsin a ratio of about 9 to 1. About half the
volume of the brain is made up of neuroglia cells. Youll be
learning quite a bit more about neurons and the nervous
system in Assignment 27.

Organs and Organ Systems

Organs and organ systems are explored in more detail in later
assignments. On pages 386387, your textbook offers an
overview that can help you organize what youll learn later.
The transport systems include the circulatory and lymphatic
systems. Maintenance system functions include digestion,
respiration, and urinary manufacture and disposal. Control
systems include the nervous and endocrine (hormone) systems.
Sensory input and motor output functions are served by the
skeletal and muscular systems. Reproduction is served by the
reproduction system. Figures 22.922.13, on pages 386387,
illustrate these five basic systems.

Homeostasis
The term homeostasis can be illustrated by a household
thermostat. Lets say the thermostat is set at 72 degrees.
If the outside temperature drops below 72 degrees, the thermostat turns on the heat. Once the temperature reaches 72
degrees, the thermostat turn off the heat. See Figure 22.16
on page 389 for a visual representation of this idea.
From the thermostat analogy, its easy to understand
that homeostasis in biology refers to keeping internal body
conditions roughly constant. Its also pretty easy to grasp
the idea that homeostatic body processes regulate all kinds
of thingstemperature, fluid level, sodium level, and soby
negative feedback. Figure 22.14 on page 388 provides a

130

Biology

diagram of homeostasis with respect to blood and fluid levels.

Figure 22.15 on page 389 illustrates the general principles of
negative feedback mechanisms.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 22.

Lesson 4

131

Self-Check 22
1. _______ connective tissue found in ligaments features large numbers of collagen fibers
packed closely together.
a. Adipose
b. Loose fibrous

c. Dense fibrous
d. Fibroblast

2. Complete this analogy: Cells are to tissues as organs are to

a. epithelium.
b. an organism.

c. a specific function.
d. an organ system.

3. Blood is considered what type of tissue?

a. Epithelial
b. Connective

c. Muscle
d. Nerve

4. The type of epithelial tissue that secretes mucous is

a. pseudostratified.
b. columnar.

c. squamous.
d. cuboidal.

5. _______ feedback mechanisms are predominant in maintaining homeostasis in the body.

a. Primary
b. Positive

c. Localized
d. Negative

6. Which type of muscular tissues is striated due to the presence of actin and myosim filaments?
a. Skeletal
b. Connective

c. Smooth
d. Cardiac

7. In neurons, Schwann cells are a type of neuroglia that surround nerve fibers with a/an
_______ sheath.
a. neuron
b. axon

c. myelin
d. dendrite

Check your answers with those on page 200.

132

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 23:
THE TRANSPORT SYSTEMS
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 23, The
Transport Systems, on pages 395412 in your textbook.

Open and Closed Circulatory Systems

In some simple animals, such as hydras and planarians, no
circulatory system is necessary. See Figure 23.1 on page 396.
Other more complex animals have an open circulatory system
like that of the grasshopper (Figure 23.2a). All vertebrates and
some invertebrates, however, have closed circulatory systems
properly called cardiovascular systems (Figure 23.2b). Cardio
means heart; vascular refers to vessels like veins and arteries.
In Figure 23.3 on page 398, you can compare the cardiovascular systems of fishes, amphibians, birds, and mammals.

Transport in Humans
In the human cardiovascular system, a muscular heart
pumps the blood into large vessels called arteries. The blood
then flows into smaller arterioles, which branch into even
smaller vessels called capillaries. Blood flows from the capillaries into small venules. From there, large-diameter veins
return it to the heart. The heart of the human circulatory
system is the heart. Study Figure 23.4 on page 399 to identify the basic anatomical features of this remarkable organ.
In particular, note the locations and functions of the left and
right atria, the left and right ventricles, and the tricuspid and
bicuspid valves.
To understand the characteristics of the heartbeat, review
Figures 23.5 and 23.6 on page 400. Trace the circuit from
the atrial systole to the ventricular systole, to the atrial and
ventricular diastole.

Lesson 4

133

A partition (the septum) separates the heart into two

cardiovascular circuits:
1. The pulmonary circuit consists of a short loop that
oxygenates the blood. It leads from the right side of
the heart to capillary beds in both lungs, where the
blood picks up oxygen. The loop then returns to the
left side of the heart.
2. The systemic circuit is a longer loop that begins at the
left half of the heart. Its main artery, the aorta, picks up
oxygenated blood that flows through arterioles to capillary
beds in all regions of the body. Veins then deliver the
oxygen-depleted blood back to the right half of the heart.
Review Figure 23.9 on page 402 to master the path of the
blood through these circuits. Be aware that the whole
process begins and ends with the lungs.
The lymphatic system consists of an extensive system of
lymphatic vessels that complement the blood-circulatory
system. Lymphatic fluidcalled lymphpicks up excess
tissues fluids to return them to the cardiovascular veins.
The lymphatic system plays a vital role in maintaining the
bodys immune system, which youll study later in this course.
Study Figure 23.10 for a sense of the lymphatic-vessel network.
Note the location of ducts in the shoulders and thorax where
lymph is deposited into the cardiovascular system.

Blood: A Transport Medium

As youve already learned, blood is a type of connective tissue
that carries out many functions. It transports oxygen and
nutrients to all of the cells in the body. It carries away metabolic wastes and secretions such as hormones. It transports
cells that fight infections and remove debris from tissues. It
also stabilizes body temperature by moving excess heat from
muscles to the skin for dissipation.
Blood components consist of plasma plus a number of
formed elements. The formed elements include red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets. You can get an overall
view of the components of blood by reviewing Figure 23.13 on
page 405.

134

Biology

Plasma is mostly water, but it also contains certain ions and

proteins. It serves as a transport medium for blood cells and
platelets. It supplies water, oxygen, and metabolites to cells
and removes nitrogen wastes and carbon dioxide.
Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, transport oxygen for aerobic
respiration and carry away some of the carbon dioxide wastes.
As previously noted, mature red blood cells dont have nuclei.
(Immature red blood cells, formed in bone marrow, do have
nuclei.) As red blood cells mature, they begin to synthesize
hemoglobinthe complex iron-based molecule that can bind
with oxygen. Red blood cells live only about 120 days before
being recycledmainly in the liver and spleen.
White blood cells, or leukocytes, function in daily housekeeping
by patrolling tissues and engulfing damaged or dead cells and
anything recognized as foreign to the body. Many leukocytes
are located in lymph nodes and the spleen, where they divide
to produce armies of defense cells when the body is threatened.
Figure 23.15 on page 406 summarizes the formed elements
of blood. Take some time to study the different kinds of
leukocytes and think about their specific functions. Doing
this will give you a head start in understanding the bodys
defenses against disease discussed later in this course.
Platelets, or thrombocytes, are tiny oval discs formed by the
fragmentation of large cells that are provided in bone marrow.
Their function is to initiate blood clotting when necessary. Blood
contains at lest 12 clotting factors. Among these, proteins
called prothrombin and fibrinogen are deposited into the blood
by the liver. In the event of an injury that damages tissues
and blood vessels, platelets hasten to plug the gap, forming a
temporary seal. Then, by way of complex reactions, platelets
in conjunction with injured tissues, release a clotting factor
called prothrombin activator that creates thrombin. Thrombin,
in turn, acts as an enzyme to catalyze further chemical reactions to produce a proper clot made sturdy by fibrin threads.
Study Figure 23.16 on page 407 for a graphic illustration of
the stages of blood clotting.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 23.

Lesson 4

135

Self-Check 23
1. Which one of the following organisms has an open circulatory system?
a. Hydra
b. Grasshopper

c. Common field mouse

d. Planarian

2. The heart of a vertebrate is in contraction during

a. diastole.
b. pulse.

c. systole.
d. heartbeat.

3. All of the following are formed elements of blood, except

a. platelets
b. red blood cells.

c. white blood cells.

d. plasma.

4. Venous blood from the superior vena cava enters the human heart at the
a. left ventricle.
b. right atrium.

c. right ventricle.
d. left atrium.

5. Which one of the following statements is accurate for an antigen?

a. It doesnt belong to the body.
b. Its produced by an antibody.

c. Its a form of platelet.

d. It releases white blood cells.

Check your answers with those on page 201.

136

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 24:
THE MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 24, The
Maintenance Systems, on pages 413434 in your textbook.

Digestive System
Tube-Within-a-Tube Body Plan
Some animals, like the jellyfish, have a sac body plan. One
mouth is both the entryway for food and the exit for wastes.
Most of the other animals, including humans, feature the
tube-within-a-tube body plan, which has both an entrance
and an exit. Figure 24.2 on page 415 presents an anatomical
breakdown of the digestive systems of earthworms and humans.
Basically, the one-way tube plan includes a gut (the alimentary
canal) with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. In
this system, the wall of the gut is separated from the outer
body wall by a coelom. In Figure 24.2a, you can see that the
coelom is simply packing space for accessory digestive organs.
Animals of all kinds can be sorted by their typical diet. Animals
are herbivores if they eat vegetable matter, carnivores if they
depend on meat, and omnivores if theyll eat anything that
strikes their fancy. (Omni is a Latin prefix meaning all.) Humans
are omnivores. The mouths and dentition of the different
kinds of feeders are illustrated in Figure 24.3 on page 415.
The physiology of the human digestive system includes a
number of components:

The mouth is the entrance to the system where food is

moistened and chewed. Digestion begins when the teeth
break down food into smaller particles and salivary glands
secrete saliva containing digestive enzymes.

The pharynx is a short but wide space that serves as a

common passageway for both food and air; it moves food
forward through the system by muscle contraction.

Lesson 4

137

The esophagus extends from the pharynx to the stomach.

As food reaches the esophagus, its moved along by
involuntary, rhythmic contractions called peristalsis.

