FENINTE ELEMENT METHOD

UNIT 1
TOPIC 1: INTRODUCTION TO FEM
The basic idea in the finite element method is to find the solution of a complicated problem by
replacing it by a simpler one. Since the actual problem is replaced by a simpler one in finding the
solution, we will be able to find only an approximate solution rather than the exact solution.
The existing mathematical tools will not be sufficient to find the exact solution (and sometimes, even
an approximate solution) of most of the practical problems. Thus, in the absence of any other
convenient method to find even the approximate solution of a given problem, we have to prefer
the finite element method. Moreover, in the finite element method, it will often be possible to
improve or refine the approximate solution by spending more computational effort. In the finite
element method, the solution region is considered as built up of many small, interconnected
subregions called finite elements. As an example of how a finite element model might be used
to represent a complex geometrical shape, consider the milling machine structure shown in
Figure 1.1(a). Since it is very difficult to find the exact response (like stresses and displacements)
of the machine under any specified cutting (loading) condition, this structure is approximated as
composed of several pieces as shown in Figure 1.1(b) in the finite element method. In each piece
or element, a convenient approximate solution is assumed and the conditions of overall
equilibrium of the structure are derived. The satisfaction of these conditions will yield an
approximate solution for the displacements and stresses.

TOPIC 2: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Although the name of the finite element method was given recently, the concept dates back for
several centuries. For example, ancient mathematicians found the circumference of a circle by
approximating it by the perimeter of a polygon as shown in Figure

In terms of the present-day notation, each side of the polygon can be called a "finite element."
By considering the approximating polygon inscribed or circumscribed, one can obtain a lower
(l)

(u)

bound S or an upper bound S for the true circumference S. Furthermore, as the number of
sides of the polygon is increased, the approximate valuesconverge to the true value. These
characteristics, as will be seen later, will hold true in any general finite element application. In
recent times, an approach similar to the finite element method, involving the use of piecewise
continuous functions defined over triangular regions, was first suggested by Courant [1.1] in
1943 in the literature of applied mathematics. The basic ideas of the finite element method as
known today were presented in the papers of Turner, Clough, Martin, and Topp [1.2] and Argyris
and Kelsey [1.3]. The name finite element was coined by Clough [1.4]. Reference [1.2] presents the
application of simple finite elements (pin-jointed bar and triangular plate with inplane loads) for
the analysis of aircraft structure and is considered as one of the key contributions in the
development of the finite element method. The digital computer provided a rapid means of
performing the many calculations involved in the finite element analysis and made the method
practically viable. Along with the development of high-speed digital computers, the application of
the finite element method also progressed at a very impressive rate. The book by Przemieniecki [1.33]
presents the finite element method as applied to the solution of stress analysis problems.
Zienkiewicz and Cheung [1.5] presented the broad interpretation of the method and its
applicability to any general field problem. With this broad interpretation of the finite element
method, it has been found that the finite element equations can also be derived by using a
weighted residual method such as Galerkin method or the least squares approach. This led to
widespread interest among applied mathematicians in applying the finite element method for the
solution of linear and nonlinear differential equations. Over the years, several papers, conference
proceedings, and books have been published on this methods for the solution of linear and
nonlinear differential equations. Over the years, several papers, conference proceedings, and
books have been published on this method.
2.1 Approximation of the Circumference of a Circle
Consider the problem of determining the perimeter of a circle of radius R (see Fig. a). Ancient
mathematicians estimated the value of the circumference

