Chapter 4.

Orientation Description
4.1 Introduction
Definitions
In structural geology, we need to describe the orientations of real and/or imaginary lines, planes,
and surfaces in three-dimensions and to define how those features change orientation through
time. Linear features in a rock are called lineations and planar features include foliations,
bedding planes, and faults. We use trend and plunge to describe the orientations of linear
features. We describe the orientations of planar features or portions of surfaces by: 1) Strike,
dip, and dip direction; or 2) Dip and dip bearing. If a line is associated with a plane, we can
define its orientation by defining a pitch and a pitch direction that relates to the strike and dip of
the plane. Rose diagrams provide a graphical representation of two-dimensional spatial data.
Stereonets are two-dimensional projections of three-dimensional data, which allow a geologist to
observe trends in spatial data.
Relevance
Describing the orientation of geological structures is the basis of structural geology. Despite the
advent of digital techniques, the magnetic compass remains the most practical, simple and
commonly used instrument to record orientations in the field, and every structural geologist
(indeed, every field geologist) needs to become thoroughly proficient in the use of the compass.
This chapter therefore gives the key concepts behind describing orientations and measuring them
with a compass: An Appendix to this chapter gives a thorough exposition of the practicalities of
compass use. Because there is so much orientation data in structural geology, we rely on a variety
of tools to display the three dimensional data. The use of the stereographic projection
(stereonets), in particular, is ubiquitous in structural geology. Unfortunately, it is also one of the
most difficult concepts for many students of structural geology to comprehend and use
effectively. Practice is absolutely essential to using stereonets. The chapter outlines the concepts
of stereonets; detailed steps for their use are given in the Appendices.
4.2 Directions on the surface of Earth and maps
An azimuth is one way of designating a direction, or bearing, on a horizontal plane, in space
(Figure 4.1a). We use the geographic North pole, the point where the Earths axis of rotation
intersects its surface, as our reference for reckoning directions. We call the direction along which
one would need to travel to reach the geographic North pole North. Azimuths range from 0
(North) to 360 (also North), in a clockwise fashion. Consequently, 090 is East, 180 is South, and
270 is West. Note that we use 3 digits (002, 087, 120 etc.) to define an azimuth and that we drop
the sign. North is upwards, toward the top of the page on maps. Azimuths are commonly used
by navigators of all sorts, but particularly by sailors who are unconstrained by obstacles and can
go in any direction. This is the system that is used by most geologists and is used in this book.
An alternative method for determining direction on a horizontal plane is the quadrant measure
(Fig. 4.1b). It uses a system of 4 quadrants, or sections of the compass: NW, NW, SW, and SE.
A bearing specifies any cardinal direction (N, S, E, W) by a letter (i.e., N). For any direction
between the cardinal directions, a quadrant direction is given in the form N34E or S30W. The
first letter gives the reference direction (N or S), the number gives the angular variation from that
reference direction (say 34), and the last letter gives the direction toward which to measure the
angle (E). So, N34E is a line oriented 34 from North, towards the direction of East. N34W is a