The stomach is a J-shaped sac that expands to a capacity

of about one liter. Its epithelial lining, the mucosa, imbeds
millions of gastric glands, which secrete hydrochloric acid
(HCl). The high acidity of the stomach is also ideal for a
digestive enzyme called pepsin. Together, HCl and pepsin
kill all kinds of potential pathogens while breaking down
proteins into peptides. (The thick mucus in the stomach
and in the intestines protects these organs from acidity
and the actions of digestive enzymes.) The churning action
of the stomach resolves boluses of food into chyme.
Figure 24.5 on page 417 displays the anatomy of the
human stomach. Figure 24.6 allows you to contrast the
human stomach with the chambered stomach of ruminants,
such as cows and camels.

The small intestine, a tube approximately seven meters

long, receives the chyme from the stomach. The small
intestine is separated into three regions. The duodenum,
a C-shaped structure, receives bile from the liver and
digestive enzymes from the pancreas. The jejunum section is where most nutrients are digested and absorbed
by way of fingerlike projections called villi. In the ileum,
some nutrients are absorbed while unabsorbed material
is passed onward to the large intestine.

The large intestine absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins.

It then stores indigestible material in the form of feces,
which eventually leave the body through the anus.

Boluses are rounded

masses of food formed
by swallowing.

Review Figures 24.224.10 and pages 415420 for complete

information on the main parts of the digestive system.

Accessory Organs
Two accessory organs involved in digestion are the pancreas
and the liver. In digestion, the pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice directly into the duodenum, as shown in Figure 24.7. The
liver, a large organ, has multiple functions, including blood
detoxification (that is, the removal of poisonous substances from
the blood), the production of plasma proteins, bile production

138

Biology

for digesting fats, and the production of urea as a contribution

to the urinary system. Figure 24.11 presents an illustration
of the hepatic portal system. By way of that system, products
of digestion are absorbed from the small intestine, processed,
and passed onward to the bloodstream through hepatic veins.
(Anything hepatic is related to the liver, including the varieties
of hepatitis.)

Respiratory System
Respiration is the process by which animals move oxygen into
blood for the processes of aerobic respiration, which includes
ridding the body of the accumulated carbon dioxide wastes.

The Human Respiratory Tract

The function of the human respiratory system is to conduct
air to and from the lungs. The system is composed of upper
and lower respiratory tracts.
The upper respiratory tract includes the nasal cavities, which
are narrow canals separated by a septum of bone and cartilage.
The nasal cavities are in communication with air-filled spaces
called sinuses, which reduce the mass and weight of the skull
and act as resonating chambers for speaking and singing.
Inhaled air passes from the pharynx through the glottis, an
opening into the larynx. The larynx, or voice box, along with
the vocal cords, allows us to vocalize.
The lower respiratory tract begins with the trachea, also called
the windpipe. The trachea is a four-inch tube that runs from
the larynx. Its lined with cilia that beat upward to drive out
dust particles. The trachea divides into two branches called
bronchi, which enter the lungs. The lungs are a pair of respiratory organs situated on each side of the heart. Theyre
separated from the abdomen by a muscular partition called
the diaphragm. The lungs are smooth, spongy, and, when
healthy, pink in color. The right lung is divided into three lobes.
The left lung, which is smaller to accommodate the space
taken up by the heart, is divided into two lobes. After entering the lungs, the bronchi divide into smaller bronchioles,
like a tree branching into thinner branches and then twigs.

Lesson 4

139

The smallest branches end in clusters of alveolar sacs, each

of which contain bunches of alveoli that resemble clusters
of grapes. The alveoli are lined with flat epithelial cells that
facilitate the exchange of gases from the networks of blood
capillaries that surround every alveolus.
Figure 24.12 on page 422 illustrates the gas exchange functions
of the respiratory system, as these are aimed at maintaining
bodily temperature homeostasis. Figure 24.13 on the same
page illustrates the ciliated cells of the respiratory passages. For
an overview of the human respiratory tract, study Figure 24.14
on page 423. On the same page, Figure 24.15 contrasts the
tracheae of insects with those of humans.

Breathing
Breathing involves inhalation and exhalation. Inhalation
(inspiration) is an active process in which air enters the lungs.
In the lungs, the exchange of gases between the inhaled air
and the bloodstream capillaries takes place through the
internal lining of alveoli due to different gas concentration
gradients. As oxygen is removed from inhaled air, the air in
the lungs quickly becomes saturated with carbon dioxide.
Exhalation (expiration) is a passive process during normal
activity; that is, its automatic. During exhalation, air moves
out of the lungs. The ribs fall, the sternum sinks, and the
diaphragm arches upward. This reduces the volume capacity
of the thorax, and air is expelled from the lungs as a result.
Review Figure 24.16 on page 424 for an overview of inspiration versus expiration. Compare our pulmonary system to
that of birds in Figure 24.17 on the same page. Figure 24.18
on page 425 will help you understand the processes of gas
exchange in human lungs. Compare that with the gill system
of bony fishes illustrated in Figure 24.19.

Transport and Internal Exchange of Gases

On page 426, Figure 24.20 illustrates the structure of
hemoglobin molecules. Note how oxygen bonds to the central iron atom of a heme (polypeptide group). Figure 24.21
on the same page illustrates the neural control of breathing
rate. The chemical reactions given in the text on this page

140

Biology

should help you understand how carbon dioxide is carried in

the bloodstream and how it diffuses into the alveoli during
internal gas exchange.

Urinary System and Excretion

In complex vertebrates like humans, organs called kidneys are
designed to excrete nitrogenous wastes, like urea and uric
acid, and help maintain the bodys water-salt balance. Also,
in mammals, the kidneys regulate the acidity (pH) of blood.
In all mammals, the two kidneys are compact, reddish-brown,
bean-shaped structures located on the dorsal (back) wall of
the abdominal cavity. The kidneys constantly filter water and
solutes (except proteins) from the blood. They reclaim the
amount of water and solutes that the body requires, and the
rest is excreted as urine. Each kidney is attached to a ureter,
a tube that takes urine from the kidney to a muscular sac
called the urinary bladder. A single urethra conveys urine
from the body during urination. Figure 24.22 on page 417
illustrates the functions of the kidneys.
Each kidney has three major parts. The outer region of the
kidney, the renal cortex, has a granular texture. The renal
medulla is made up of the cone-shaped renal pyramids that
lie inside the renal cortex. The innermost part of the kidney is
the hollow renal pelvis. There, urine is collected for transport
via the ureters to the urinary bladder.
Under the microscope, we discover that each kidney is composed
of about one million nephronsthe bodies that produce urine.
Figure 24.23 on page 427 displays the anatomy of the urinary
system. Figure 24.24 on page 428 illustrates the process of
urine formation in the nephron. In this illustration, locate the
nephron capsule, the proximal tubule, the nephron loop, the
distal tubule, and the collecting duct. The location and function
of these parts are shown in that illustration.
Urine formation includes three steps. First, filtration moves
small molecules (water, nutrients, salts, and urea) from a blood
capillary to the inside of the nephron capsule. Next, during
reabsorption, substances from the proximal tubule move into
the bloodstream. This is the kidneys blood filtration system
at work. Finally, secretion is the transport of substances into

Lesson 4

141

the nephron by means other than filtration. Secreted substances

include uric acid, hydrogen ions, ammonia, and drugs like
penicillin that are harmful to the body.
The final sections of this assignment discuss the manner in
which animals maintain water salt balance and pH. Figure 24.26
illustrates the way kidney tubules help maintain the watersalt balance in mammals. The final topic presents problems
in kidney functioning and explains the process of dialysis by
means of an artificial kidney machine.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 24.

142

Biology

Self-Check 24
1. _______ breaks up fats through a process of emulsification.
a. Bile
b. Trypsin

c. Pancreatic amylase
d. Chyme

2. The coelom separates the _______ from the _______.

a. pharynx, mouth
b. alimentary canal, mouth

c. pharynx, esophagus
d. alimentary canal, body wall

3. What modification to the respiratory system allows birds to support higher rates of respiration?
a. Larger lungs
b. More surface area in trachea

c. Spiracles
d. Air sacs

4. In the context of gas exchange, the epithelium of an alveolus is snugly adjacent to the
epithelium of a/an ___________, forming a respiratory membrane.
a. hemoglobin molecule
b. capillary

c. bronchiole
d. pulmonary artery

5. The structure that allows you to speak is the

a. alveolar sac.
b. pharynx.

c. larynx.
d. nasal cavity.

6. Complete this analogy: The villi are to small-molecule nutrient absorption as the large
intestine is to the
a. absorption of water and salts.
b. formation of chyme.

c. production of a bolus.
d. secretion of intestinal enzymes.

7. The _______ stores bile secreted by the liver.

a. pancreas
b. gallbladder

c. small intestine
d. colon
(Continued)

Lesson 4

143

Self-Check 24
8. Urea is formed in the
a. urethra.
b. kidneys.

c. liver.
d. bladder.

9. As a participant in the _______ system, the pancreas is a ductless gland that

produces insulin.
a. digestive
b. endocrine

c. respiratory
d. urinary

10. In the process of urine formation, the movement of small molecules from a capillary to the
inside of a nephron capsule is called
a. secretion.
b. absorption.

c. reabsorption.
d. filtration.

Check your answers with those on page 201.

144

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 25:
HUMAN NUTRITION
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 25,
Human Nutrition, on pages 435454 in your textbook.

Nutrition
Nutrition is the process by which food is obtained, prepared,
absorbed, and converted into body substances such as
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Nutritive
processes provide the raw materials necessary for the maintenance of life and the maintenance of homeostasis. Macronutrients
include carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Theyre called macro
because the body needs to consume them in fairly large quantities on a regular basis. Micronutrients, which include vitamins
and minerals, are required in only small amounts. Table 25.1
on page 438 summarizes the classes of nutrients.

The Classes of Nutrients

Macronutrients: Carbohydrates, Lipids,
and Proteins
All of the macronutrients are sources of energy. However,
each provides energy in somewhat different ways, and each
also has other specific functions.