1.4 ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

As stated earlier, the finite element method was developed originally for the analysis of aircraft
structures. However, the general nature of its theory makes it applicable to a wide variety of
boundary value problems in engineering. A boundary value problem is one in which a solution is
sought in the domain (or region) of a body subject to the satisfaction of prescribed boundary
(edge) conditions on the dependent variables or their derivatives. Table 1.1 gives specific
applications of the finite element method in the three major categories of boundary value
problems, namely, (i) equilibrium or steady-state or time-independent problems, (ii) eigenvalue
problems, and (iii) propagation or transient problems.
In an equilibrium problem, we need to find the steady-state displacement or stress distribution if
it is a solid mechanics problem, temperature or heat flux distribution if it is a heat transfer
problem, and pressure or velocity distribution if it is a fluid mechanics problem.
In eigenvalue problems also time will not appear explicitly. They may be considered as extensions
of equilibrium problems in which critical values of certain parameters are to be determined in
addition to the corresponding steady-state configurations. In these problems, we need to find the
natural frequencies or buckling loads and mode shapes if it is a solid mechanics or structures
problem, stability of laminar flows if it is a fluid mechanics problem, and resonance characteristics
if it is an electrical circuit problem.
The propagation or transient problems are time-dependent problems. This type of problem arises,
for example, whenever we are interested in finding the response of a body under time-varying
force in the area of solid mechanics and under sudden heating or cooling in the field of heat
transfer.

1.5 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

In the finite element method, the actual continuum or body of matter, such as a solid, liquid, or
gas, is represented as an assemblage of subdivisions called finite elements. These elements are
considered to be interconnected at specified joints called nodes or nodal points. The nodes
usually lie on the element boundaries where adjacent elements are considered to be connected.
Since the actual variation of the field variable (e.g., displacement, stress, temperature, pressure,
or velocity) inside the continuum is not known, we assume that the variation of the field
variable inside a finite element can be approximated by a simple function. These approximating
functions (also called interpolation models) are defined in terms of the values of the field
variables at the nodes. When field equations (like equilibrium equations) for the whole continuum
are written, the new unknowns will be the nodal values of the field variable. By solving the field
equations, which are generally in the form of matrix equations, the nodal values of the field
variable will be known. Once these are known, the approximating functions define the field
variable throughout the assemblage of elements.
The solution of a general continuum problem by the finite element method always follows an
orderly step-by-step process. With reference to static structural problems, the step-by-step
procedure can be stated as follows:
Step (i): Discretization of the structure
The first step in the finite element method is to divide the structure or solution region into
subdivisions or elements. Hence, the structure is to be modeled with suitable finite elements.
The number, type, size, and arrangement of the elements are to be decided
Step (ii): Selection of a proper interpolation or displacement model Since the displacement
solution of a complex structure under any specified load conditions cannot be predicted exactly,
we assume some suitable solution within an element to approximate the unknown solution. The
assumed solution must be simple from a computational standpoint, but it should satisfy certain
convergence requirements. In general, the solution or the interpolation model is taken in the
form of a polynomial.
Step (iii): Derivation of element stiffness matrices and load vectors From the assumed
displacement model, the stiffness matrix [K (e)] and the load vector
of element e are to be
derived by using either equilibrium conditions or a suitable variational principle.
Step (iv): Assemblage of element equations to obtain the overall equilibrium equations Since
the structure is composed of several finite elements, the individual element stiff- ness matrices
and load vectors are to be assembled in a suitable manner and the overall equilibrium equations
have to be formulated as
(1.15) where [K] is the assembled stiffness matrix,
is the
vector of nodal displacements, and P is the vector of nodal forces for the complete structure.

Step (v): Solution for the unknown nodal displacements The overall equilibrium equations have
to be modified to account for the boundary conditions of the problem. After the incorporation
of the boundary conditions, the equilibrium equations can be expressed as
(1.16)
For linear problems, the vector 0 can be solved very easily. However, for nonlinear problems,
the solution has to be obtained in a sequence of steps, with each step involving the modification
of the stiffness matrix [K] and/or the load vector
Step (VI): Computation of element strains and stresses From the known nodal displacements
, if
required, the element strains and stresses can be computed by using the necessary equations of
solid or structural mechanics. The terminology used in the previous six steps has to be modified if
we want to extend the concept to other fields. For example, we have to use the term
continuum or domain in place of structure, field variable in place of displacement, characteristic
matrix in place of stiffness matrix, and element resultants in place of element strains. The
application of the six steps of the finite element analysis is illustrated with the help of the
following examples.