Carbohydrates are present in foods as sugars, starches,

and fiber. Sugars provide more or less immediate sources
of energy, but they can present problems if theyre consumed in excess. Starches metabolize differently than
sugars. Any excess starches can be stored in the body
as glycogen. Fiber isnt digestible, but its important for
stimulating effective passage of food through the gut.

Some lipids (fats and oils) can be stored in the body

for use as energy when needed. Other lipids serve as
structural components of cells.

Proteins are digested (broken down) into amino acids that

can be reconfigured to produce the thousands of proteins
manufactured in the cells.

Lesson 4

145

Micronutrients: Minerals,
Vitamins, and Water
Although the body needs only small amounts of micronutrients,
theyre still vital components for a healthy body. Micronutrients
help to process the macronutrients, and theyre essential for
growth and good health.

Minerals are required for a wide variety of physiological

functions, including the regulation of biochemical reactions.
Table 25.4 on page 441 summarizes the functions and
food sources of vital minerals. This table also includes
conditions that can be caused by either an excess or a
deficiency of a given mineral. In this table, notice that the
mineral iron is listed as a trace element, which means the
body needs less than 5 grams of this mineral each day.
Even so, iron is crucial to the formation of hemoglobin
and therefore a very important part of good nutrition.

Vitamins have a wide variety of functions, as summarized

in Tables 25.6 and 25.7 on page 443.

Water is a basic requirement for all carbon-based life forms.

About 60% of the human body is water and, as you may
guess, lack of water in a body can lead to serious problems.

The remainder of Chapter 25 presents a simple, practical guide

to understanding relationships between diet and health, as
well as what it takes to plan a nutritious meal. As you read
and study this material, think about your own diet. Are you
eating properly? Is your body getting the right kinds and
amounts of the nutrients it needs?
Also, pay particular attention to the topic of eating disorders
discussed on page 448. Finally, examine Figure 25.14 on
page 449. Even though you may have seen this good guide
pyramid before, carefully consider it in light of your own diet.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 25. Be sure to read the chapter summary
and complete the exercises on pages 452454.

146

Biology

Self-Check 25
1. The body mass index (BMI) is the ratio between a persons height and
a. energy intake.
b. weight.

c. age.
d. energy output.

2. A deficiency of vitamin D can lead to bone decalcification and a disorder called

a. scurvy.
b. beriberi.

c. rickets.
d. pellagra.

3. Complete this analogy: Triglycerides are to _______ as starches are to carbohydrates.

a. proteins
b. cholesterol

c. obesity
d. lipids

4. If the body cant produce a certain nutrient, it must be supplied by diet. Such a nutrient
is called
a. essential.
b. a macronutrient.

c. healthful.
d. a micronutrient.

5. Which one of the following vitamins is essential for strong bones and teeth?
a. Thiamine
b. Vitamin D

c. Riboflavin
d. Vitamin E

Check your answers with those on page 201.

Lesson 4

147

ASSIGNMENT 26:
DEFENSES AGAINST DISEASE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 26,
Defenses Against Disease, on pages 455470 in your textbook.

The human body is continuously exposed to pathogens such

as viruses and bacteria. Fortunately, vertebrate systems have
developed various organic features that sustain whats called
the bodys immune system, which helps the body repel foreign
substances, cancers, and pathogens.

Organs, Tissues, and Cells

of the Immune System
The organs of the immune system are called lymphatic
organs. They include red bone marrow, the thymus gland,
and lymph nodes, and the spleen.

148

Red bone marrow produces all kinds of blood cells. With

respect to the immune system, it specifically produces B
lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells). B cells
provide an antibody response to a pathogen, and T cells
destroy antigen-bearing cells.

The thymus gland is where T cells mature. It produces

thymic hormones that are believed to aid the maturing
of T cells. Note that T cells have to pass a test before
theyre released into the bloodstream. They must demonstrate that they arent inclined to ingesting their own
kindonly hostile strangers.

The lymph nodes filter lymph of impurities such as

pathogens and antigens. Sinuses (open spaces) in the
lymph nodes are lined with macrophages. Macrophages
are large cells that can engulf and consume as many as
100 pathogens.

Biology

The spleen, which is about the size of ones fist, is where

red blood cells go to be recycled. The spongy tissue of
this organ is also adapted to filtering out all kinds of
impurities from the blood, including debris and pathogens.

The tonsils and the appendix are also areas of lymphatic

tissue that contribute the immune system.

Review Figure 26.1 on page 456 for a graphic glance at the

nature of the lymphatic organs and the locations of lymph
nodes. Study Table 26.1 on page 457 for an overview of the
types and functions of immunocells.

Nonspecific Defenses
The human body has four strategies for nonspecific defense
against disease.
1. The skin and mucous membranes serve as body surface
barriers. Generally, pathogens cant get past the linings
of these surfaces. The flushing effects of tears, saliva,
urination, and diarrhea also help rid the body of invaders.
Figure 26.2 on page 458 illustrates a cross section of skin.
The outer cells of the dermis form the pathogen barrier.
2. The inflammatory response kicks in when a pathogen
invades body tissues. Three kinds of white blood cells
react swiftly to any tissue injury. Neutrophils, the most
abundant type, ingest, kill, and digest bacterial cells.
Mast cells release neutralizing chemicals, like histamine,
which cause capillaries to dilate. This dilation causes the
redness and swelling around a cut or abrasion. Macrophages
also participate in the inflammatory response, releasing
hordes of leukocytes into an affected area. Figure 26.3
on page 458 illustrates the inflammatory response.
3. The complement system is made up of a number of blood
plasma proteins that complement certain kinds of
immune response actions.
4. Natural killer cells (NK cells) are large granular lymphocytes
that kill cancer cells and cells infected by viruses. Figure 26.4
on page 459 illustrates the actions of macrophages and the
manner in which complement proteins form a membrane
attack in the face of pathogens.

Lesson 4

149

Specific Defenses
Specific defenses require the presence of an antigena molecule
that stimulates the immune system because its alien to the
body. Heres a quick overview of specific immunity mechanisms.
B cells and T cells of the immune system have four
outstanding features:
1. The B cells and T cells ignore the bodys own cells.
2. Only a specific antigen triggers a B cell or T cell response.
3. The capacity of B cells and T cells to form receptors specific to particular antigens is enormous. Many millions of
specific antigen threats can be recognized and neutralized.
4. B cells and T cells have a biochemical memory. That is,
after a B cell or T cell responds to an antigen, a portion
of the cell is set aside for future battles with the same
pathogen.
To better understand the functions of B cells and T cells,
study Figures 26.5 and 26.7 and Tables 26.2 and 26.4 on
pages 460 and 462. Then study Figure 26.8 on page 463 to
review the ways helper (cytoxic) T cells regulate immunity by
secreting cytokines.

Immunizations
Make sure you understand the difference between active and
passive immunity. In response to vaccine, active immunity is a
measurable response in terms of antibody production largely
by memory B cells. Passive immunity is temporary in that
antibodies arent produced in the body but may, as in the
case of a newborn infant, be received through the placenta.

Immune System Problems

Immune systems dont always work the way they should. For
example, allergies are specific responses to particular antigens,
such as plant pollens, which are identified as allergens. Also,
severe autoimmune disorders, including myasthenia gravis
and lupus, are examples of malfunctioning immune systems.

150

Biology

AIDS results from an HIV retrovirus infection. Full-blown AIDS

amounts to a general assault on the bodys immune system
making the body vulnerable to a wide range of pathogens
and cancers.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 26.

Lesson 4

151

Self-Check 26
1. Of the types of T cells, which kind regulates immunity by secreting signaling chemicals
called cytokines?
a. Receptor T cells
b. Helper T cells

c. Granzyme T cells
d. Cytoxic T cells

2. A/An _______ is a molecule that stimulates the immune system.

a. complement
b. antigen

c. histamine
d. antibody

3. Which blood type contains plasma antibodies that are both anti-A and anti-B?
a. A
b. B

c. AB
d. O

4. In the inflammatory response, _______ release chemical mediators that cause capillaries to
dilate and become more permeable.
a. macrophages
b. killer NK cells

c. mast cells
d. neutrophils

5. T lymphocytes mature in the

a. red bone marrow.
b. spleen.

c. lymph nodes.
d. thymus gland.

Check your answers with those on page 202.

152

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 27:
THE CONTROL SYSTEMS
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 27,
The Control Systems, on pages 471492 in your textbook.

Nervous System
The Human Nervous System
The central nervous system (CNS) of vertebrates, including
humans, is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. The
peripheral nervous system (PNS), which consists of nerves,
carries signals from the brain and spinal cord to the rest of
the body. Figure 27.1 on page 472 illustrates the ways in
which the nervous and endocrine systems work together.
Figure 27.2 compares the nervous systems in earthworms,
planarians, and humans.

Neurons, the Nerve Impulse, and the Synapse

Neurons, or nerve cells, respond to changes in voltages across
their plasma membranes. The cell body and slender extensions
called dendrites are the input zones for incoming signals. The
signals, or nerve impulses, flow to the axon, a longer extension that serves as a conducting zone. Axon endings are the
output zones for signals to be sent on to the dendrites of
other cells. When neurons are triggered by an abrupt change
in voltage (called an action potential), theyre able to send this
signal to the next neuron by way of signaling molecules called
neurotransmitters. These chemical signals diffuse across a
chemical synapse, the narrow space between a neurons output zone and the input zone of a neighboring cell. This system
allows messages traveling through the nervous system to either
be reinforced or suppressed, depending on the intensity of
the signal.
Vertebrates have their neurons connected in cable-like bundles called nerves that allow communication between the
brain, the spinal cord, and the rest of the body. Figure 27.3

Lesson 4

153

on page 474 illustrates three types of neurons. Reviewing

Figure 27.4 on page 475 and comparing it with Figure 27.5
on the same page will help you understand the role of myelin
in speeding a nerve impulse propagation through saltatory
conduction. Figure 27.6 on page 476 will help you distinguish
the synapse from the synaptic cleft and visualize the way
chemical signals called neurotransmitters travel across that
that cleft.

The Central Nervous System

As already mentioned, the central nervous system consists of
the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the master control
system of the body. It receives, integrates, stores, and retrieves
sensory information. The brain is protected by the cranium
as well as by membranes and the fluid contained by these
protective membranes. In effect, the surrounding fluids cushion brain tissues. The spinal cord is the expressway for signals
between the brain and the peripheral nervous system.
Signals travel swiftly up and down the cord.
The brain includes the following functional divisions:

154

The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is divided

into two halves, each of which has a number of divisions
called lobes. The convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum,
called the cerebral cortex, manages responses to sensations, voluntary movement, and higher thought processes
such as reasoning. Each lobe in the cerebrum has specialized functions, as shown in Figure 27.10 on page 479.

The diencephalon (Figure 27.9) lies beneath the cerebrum.

In the diencephalon are the hypothalamus, which helps
maintain homeostasis, and the thalamus, which receives
sensory information and sends it to the appropriate area
of the cerebrum.

The cerebellum receives and processes information from

the various senses, both external and internal. It then
fine-tunes motor responses. (Because the cerebellum in
cats is highly developed, their movements are graceful
and fluid.)

Biology

The brain stem contains the midbrain, the pons, and the
medulla oblongata. The medulla oblongata contains reflex
centers for managing heartbeat, breathing, and blood
pressure. Its also responsible for reflexes like sneezing,
coughing, swallowing, and vomiting.

The limbic system can be thought of as a cooperative complex

involving different parts of the CNS, including the cerebrum
and the diencephalon. The limbic system blends higher cognitive (thought) functions with basic human emotions like
fear and pleasure. In the limbic system, the hippocampus
acts to create associations between sensory experiences and
memories. Hearing the song that was playing when you were
on your first date, for example, can evoke certain memories.
This reaction is controlled by the hippocampus. Another part
of the limbic system is the amygdala, an almond-like structure
under the cerebrum. The amygdala is especially implicated in
giving remembered experiences emotional fearful, exciting, or
arousing overtones. Figure 27.11 shows the location of the
thalamus, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and amygdala.

The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system consists of two subdivisions:
1. The somatic system carries signals about moving the
head, trunk, and limbs. First, its sensory axons deliver
information from receptors in the skin, skeletal muscles,
and tendons to the central nervous system. Then, its
motor axons deliver the commands from the brain and
spinal cord to the skeletal muscles.
2. The autonomic system carries signals to and from smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. Figure 27.14 on
page 482 illustrates the two divisions of the autonomic
system: the parasympathetic division and the sympathetic
division. Think of the parasympathetic system as associated with happy feelings and the sympathetic system as
related to stress and perceived threats.

Lesson 4

155

Endocrine System
All animals contain chemical components known as hormones,
which are produced by endocrine glands that release these
secretions into the bloodstream. These hormones are carried
to other parts of the body where they act on target cells to alter
their activities. Collectively, the bodys sources of hormones
make up the endocrine system. The organs of the endocrine
system are illustrated in Figure 27.15 on page 483.

The Action of Hormones

There are two main categories of hormones:
1. Steroid hormones, which are soluble in lipids, can diffuse
across the lipid bilayer of a cell membrane. Once inside
the cell, they move into the nucleus, where they bind
with a receptor. This complex then interacts with the cells
DNA to call for the production of enzymes and other proteins to carry out a response to the hormonal signal.
Steroid hormones are secreted by the adrenal glands and
the gonads. Testosterone and estrogen are examples.
2. Peptide hormones are soluble in water. When they bind
to receptors at the cell membrane, specific enzyme systems become activated and lead to a cellular response;
the hormone itself doesnt enter the cell. Examples of
peptide hormones include peptides, proteins, glycoproteins and modified amino acids.
Review Figure 27.16 on page 483 to compare cell interactions
between steroid and peptide hormones.

Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

Two major components of the endocrine system are the
hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Figure 27.18 on
page 485 illustrates the relationship of these two glands and
their functions. Figure 27.17 provides some visual insight
into how the hypothalamus and the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland interact with the thyroid gland, the adrenal cortex,
and the gonads. Note the great variety of bodily functions
related to hormones produced and/or regulated by these
powerhouse glands of the endocrine system.

156

Biology

Other Endocrine Glands

The thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, and pancreas glands are
also part of the endocrine system. Their functions and possible
dysfunctions are provided on pages 486488.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 27.

Lesson 4

157

Self-Check 27
1. Two important functions of the _______ system are learning and memory.
a. somatic
b. limbic

c. cerebellum
d. medulla

2. Signals are carried across a synaptic cleft by

a. neurotransmitters.
b. neurons.

c. dendrites.
d. axons.

3. Complete this analogy: Steroid hormones are to _______ as peptide hormones are to proteins.
a. synthesis
b. glands

c. reflexes
d. lipids

4. Hormones produced by the anterior pituitary gland dont always affect other endocrine glands.
Which one of these hormones is produced during pregnancy?
a. Thyroid hormone
b. Oxytocin

c. Prolactin
d. Antodiuretic hormone

5. Which one of the following elements is part of the PNS?

a. Brain stem
b. Ganglia

c. Spinal cord
d. Cerebellum

6. In the CNS, the hypothalamus and the thalamus are located in the
a. diencephalon.
b. cerebrum.

c. cerebellum.
d. primary motor area.

7. Involuntary responses to stimuli, which occur in the _______ system of the peripheral
nervous system, are called
a. somatic, sympathetic.
b. autonomic, sympathetic.

c. somatic, reflexes.
d. autonomic, reflexes.

Check your answers with those on page 202.

158

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 28: SENSORY

INPUT AND MOTOR OUTPUT
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 28,
Sensory Input and Motor Output, on pages 493510 in
your textbook.

The Senses
The inputs of the senses are correlated with motor outputs
enacted by bodily movements, mainly associated with different kinds of muscles. Figure 28.1 on page 494 illustrates the
basic scheme of sensory inputs and motor outputs.

Chemical Senses
In the chemical senses, chemoreceptors detect chemical energy.
For example, taste buds, found mainly on our tongues, are
stimulated by food molecules. As that happens, we experience different tastes, such as sweet, sour, bitter, and salty.
The many combinations of these four tastes account for the
variety of tastes we can detect. In addition, chemoreceptors
for the sense of smell detect odors from very tiny proportions
of odor-producing molecules in the air, such as those offered
by a rose or a skunk. Figure 28.2 on page 495 illustrates
chemoreceptors within the animal kingdom.

Hearing and Balance

Most vertebrates have a sense of hearing that involves structures
that collect and amplify sound waves from the environment.
In addition, vertebrate ears function in the sense of balance.
Figure 28.5 illustrates rotational equilibrium (related to the
rotating of the head) and gravitational equilibrium (related to
the bending of the head).

Lesson 4

159

The human ear is divided into three parts (see Figure 28.3 on
page 496):
1. The inner ear includes fluid-filled sacs that detect motions
of the head and send information about balance to the
brain. The inner ear also contains the cochlea, which
houses the receptors for hearing.
2. The middle ear sends sound waves to the inner ear. An
air-filled cavity and three small bones transmit vibrations.
3. The outer ear collects sound waves from the environment
through skin-covered flaps of cartilage called the pinna.
The outer ear sends these waves to the middle ear.

Vision
Photoreceptors are sensory receptors that are sensitive to
light. Two common types of eyes are compound eyes, found
in many insects, and camera-type eyes, found in vertebrates.
Figure 28.7 on page 499 illustrates these two kinds of eyes.
Most vertebrate eyes have three layers (Figure 28.8):
1. The outer layer has a sclera of dense fibers that protect
the eyeball and a transparent cornea that covers and
protects the front of the eye. The cornea, along with the
lens, helps us focus light images.
2. The middle layer contains an iris, a pupil, and ciliary
muscles for eyeball movement. The iris is a pigmented
ring behind the cornea. Its the iris that determines eye
color. The pupil is an opening at the center of the iris that
widens or narrows according to the amount of light present.
3. The inner layer includes the retina at the back of the
eye, where photoreception occurs in the human eye. A
sensory pathway from the retina to the brain detects
and transmits raw visual information. (See Figures 28.9
and 28.10 on page 500.)

Cutaneous Receptors and Proprioreceptors

Sensory inputs begin with the energy input of some environmental
stimulus, such as light, sound, heat, and pressure. Any such
stimulus is registered by a specialized sensory neuron acting
as a stimulus receptor. Cutaneous receptors, which are located

160

Biology

in the skin, register temperature and pressure. Proprioceptors,

which are located in the muscles and joints, help the body
maintain equilibrium and balanced posture. Working together,
the two kinds of receptors read acceleration or deceleration
like that experienced in an elevator ride. In doing so, they
help us stay oriented to a position in space, helping us differentiate up from down. Figure 28.11 on page 501 illustrates
both kinds of sensory input to primary sensory areas of the
brain.

The Motor Systems

The motor systems of humans are the muscles and bones,
which together make up the musculoskeletal system shown in
Figure 28.13. Muscles and bones work together to support the
body, making movements possible; protect internal organs;
and help in the functioning of other systems such as those
involving breathing and ingesting water and food. Muscles
and bones also have individual functions, as explained on
page 502.

The Human Skeleton

Humans, like all vertebrates, have internal skeletons, called
endoskeletons (Figure 28.13). By contrast, some parts of the
animal kingdom have exoskeletons (external skeletons) and
hydrostatic skeletons (fluid-filled cavities that aid in support
and movement), as shown in Figure 28.14 on page 503.
The human skeleton has 206 bones. Some of the important
human bones are identified in red in Figure 28.13. The
human bone system is arranged into an axial skeleton and
an appendicular skeleton. The bones of the axial skeleton,
like the skull, vertebral column, sternum, and parts of the
rib cage, protect vital organs and provide flexibility for functions like breathing. The bones of the appendicular skeleton
are devoted to all kinds of bodily movements.
The structure of bone is illustrated in Figure 28.15. Refer
to this illustration as you read the material on osteocytes,
osteoblasts, spongy bone, and red bone marrow on page 504.