1.6 COMPARISON OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD WITH OTHER METHODS OF ANALYSIS

The common analysis methods available for the solution of a general field problem (e.g.,
elasticity, fluid flow, and heat transfer problems) can be classified as follows:

The finite element method will be compared with some of the other analysis methods in this
section by considering the beam vibration problem as an example.

Advantages of the Finite Element Method

Finite element method has been applied to numerous problems, both structural and nonstructural, this
method has a number of advantages that have made it very popular. They include the ability to
1. Model irregularly shaped bodies quite easily
2. Handle general load conditions without difculty
3. Model bodies composed of several different materials because the Element equations are evaluated
individually
4. Handle unlimited numbers and kinds of boundary conditions
5. Vary the size of the elements to make it possible to use small elements where necessary
6. Alter the nite element model relatively easily and cheaply
7. Include dynamic effects
8. Handle nonlinear behavior existing with large deformations and nonlinear materials

The nite element method of structural analysis enables the designer to detect stress, vibration, and
thermal problems during the design process and to evaluate design changes before the construction of a
possible prototype. Thus condence in the accept ability of the prototype is enhanced. Moreover, if
used properly, the method can reduce the number of prototypes that need to be built.
Even though the nite element method was initially used for structural analysis, it has since been
adapted to many other disciplines in engineering and mathematical physics, such as uid ow, heat
transfer, electromagnetic potentials, soil mechanics and acoustics

UNIT 2
BASIC ELEMENT SHAPES
The shapes, sizes, number, and configurations of the elements have to be chosen carefully
such that the original body or domain is simulated as closely as possible without increasing
the computational effort needed for the solution. Mostly the choice of the type of element is
dictated by the geometry of the body and the number of independent coordinates necessary
to describe the system. If the geometry, material properties, and the field variable of the
problem can be described in terms of only one spatial coordinate, we can use the onedimensional or line elements shown in Figure 2.1(a). The temperature distribution in
a rod (or fin), the pressure distribution in a pipe flow. and the deformation of a bar

under axial load, for example, can be determined using these elements. Although these
elements have cross-sectional area, they are generally shown schematically as a line element
(Figure 2.1(b)). In some cases, the cross-sectional area of the element may be nonuniform.

For a simple analysis, one-dimensional elements are assumed to have two nodes, one at
each end, with the corresponding value of the field variable chosen as the unknown (degree
of freedom). However, for the analysis of beams, the values of the field variable (transverse
displacement) and its derivative (slope) are chosen as the unknowns (degrees of freedom)
at each node as shown in Figure 2.1(c).
When the configuration and other details of the problem can be described in terms of
two independent spatial coordinates, we can use the two-dimensional elements shown in
Figure 2.2. The basic element useful for two-dimensional analysis is the triangular element.
Although a quadrilateral (or its special forms, rectangle and parallelogram) element can
be obtained by assembling two or four triangular elements, as shown in Figure 2.3, in
some cases the use of quadrilateral (or rectangle or parallelogram) elements proves to be
advantageous. For the bending analysis of plates, multiple degrees of freedom (transverse
displacement and its derivatives) are used at each node.

If the geometry, material properties, and other parameters of the body can be described
by three independent spatial coordinates, we can idealize the body by using the threedimensional elements shown in Figure 2.4. The basic three-dimensional element, analogous
to the triangular element in the case of two-dimensional problems, is the tetrahedron element. In some cases the hexahedron element, which can be obtained by assembling five
tetrahedrons as indicated in Figure 2.5. can be used advantageously. Some problems, which
are actually three-dimensional, can be described by only one or two independent coordinates. Such problems can be idealized by using an axisymmetric or ring type of elements
shown in Figure 2.6. The problems that possess axial symmetry, such as pistons, storage
tanks, valves, rocket nozzles, and reentry vehicle heat shields, fall into this category.

For the discretization of problems involving curved geometries, finite elements with
curved sides are useful. Typical elements having curved boundaries are shown in Figure 2.7.
The ability to model curved boundaries has been made possible bv the addition of midside
nodes. Finite elements with straight sides are known as linear elements, whereas those with
curved sides are called higher order elements.