Lesson 4

161

Skeletal Muscle and Physiology

The human body has almost 700 skeletal muscles. These
muscles fall into three categoriessmooth, cardiac, and skeletal.
Carefully read the first paragraph on page 505 so you understand the composition of each of these muscle types.
The contractile fiber of muscle cells is made up of threadlike
myofibrils. The myofibrils in turn are made up of protein filaments called sarcomeres, which cause muscle cells to appear
striated. Sarcomeres contain thick filaments made of a protein
called myosin, along with thin filaments of a protein called
actin. See Figure 28.16 on page 504 to study skeletal muscle
structure and function.
Muscle contractions arise from the joint interaction of myosin
and actin in whats called the sliding filament model. During
the sliding process, the sarcomere shortens, even though the
filaments themselves remain the same length. How all this works
is illustrated in terms of chemical reactions in Figure 28.17
on page 505. To visualize how this works, lace your fingers
and slide them together. The distance between your two wrists
shortens (contracts) while your fingers (the filaments) remain
the same length.
Skeletal muscles work in teamsalmost as antagonists.
Figure 28.19 on page 506 illustrates this idea. As the biceps
contracts, the triceps has to relax to permit that contraction
to be effective. Similarly, contractions of the triceps require
complementary relaxation on the part of the biceps. Overall,
movements, like those of an athlete or dancer require a lot of
teamwork from the roughly 700 muscles that allow someone
to run for a touchdown or leap gracefully across a stage.
Joints are areas of contact between bones that are bridged by
connective tissue. Your textbook covers three different types
of synovial joints (Figure 28.20):
1. Generalized synovial joints are freely movable and are
connected by long straps of dense connective tissue
called ligaments.
2. Ball-and-socket joints, such as those in the hips and
shoulders, allow movement in different directions.

162

Biology

3. Hinge joints, like those in elbows and knees, bend or

move in one direction only.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 28.

Lesson 4

163

Self-Check 28
1. What kind of skeleton does an earthworm have?
a. Endoskeleton
b. Hydrostatic skeleton

c. Exoskeleton.
d. None. Earthworms dont have skeletons.

2. The skull, the ribs, the vertebrae, and the sacrum are parts of the _______ skeleton.
a. axial
b. distal

c. appendicular
d. proximal

3. The basic units of muscular contraction, containing all the components of the sliding filament
model, are threadlike
a. actins.
b. myosins.

c. myofibrils.
d. sarcomeres.

4. Chemical receptors for salt, bitter, and sweet are located in the
a. olfactory cilia.
b. nasal cavity.

c. olfactory cell.
d. tongue.

5. If I want to focus on an image in a photo or a line of print, what part or parts of my eye
will I depend on?
a. Cornea and iris
b. Lens and cornea

c. Fovea
d. Iris and pupil

6. The synovial joint of the shoulder and hips are examples of a _______ joint.
a. hinge
b. cartilage

c. ball-and-socket
d. generalized

7. The sensory receptors for hearing are located in the

a. spiral organ.
b. ossicles.

c. tympanic membrane.
d. auditory canal.

8. In a humerus, red bone marrow is located in

a. compact bone.
b. osteoclasts.

c. the spongy ends.

d. the long section of the bone.

9. Among cutaneous receptors, cold and warm receptors are found in the
a. muscle spindles.
b. dermis.

c. spinal cord.
d. epidermis

Check your answers with those on page 202.

164

Biology

ASSIGNMENT 29:
REPRODUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 29,
Reproduction and Development, on pages 511532 in
your textbook.

How Animals Reproduce

Animals lower down on the phylogenetic scale may reproduce asexually, sometimesas in the case of the flatworm
and the hydrafrom fragments of their previous intact bodies.
Parthogenesis is a modification of sexual reproduction in which
an unfertilized egg develops into a complete individual organism.
Among honeybees, for example, the queen can fertilize eggs to
become diploid females or leave them unfertilized to develop into
haploid males called drones. Sexual reproduction, by contrast,
involves the uniting of eggs and sperm to form a zygote.
Figure 29.1 illustrates asexual reproduction in the hydra.
Figures 29.2 and 29.3 on page 513 illustrate reproduction
in the water and on land, respectively.

Human Reproduction
Male Reproductive System
The human male reproductive system (Figure 29.4) is made
up of a pair of testes, the epididymis, the vas deferens, and
the urethra. (In males, the urethra is part of both the reproductive and the urinary systems.) In an adult male, the testes
produce sperm and sex hormones that control both reproductive functions and secondary sexual traits. After sperm are
produced, they travel from each testis through a duct called the
epididymis, where they completely mature. Sperm are stored
in the epididymis until theyre ejaculated from the body. The

Lesson 4

165

seminal vesicles and prostate gland secrete the substances that

form the semen (seminal fluid), and the bulbourethral gland
produce lubricating mucus. As sperm travel to the urethra,
theyre mixed with these glandular secretions before ejaculation.
When a male is sexually aroused, muscles propel the sperm
into a pair of tubes of the vas deferens. From there they
travel to the ejaculatory duct and on through the urethra.
The testes are made up of compartments called lobules. In
each of these lobules are one to three seminiferous tubules.
Spermatogenesis (sperm creation) occurs within these tubules.
As that process is completed, the chromosome count for each
sperm is now haploid. Figure 29.5 on page 515 illustrates the
seminiferous tubules. Note that the haploid nucleus is in the
head of the sperm.
The hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH), which controls the functioning of the testes. Both males
and females have two gonadotropic hormonesthe folliclestimulating hormone (FSH) and the luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH
stimulates spermatogenesis in the male seminiferous tubules.
LH is responsible for producing testosterone. Testosterone is
the trigger for male secondary characteristicslike musculature
and facial hairthat develop at puberty.

The Female Reproductive System

The females primary reproductive organs are a pair of ovaries
that produce eggs and secrete sex hormones. Immature eggs
are called oocytes. An oocyte thats released from an ovary
moves into one of two oviducts, which are the channels into
the uterus, a pear-shaped organ in which embryos develop
and grow. The inner lining of the uterine wall is composed of
specialized tissue called endometrium. This tissue, which is
made of connective tissue, glands, and blood vessels, is the
site of implantation of the blastocyst (early embryo) during
pregnancy. The narrowed-down portion of the uterus is the
cervix. The vagina is a muscular tube that extends from the

166

Biology

cervix to the body surface. The vagina, the organ of sexual

intercourse, also serves as the birth canal. Figure 29.6 on
page 516 illustrates the female reproductive system.
In the ovaries, a body called an oogonium gives rise to an
oocyte surrounded by epithelium. This body is called a primary follicle. When a female child is born, each of her ovaries
contains as many as 2 million follicles. Over the course of a
womans life, only about 400 follicles will ripen into a secondary
oocyte. The release of a secondary oocyte from a nature follicle
is called ovulation, and ovulation follows the menstrual cycle.
A follicle that has lost it oocyte is transformed into a corpus
luteum. If pregnancy doesnt occur, this body falls apart after
about 10 days. In any case, oogenesis is completed only if a
secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm.
The ovarian cycle is controlled by the gonadotropic hormones
FSH and LH. Figure 29.7 on page 517 illustrates the ovarian
cycle. Figure 29.8 on page 518 illustrates both the ovarian
the menstrual cycles. Refer to these figures as your read and
study the text.
Estrogen and progesterone are the two primary female sex
hormones. Estrogen in particular is responsible for female
secondary characteristics like breast development and the
more rounded curves of the typical female anatomy.

Human Development
Pages 523529 describe and illustrate the events that occur
from the time of fertilization (the union of a sperm and an egg)
until birth. The material is clearly explained and includes
many diagrams and photographs to help you understand the
process. Read and study the material carefully. As you read,
refer to the illustrations to identify each part discussed.
Because this chapter covers a lot of information and includes
many new terms, be sure to read the chapter summary and
complete the exercises on pages 530532. The answers to the
exercises are in Appendix A at the back of your textbook.

Lesson 4

167

After you complete Self-Check 29, review the material youve

learned in this study guide as well as in the assigned pages in
your textbook for Assignments 2029. A good way to review
the chapters is to reread the summaries at the end of each
one. If you find you dont understand something in the summary, go back to the textbook pages and review the material.
When youre sure that you completely understand the information in Assignments 2029, complete your examination for
Lesson 4.

168

Biology

Self-Check 29
1. In the testes, seminiferous tubules carry out the processes of
a. ejaculation.
b. insemination.

c. prostration.
d. spermatogenesis.

2. What hormone is responsible for the development of female secondary characteristics?

a. Estrogen
b. Progesterone

c. FSH
d. Luteum

3. In the female reproductive system, fimbriae are finger-like projections attached to the
a. uterus.
b. cervix.

c. oviducts.
d. endometrium.

4. In early embryonic development, cleavage results in a clump of cells called a/an

a. endometrium.
b. morula.

c. amnion.
d. blastocyst.

5. The reproductive behavior of the queen bee in a honeybee hive is an example of

a. hermaphroditic fertilization.
b. parthenogenesis.

c. extraembryonic fertilization.
d. regeneration.

6. Over the lifecycle of a female, primary follicles produce about _______ secondary oocytes.
a. 9
b. 400

c. 1,000
d. 1,000,000

7. The glands involved in the production of seminal fluid include all the following except
a. the prostate gland.
b. bulbourethral glands.

c. seminal vesicles.
d. the vas deferens.

8. Which of the following STDs results from a bacterial infestation?

a. Syphilis
b. Hepatitis

c. Genital herpes
d. Genital warts

9. In embryonic development, a process called _______ gives rise to what will become the
central nervous system.
a. induction
b. gastrulation

c. neurulation
d. fertilization.

Check your answers with those on page 203.

Lesson 4

169

NOTES

170

Biology

EXAMINATION NUMBER

00764900
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com

When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in
Lesson 4, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit
your answers online. If you dont have access to the Internet,
you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for
this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until
another examination is ready.
Questions 120: Select the one best answer to each question.

1. In the human body, the _______ is a muscular membrane

that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity.
A. epiglottis
B. esophagus

C. diaphragm
D. bolus

2. In kidneys, the tiny tubules that produce urine are called

A. nephrons.
B. the ureters.

C. the renal cortex.

D. the renal medulla.

3. Which of these plant hormones hastens the ripening of fruit

and helps to cause the fall of leaves, flowers, and fruit?
A. Cytokinins
B. Auxins

C. Ethylene
D. Gibberellins

4. In the central nervous system, the _______ communicates

with and coordinates what happens in other parts of the brain.
A. cerebrum
B. cerebellum

C. brain stem
D. hypothalamus

Examination

Lesson 4
Structure and Function in
Plants and Animals

171

5. In the body of a human or other complex organism, a group of similar cells performing
similar functions is called a/an
A. organ.
B. tissue.

C. organ system.
D. cell.

6. In the human body, which of the following is part of the axial skeleton?
A. Clavicle
B. Femur

C. Sternum
D. Ulna

7. The purpose of the cuticle in plants is to

A. minimize water loss.
B. provide support.

C. transport water.
D. support plant functions.

8. The colored part of the human eye is the

A. pupil.
B. retina.

C. cornea.
D. iris.

9. Which of these is a white blood cell?

A. Neutrophil
B. Erythrocyte

C. Thrombocyte
D. Hemoglobin

10. Which one of these eating disorders is more likely to affect men than women?
A. Bulimia nervosa
B. Chronic dieting

C. Anorexia nervosa
D. Muscle dysmorphia

11. The wood in the trunk and limbs of a tree is made up of

A. cork cambium.
B. pith.

C. secondary xylem.
D. phloem.

12. Which blood type has neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies?
A. A
B. B

C. O
D. AB

13. What part of the lower respiratory tract is made up of tiny air sacs where oxygen and
carbon dioxide are exchanged?
A. Bronchioles
B. Alveoli

C. Trachea
D. Larynx

14. All the systems of the body work together to keep the internal environment of the
body constant within certain limits. This process is called
A. homoeostasis.
B. positive feedback.

172

C. neuroglia.
D. homeopathy.

Examination, Lesson 4

15. What divides the human heart into a left and right side?
A. Aaorta
B. Septum

C. Ventricles
D. Atria

16. The main sex hormone in males is

A. estrogen.
B. progesterone.

C. testosterone.
D. luteum.

17. A plant sits on a window sill. Over time, the stems of the plant curve toward the light
coming in the window. This process is called
A. phototropism.
B. photoperiodism.

C. gravitropism.
D. phytochromism.

18. Which of these parts receive nerve impulses from the central nervous system, causing
muscle fibers to contract?
A. Interneurons
B. Motor neurons

C. Sensory neurons
D. Myelin sheaths

19. In the human immune system, the main function of the _______ is filtering blood.
A. thymus gland
B. spleen

C. tonsils
D. appendix

20. In flowering plants, which of these becomes the female gametophyte?

A. Microspore
B. Pollen grains

Examination, Lesson 4

C. Pollen sacs
D. Megaspores

173

NOTES

174

Examination, Lesson 4

Ecology

Discuss and explain concepts about Earths

human population

Describe the characteristics and patterns of

creature populations

Discuss the life history patterns of opportunistic and

equilibrium populations

Explain concepts related to the ecology of communities

Discuss and describe the ways in which energy flows

through ecosystems

Describe the impacts of humans on Earths biosphere

Discuss the scope of biodiversity and threats

to biodiversity

Discuss approaches toward a sustainable society

ASSIGNMENT 30:
ECOLOGY OF POPULATIONS
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 30,
Ecology of Populations, on pages 533550 in your textbook.

The Human Population

Today, human populations are growing at an unprecedented
rate, and most of this growth is taking place in less-developed
countries (LDCs). Figure 30.1 on page 534 will help you visualize human population growth trends from the year 1200
to 2000 and beyond. Put simply, human population growth
is now so great that it threatens Earths carrying capacity
the number of people our planet can sustain over an indefinite
period. You can better understand the global distributions for
population growth by reviewing Figure 30.2 on page 535.

Lesson 5

When you complete this lesson, youll be able to

175

Comparing age structures helps us predict future population

growth trends. Data from 1998 (Figure 30.4) show that in
less-developed countries the proportions of young people (age 19
and below) are much greater than they are in the more-developed
countries (MDCs). Therefore, these populations will continue
to expand.
Populations can also be assessed in terms of environmental
impact. The more-developed countries have a much greater
impact on the environment than do the less-developed countries.
Figure 30.5 on page 537 compares LDCs with MDCs in a
number of different indices (like creation of wastes).

Characteristics of Populations
Distribution and Density
As youve already learned, a population is a group of individuals
of the same species that occupies a given area. Population size
is the number of individuals that contribute to a populations
gene pool. Population density is the number of individuals in
some specified area of habitat. Population distribution is the
general pattern of dispersal of individuals in a specified area.
Populations may display three distributional patterns: clumped,
nearly uniform, and random. In general, the highest density of
human populations is found along seacoasts.

Patterns of Population Growth

Exponential growth occurs when the reproduction base of a
population increases and its size keeps expanding by everincreasing increments. Figure 30.10 on page 540 illustrates
exponential growth. Logistic growth occurs when a population
low in density slowly increases in size, goes through a rapid
growth phase, and then levels off in size when its carrying
capacity is reached. Figure 30.11 on page 541 illustrates a
logistic growth curve.

176

Biology

Factors That Regulate Population Growth

Two kinds of factors regulate population growth:
1. Density-independent factors include natural disasters
such as flash floods and volcanic eruptions. Such events
may radically reduce a population. But the density of a
population isnt a factor because the proportion of a population killed may be roughly the same in a dense or a
dispersed population. Figure 30.13 on page 542 can help
you understand this idea.
2. Density-dependent factors include competition, predation,
and predator-prey population cycles. Here are a few
examples of these factors:

Interspecies competition for a finite food supply

grows more intense as population density increases.

Where population densities are low, the mortality

rate due to predation is also low. By contrast, when
densities are high, the instances of predation are
greater and the mortality rate is much higher.

Predator and prey populations tend to vary in cycles.

For example, as a rodent population increases, the
population of its predatorssuch as hawksincreases.
As the rodent population decreases due to predation,
the cycle reverses and the population of predators
declines.

Figures 30.1430.16 illustrate these three factors.

Life History Patterns and Extinction

Ecologists have identified two fundamental types of populations.
First, opportunistic populations tend to exhibit exponential growth.
Species of this type tend to have short life spans, while providing only minimal care for large numbers of offspring. Insects
are a paramount example of an opportunistic population. High
population densities of, say, cockroaches, may check the
growth of opportunistic populations simply due to limits of
available food. However, creatures like insects tend to be
widely dispersed, thus favoring species survival.

Lesson 5

177

Equilibrium populations tend toward logistic population growth.

Populations remain near or at the carrying capacity for a
habitat. Species of this type, like the mountain gorilla illustrated in Figure 30.17, tend to have longer life spans, no
doubt related in important ways to extended time and energy
devoted to caring for offspring.
Extinction occurs with the complete disappearance of a species.
Within equilibrium populations, the extent of geographic range,
the degree of habitat tolerance, and the size of the local population are related to the likelihood of extinction. Figure 30.18,
on page 545 illustrates factors that make seven species
vulnerable to extinction.

The Scope of Ecology

Ecology is the scientific study of organisms as they interact with
each other and with their physical environment. In general, the
study of ecology can be broken down into five levels of focus:
1. Particular species or organisms
2. Populations of species or organisms
3. Communities, which may include all species living and
interacting within a locale
4. Ecosystems, which are communities understood in relation to their natural environment
5. The entirety of Earths biosphere
Figure 30.19 on page 546 presents a summary of these levels
of organization.
Modern ecology arose from the study of natural history, the
observing of organisms in their environment. Today, ecology
goes beyond merely observing to studying the factors that
allow species to thrive. Having identified those factors, ecologists seek ways to foster those factors in favor of biodiversity.
This new ecological focus is called conservation biology. It reminds
us of the first law of ecology: Everything is connected to
everything else.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 30. Also, use the chapter summary and
exercises (pages 548550) to review the material in Chapter 30.

178

Biology

Self-Check 30
1. Which one of the following factors is considered part of a populations demographics?
a. Available resources
b. Climate

c. Age
d. Population density

2. With respect to the regulation of population growth, which one of the follow factors is a
density-independent factors?
a. A tsunami
b. Competition

c. Predation
d. Predator-prey cycles

3. A coral reef with its various species is a good example of a

a. niche.
b. population.

c. biosphere.
d. community.

4. As an ecologist, I would most probably be studying patterns of _______ if Im concerned

about how average age at death influences the size of a population.
a. clumped resources
b. survivorship

c. uniform distribution
d. speciation

5. Demographic factors, such as the typical number of offspring per reproduction and the age at
which reproduction begins, are considered to be factors impacting _______ potential.
a. exponent
b. phase

c. pattern
d. biotic

6. The number of species individuals the environment can sustain indefinitely is referred to as
a. carrying capacity.
b. the rate of growth per square mile.

c. demand capacity.
d. the rate of reproduction per unit time.

Check your answers with those on page 203.

Lesson 5

179

ASSIGNMENT 31:
COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 31,
Communities and Ecosystems, on pages 551574 in
your textbook.

Ecology of Communities
As youve already learned, a community is an ensemble
(assembly) of populations of species interacting in a common
environment. Across the broad multimillion year panorama
of species adaptation and evolution, species in communities
have interacted in relationships of mutual benefit called
coevolution. The interplay of adaptive features developed in
flowering plants and their insect pollinators (bees, wasps,
and so on) offers a striking example. Figure 31.1 on page 552
illustrates coevolution.
At the same time, species in a community acquire adaptations
suitable for a particular environment. An ecosystem is a group
of species interacting with each other and with the features
of their physical environment. Following from this definition
of an ecosystem, we can understand that rapid changes in a
physical environment, say due to climate change, can disrupt
a community and even bring about the extinction of species.

Community Composition and Diversity

The concepts of species composition and species diversity
help to classify communities. Carefully read the definitions
and explanations of these two concepts on page 553. The
two images in Figure 31.2 on page 553 illustrate community
species composition in a coniferous forest and tropical rain forest.

Ecological Succession
Ecological succession occurs when community character changes
from one type to another type in a more or less orderly manner.
Disturbances that bring about ecological succession may be
natural or manmade. According to the climax-pattern model,

180

Biology

the climate of an area generally tends toward a particular

balance of species and physical resources in a climax community.
For example, a conifer forest will gradually return to the same
sort of ecosystem after a massive fire or following destruction
due to a volcanic eruption. Figure 31.3 on page 554 illustrates
forest and desert types of climax communities, pointing out
that climax community types may vary due to the random
migration of species.
Ecologists recognize two kinds of succession. Primary succession
occurs where soil hasnt yet formed. For example, a new island
formed by a lava extrusion will gradually develop soils and
acquire species habitats due to weathering, seed migration
in atmospheric or ocean currents, and so on. An example of
secondary succession is the gradual drift of a previously cultivated farmland toward the type of climax community that was
there before cultivation. The basic differences between primary
and secondary succession are illustrated in Figure 31.4 on
page 554. Secondary succession is also illustrated in Figure 31.5
on page 555.

Interactions in Communities
Like different kinds of shops and residences in a city
neighborhood, communities are divided into habitats. The
community role a species plays in its habitat defines its
ecological niche. The ecological niche of a backswimmer is
illustrated in Figure 31.6. Figure 31.7 illustrates feeding
niches for wading birds. With the concept of ecological niches
in mind, review Table 31.1 on page 556 for a summary of the
five basic kinds of species interaction within and between
community habitats.
In competition, the interaction of two species brings about a
decrease in the populations of both species. Thus, according to
the competitive exclusion principle, no two species can occupy
the same niche at the same time. Figure 31.8 on page 557
graphically illustrates the competitive exclusion principle as
it applies to Paramecium.
On the other hand, multiple species can coexist in a community
through resource partitioning, exemplified by niche specialization.
For example, the varied feeding adaptations of Darwins finches
led to niche specialization through resource partitioning,

Lesson 5

181

as illustrated in Figure 31.9 on page 557. The variations in

beaks among the finches reflected different diets and, therefore,
the character displacement that permitted niche specialization.
Mutualism and competition are the two most important
interaction types in a community. Fundamentally, mutualism
amounts to complex cooperative relationships among species.
The relationship between angiosperms and insect pollinators
is once again an example. A subtle and complex example is
offered in Figure 31.10 on page 558.

Community Stability
Community stability can be fragile, but there are instances
when one speciesa keystone speciesacts to hold the web
of interactions together, thus stabilizing the community. The
example of the sea otter is offered in your text (page 559).
On the other hand, the introduction of exotic (non-native)
species into a community can be intensely disruptive. In
our globalizing world, the examples are legion. Your textbook
provides a number of examples on page 559.

Ecology of Ecosystems
Autotrophs and Heterotrophs
Autotrophs are called producers because they produce food
for the global food chain. Two autotrophs are illustrated in
Figure 31.13 on page 560. Heterotrophs, on the other hand,
which feed on producers, are called consumers. Decomposers,
which include bacteria and fungi, are included with heterotrophs.
Consumers are illustrated in Figure 31.14, which points out
that consumers may be herbivores or carnivores. Omnivores,
such as humans, are also, of course, consumers on a grand
scale.

Energy Flow and Chemical Cycling

Energy flow and chemical cycling are basic mechanisms of
Earths biosphere. The fascinating complexity of energy flow
is illustrated in Figures 31.16 and 31.17, both on page 561.

182

Biology

Figure 31.16 offers the basic concept of energy flow in a single

imagefrom producer to consumers to decomposers to an
inorganic nutrient pool and then back to producers. Figure 31.17
points out that only about 10% of nutrient energy taken in by
herbivores goes to carnivores. The rest goes to detritus feeders
(decomposers) and the processes of cellular respiration.
The biospheres food web is made up of grazing and detrital food
webs. In grazing food webs, energy goes from photoautotrophs
to herbivores and then onward to carnivores. In detrital food
webs, energy flows from photoautotrophs through detritivores
to decomposers. In the context of a temperate deciduous food
web, the interactions of these two parts of the food web are
displayed in Figure 31.18 on page 562. Studying this illustration
will help you better understand related concepts.
The food chain concept states that organisms are related to
one another in a straight line with respect to the question
who eats whom? Within a food chain, the trophic level is
a level of nourishment (consumed energy) within a web or
chain composed of producers, herbivores, and carnivores.
Assessing (measuring) the flow of energy between trophic levels permits us to create an ecological pyramid. Figure 31.19
on page 563 illustrates a food chain, and Figure 31.20 on the
same page illustrates an ecological pyramid. In Figure 31.20,
the so-called 10% rule of thumb shows why only a very few top
carnivores like lions, eagles, and humans can be supported
by all of the other organisms in the pyramid.

Chemical Cycling
Chemical cycling within ecosystems involves the combined
interactions of living producers, consumes, and decomposers,
as well as rock, soils, and the atmosphere. All of these together
are known as biogeochemical cycles. A model for chemical
cycling in general is illustrated in Figure 31.21 on page 564.
Note that the figure includes human activities. As you study
the figure, identify reservoirs of fossil fuels, sediments, and
minerals; exchange pools (water, soil, and atmosphere), and
the producers and consumers of the biotic community.

Lesson 5

183

Carefully read and study the three basic chemical cycles on

pages 565567. As you do, take account of the disruption
of all of these cycles by human activities, as described in
your text.

The phosphorous cycle (Figure 31.22) is a sedimentary

biogeochemical cycle. Phosphorus and other solid nutrients
move from land to the sea floor and return to dry land by
geographic uplifting.

The nitrogen cycle (Figure 31.24) is called a gaseous

biogeochemical cycle. It relies mainly on the activities
of bacteria found in soils.

The carbon cycle (Figure 31.26) is another gaseous biogeochemical cycle. Producers take in carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis. Living
and dead organisms serve as a basic reservoir for carbon
and the carbon cycle. Decomposed organisms return carbon
to the atmosphere and to soils. Long-dead organisms
pressed into sediments are the basis of fossil fuelscoal,
petroleum, and natural gas.

Ecology of Major Ecosystems

Aquatic ecosystems are divided into fresh water and saltwater
types, which are also called marine ecosystems. As shown in
Figure 31.27 on page 568, coral reefs and marshes, which
generally provide very bio-rich habitats along coast lines,
are also included among aquatic ecosystems.
Terrestrial ecosystems, called biomes, are defined by their
temperatures and levels of rain. Figure 31.28 illustrates the
major terrestrial ecosystems.
Before proceeding to the next assignment, take a moment to
complete Self-Check 31.

184

Biology

Self-Check 31
1. Which of the following biogeochemical cycles involves the weathering of sedimentary rock?
a. Carbon
b. Phosphorous

c. Biotic
d. Nitrogen

2. Most of the organic nutrients for Earths biosphere are produced by

a. photoautotrophs.
b. chemoautotrophs.

c. heteroautotrophs.
d. omnivores.

3. A detrital food web begins with

a. invertebrates.
b. herbivores.

c. bacteria and fungi.

d. photosynthesizers.

4. All of the following are terrestrial biomes except

a. coral reefs.
b. tundra.

c. tropical rain forest.

d. temperate forest.

5. Hummingbirds and certain kinds of red flowers acquire adaptive features that allow them to
interact for mutual benefit. What do ecologists call this process?
a. Species diversity
b. Coevolution

c. Primary succession
d. Niche specialization

6. Two protozoan species are introduced into a pond habitat niche. After a few weeks pass,
only one of the species is still there. This occurrence is an example of
a. resource partitioning.
b. niche displacement.

c. character displacement.
d. the competitive exclusion principle.

7. The main difference between primary and secondary succession is the

a. presence or absence of moisture.
b. passage of time.

c. presence or absence of soil.

d. influence of a dominant species.

Check your answers with those on page 203.

Lesson 5

185

ASSIGNMENT 32: HUMAN

IMPACT ON THE BIOSPHERE
Refer to the following information as you read Chapter 32,
Human Impact on the Biosphere, on pages 575595 in
your textbook.

Resources and Pollution

Human biological needs are met by using land, water, food,
energy sources, and minerals. Some of these resources are
renewablethat is, they arent limited in supply. Water and
some kinds of energy sources (solar, wind) can be used indefinitely for growing food, animal husbandry, manufacturing
commodities, and so on. Nonrenewable resources, such as
fossil fuels, are finite sources of energy. Mineral resources,
like copper, zinc, or silver, are also nonrenewablealthough,
through recycling, they can be conserved. Figure 32.1 on
page 576 illustrates the five basic resources.
Pages 577586 of your textbook focus on these five main
resources. The material is mainly aimed at making you aware
of the real or potential ecological threats posed by each resource
concern, as well as possible remedies. Read this material
carefully. As you do, ask yourself what you can do to help
conserve some or all of these resources.

Biodiversity
Ecologists have identified patterns of biodiversity based on
variables such as sunlight intensity, moisture levels, average
seasonal temperatures, and latitude. In this context, mainland
marine patterns reveal that species diversity is much richer
toward the equator. Diversity is less in the northern or southern
temperate zones and even less as one approaches the Arctic
or Antarctic regions. This is partly the case because tropical
communities have been evolving for longer periods of time.
Tropical areas, especially tropical rain forests, harbor an
astonishing richness of species diversity.

186

Biology

Direct Values of Biodiversity

Direct values of biodiversity include medical, agricultural,
and consumptive use values. Most of the prescription drugs
now in use were discovered in plants. Penicillin was first
identified in bread mold. All of our main agricultural crops
like rice, wheat, and cornwere cultivated from wild forms of
these grain plants. Keeping wild forms of crop plants around
provide a reservoir of genetic diversity in case highly cultivated food plants should suffer misfortune from blight or
infestation. Also, insects that pollinate flowering plants need
protectioneven if people occasionally get stung. Finally,
many popular modern products are derived directly from wild
species, including beeswax, shampoos and body lotions, and
a wide variety of herbs increasingly popular among people
seeking natural cures and a healthy lifestyle.

Indirect Values of Biodiversity

Indirect values of biodiversity are considerable. Biogeochemical
cycles, like the carbon and nitrogen cycles, are sustained by
undisturbed ecosystems. In that context, biodiversity is crucial
to the health of ecosystems and, therefore, human health and
well-being. On pages 590591, your textbook outlines and explains
a number of indirect values that result from biodiversity.

Working Toward a Sustainable Society

Figure 32.20 on page 592 graphically contrasts resource use
patterns for present-day human society with resource uses in
a possible sustainable society of the future. Your textbook
lists six pieces of evidence indicating that present-day human
society is unsustainable. Read them carefully. Do you agree?
After you complete Self-Check 32, review the material youve
learned in this study guide as well as in the assigned pages in
your textbook for Assignments 3032. A good way to review the
chapters is to reread the summaries at the end of each one.
If you find you dont understand something in the summary,
go back to the textbook pages and review the material. When
youre sure that you completely understand the information in
Assignments 3032, complete your examination for Lesson 5.

Lesson 5

187

Self-Check 32
1. Its estimated that about 25% to 35% of western croplands in the United States have
undergone salinization due to
a.
b.
c.
d.

saltwater intrusion.
excessive use of fertilizers.
soil degradation.
evaporation of excessive irrigation water.

2. Radioactive decay of elements like uranium and thorium can provide geothermal energy due
to the intense heating of subsurface
a. strata.
b. water.

c. hydrocarbons.
d. hydrogen.

3. _______ hold about 1,000 times the volume of water precipitation that occurs over a land
area in a year.
a. Subsidence faults
b. Dams

c. Aquifers
d. Saltwater intrusions

4. One direct value of biodiversity is

a. prevention of soil erosion.
b. waste disposal.

c. agricultural value.
d. climate regulation.

5. According to computer models, because of the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the

atmosphere, its predicted that _______ region temperatures will rise fastest.
a. polar
b. desert

c. tropical forest
d. coastal

Check your answers with those on page 204.

188

Biology

EXAMINATION NUMBER

00765000
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com

When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in
Lesson 5, go to http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit
your answers online. If you dont have access to the Internet,
you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for
this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until
another examination is ready.
Questions 120: Select the one best answer to each question.

1. What is the term for an evolutionary change in one species

that results in the evolutionary change of another species?
A.
B.
C.
D.

Binary evolution
Competitive evolution
Coevolution
Interactive evolution

2. All the interconnected paths of energy flowing from species

to species in an ecosystem is called a
A. detrital food web.
B. trophic level.

C. food chain.
D. food web.

3. The number of individuals an environment can sustain for an

indefinite period of time is called its
A. limit of growth.
B. rate of growth.

C. carrying capacity.
D. ideal birth rate.

Examination

Lesson 5
Ecology

189

4. The main reason for land subsidence is

A.
B.
C.
D.

the removal of water from aquifers.

the destruction of plant life.
desertification.
land exploitation.

5. Which statement best describes the competitive exclusion principle?

A.
B.
C.
D.

Decreased competition between two species leads to increased niche specialization.

Character displacement is evidence of competition and resource partitioning.
No two species can occupy the same ecological niche at the same time.
Adjacent ecological niches lead to the elimination of one of the niches.

6. Which one of the following statements expresses a characteristic of MDCs?

A.
B.
C.
D.

The population of MDCs is larger than that of LDCs.

MDCs produce most of the worlds hazardous wastes.
People in MDCs use less water than those in LDCs.
The age structure of MDCs is less stable than that of LDCs.

7. An example of a renewable energy source is

A. coal.
B. water.

C. land.
D. minerals.

8. A species that takes in only inorganic nutrients is called a/an

A. decomposer.
B. consumer.

C. heterotrophy.
D. autotroph.

9. What kind of ecological succession occurs when soil has not yet formed?
A. Secondary
B. Primary

C. Mutual
D. Climatic

10. If, over a period of 10 years, a population has a logistic growth rate, you would
expect to see
A.
B.
C.
D.

a death rate much higher than the birth rate.

an S-shaped curve followed by a J-shaped curve.
accelerating population growth over the entire period.
a stable equilibrium phase.

11. Which of these is an indirect value of biodiversity?

A.
B.
C.
D.

190

Prevention of soil erosion

Agricultural value
Medicinal value
Provision of consumable resources

Examination, Lesson 5

12. What occurs when members of one species try to use necessary resources that
are in limited supply?
A. Predation
B. Natural disasters

C. Predator-prey cycles
D. Competition

13. When decomposers are unable to break down industrial wastes, they become more
concentrated as they move through the food chain. This process is called biological
A. pollution.
B. synthesis.

C. magnification.
D. concentration.

14. What is described by the following sentence? The members of a population are small in
size, the young mature early, they get little care from their parents, and they have a
short life span.
A.
B.
C.
D.

Equilibrium population
Population of mountain gorillas
Opportunistic population
Species of birds approaching extinction

15. In an ecosystem, a large number of species are dependent on one particular species of
bird. The species of bird is an example of a/an _______ species.
A. keystone
B. native

C. capstone
D. exotic

16. The science of ecology developed from the study of

A. natural history.
B. biology.

C. chemistry.
D. human populations.

17. Following deforestation of tropical forests, the remaining soil is nutrient-poor because
A.
B.
C.
D.

its located over bedrock.

its mostly sand.
there are no remaining nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
most nutrients have been absorbed by the vegetation.

18. Which biochemical cycle aids plants through bacterial nodules in soil?
A. Carbon
B. Nitrogen

Examination, Lesson 5

C. Phosphorus
D. Oxygen

191

19. All of the different species living in a particular location are called a/an
A. community.
B. ecosystem.

C. biosphere.
D. population.

20. The process in which two species interact in ways that benefit both of them is called
A. commensalism.
B. parasitism.

192

C. mutualism.
D. predation.

Examination, Lesson 5

Self-Check 1
1. b

3. d
4. a
5. c
6. d

Self-Check 2
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. b
5. c
6. a
7. c

Self-Check 3
1. d
2. c
3. b
4. a
5. d
6. a
7. b

Answers

2. c

193

Self-Check 4
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. b
5. b
6. a
7. b
8. c

Self-Check 5
1. c
2. c
3. b
4. c
5. b
6. d

Self-Check 6
1. a
2. c
3. b
4. c
5. d

194

Self-Check Answers

Self-Check 7
1. b
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. c

Self-Check 8
1. c
2. b
3. c
4. d
5. a
6. c
7. a
8. b

Self-Check 9
1. d
2. b
3. b
4. a
5. c

Self-Check 10
1. c
2. b
3. b
4. a

Self-Check Answers

195

5. a
6. d
7. c
8. a. Tt, tt
b.
t

Tt

tt

Tt

tt

Note: You can get the same results by omitting the

second (t) from the Punnett square. The ratio in the
square below is the same as that in the square above.
t

Tt

tt

c. 50% tall, 50% short

9. a. The genotypes of the plant thats homozygous for yellow and heterozygous for tall (YYTt) are YT and Yt. The
genotypes of the plant thats heterozygous for both traits
(YyTt) are YT, Yt, yT, and yt.
b.
YT

Yt

yT

yt

YT

YYTT

YYTt

YyTT

YyTt

Yt

YYTt

YYtt

YyTt

Yytt

c. 75% yellow and tall (6/8 or 3/4)

25% yellow and short (2/8 or 1/4)
0% green and tall
0% green and short

196

Self-Check Answers

Self-Check 11
1. a
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. b
6. c
7. c
8. d

Self-Check 12
1. c
2. b
3. b
4. d
5. c
6. a
7. d

Self-Check 13
1. a
2. b
3. d
4. b
5. c
6. d
7. d
8. a
9. c

Self-Check Answers

197

Self-Check 14
1. b
2. c
3. a
4. b
5. d
6. a

Self-Check 15
1. d
2. a
3. b
4. d
5. a
6. c
7. b

Self-Check 16
1. a
2. d
3. c
4. c
5. a
6. b
7. c

198

Self-Check Answers

Self-Check 17
1. b
2. d
3. a
4. c
5. c
6. a
7. d

Self-Check 18
1. d
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. b
7. d
8. a
9. b

Self-Check 19
1. a
2. d
3. c
4. d
5. b
6. a

Self-Check Answers

199

7. c
8. a
9. b
10. b
11. c

Self-Check 20
1. a
2. c
3. c
4. b
5. c
6. d
7. a
8. b

Self-Check 21
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. b
5. b
6. c
7. d

Self-Check 22
1. c
2. d
3. b

200

Self-Check Answers

4. a
5. d
6. b
7. c

Self-Check 23
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. b
5. a

Self-Check 24
1. a
2. d
3. d
4. b
5. c
6. a
7. b
8. c
9. b
10. d

Self-Check 25
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. a
5. b

Self-Check Answers

201

Self-Check 26
1. b
2. b
3. d
4. c
5. d

Self-Check 27
1. b
2. a
3. d
4. c
5. b
6. a
7. c

Self-Check 28
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. d
5. b
6. c
7. a
8. c
9. d

202

Self-Check Answers

Self-Check 29
1. d
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. b
6. b
7. d
8. a
9. c

Self-Check 30
1. c
2. a
3. d
4. b
5. d
6. a

Self-Check 31
1. b
2. a
3. c
4. a
5. b
6. d
7. c

Self-Check Answers

203

Self-Check 32
1. d
2. b
3. c
4. c
5. a

204

Self-Check Answers