line oriented 34 from North, towards the direction of West. Note that N34E (bearing) is the same
as 034 (azimuth), and N34W (bearing) is the same as 326 (aximuth = 360 - 34). Similarly, S30W
(bearing) is the same as 210 (azimuth = 180 (= S) + 30).
4.3 Earths magnetic field
Earths magnetic field is extremely useful for determining directions in the field. For our
purposes, Earths magnetic field is a geocentric dipole, meaning that the field is consistent with a
strong, two-ended (di-polar) magnet positioned at the center of Earth (Fig. 4.2). The non-dipolar
components of Earths magnetic field are sufficiently small that we can ignore them for this
discussion. The lines surrounding the globe in Fig. 4.2 are called magnetic field lines; a small
magnetic dipole (i.e. a bar magnet) placed anywhere on Earth would align itself with the
magnetic field lines if it were able to move freely. Magnetic field lines go directly out of Earth at
the magnetic South pole and directly into Earth at the magnetic North pole (which means, from a
physics point of view, Earths magnetic South pole is equivalent to the North pole of a magnet).
At all other places on Earth, magnetic field lines have a finite horizontal component. It is this
horizontal component of the magnetic field that induces a compass needle to point toward the
magnetic poles and allows you to determine the direction of North. The vertical component of
Earths magnetic field is related to the inclination of a magnetic field line, the angle between a
horizontal plane and the magnetic field line. Note, as is shown on Fig. 4.2, magnetic field lines
are inclined relative to the horizontal at most locations on Earth, pointing upward in the southern
hemisphere and downward in the northern hemisphere. Only near the equator are magnetic field
lines horizontal. The different inclinations in different hemispheres give rise to a difference in
vertical component of the magnetic pull in the northern and southern hemispheres (Figure 4.2).
For this reason, compasses from the Northern hemisphere will not work in the Southern
hemisphere, and vice versa.
The axis of Earths magnetic field does not coincide with Earths rotation axis, so the magnetic
North pole does not coincide with the geographic North pole. Because the compass points to the
magnetic North pole, there is at most locations on Earth an angular difference, called the
magnetic declination (Fig. 4.2), between the direction in which the compass needle points and
North. The magnetic declination is the angle, measured in a horizontal plane, between the
direction toward the geographic North pole and the direction between the magnetic North pole. A
declination of 10 west means that the magnetic North pole is oriented 10 west of north
(counterclockwise) from the geographic North pole. Figure 4.3 shows that the declination
changes from point to point around the globe; the declination at any one point will also change
from time to time.
Many maps use the direction to the geographic North pole as the basis of their reference frame
(although you may encounter maps that use a grid North that is close to but not precisely
parallel to geographic North as their reference). Therefore in order to show directions measured
with a compass on a map, it is essential to adjust or correct magnetic bearings for the declination
(the difference between magnetic and true North). Imagine that the magnetic pole is 10 due
West of the geographic pole, as in the above example (the declination is 10 west). If your
compass needle points to 000 (magnetic N), then it is pointing towards 350 (true N). A simple
rule can be deduced from this example: to convert magnetic directions to geographically correct
directions, 10 must be subtracted for west declinations, and vice-versa for east declinations.

4.4 Compasses
Geologists most commonly use a compass to determine direction in the field. Three basic types
are now routinely used: Transit (e.g. Brunton), Stratum (e.g. GeoBrunton, Breipthaupt, Freiberg),
or Silva type (Fig. 4.4). A description of how the compasses work, with step-by step instructions,
is given in the Appendix to this chapter. If you have not used a professional compass before,
please read the Appendix before you continue reading the rest of the chapter. It will also help to
have a compass with you while reading the chapter, if that is possible. Otherwise, the
descriptions of how to measure the orientations of lineations and foliations will make little sense.
The variety of compasses in use can be perplexing at first. Each type has features that are
advantageous for specific types of work: for example the transit compass for surveying; the
stratum compass for rapid and accurate collection of structural data. Apart from their specific
features, familiarity probably dictates choice of compass as much as anything, and practice
rapidly brings skill in collecting orientation data with all types of compass.

4.5 Lines: Trend and Plunge

We use two numbers to describe the orientation of a linear element or lineation in space: Trend
and plunge (Fig. 4.5). The trend (also called the plunge bearing) is the angle between a
horizontal line and the projection of the linear element onto the horizontal plane (what you would
see when looking vertically down on the linear element from above) (Fig. 4.5a). We usually give
the trend as an azimuth, varying from 000 to 360, and always written with three numbers (e.g.,
005). For example, if you place a pencil on the ground, with the point oriented toward N, the
linear element (i.e. pencil) would have a trend of 000. If the pencil were oriented NE, it would
have a trend of 045.
The plunge (or inclination) of any linear element is the angle measured downward from the
horizontal to the line in a vertical plane. As is clear in Figure 4.5, that vertical plane will also
contain the direction of the trend (Fig. 4.5b). That is, the plunge is the deviation from the
horizontal in the vertical plane that contains the linear element. The value of the plunge varies
from 0 to 90. So, a pencil that is oriented horizontally has a plunge of 0, a pencil that is oriented
vertically has a plunge of 90, a pencil that is oriented halfway has a plunge of 45. In structural
geology, the plunge is always downward into the Earth.
Lines that plunge between 0 and 30 are shallowly plunging. If lines plunge between 30 and 60,
they are moderately plunging. If lines plunge between 60 and 90, they are steeply plunging.
In this book, we will always define the trend of the line as the direction in which the line plunges.
Thus, there is only one possible trend for any given line. You should be aware that this
convention is not universally followed, so you need to examine carefully the description of
orientation data presented elsewhere. The only exceptions to the rule that a line has only one
possible trend are horizontal lines, which can have either one or two orientations in space.
Horizontal lines have two orientations in space if there is no preferential direction to the line. The
trend of a NS-oriented, horizontal pipe is either 000 or 180, since the pipe has no distinctive or
sharp end. If the horizontal line is a pencil or a direction that you need to walk to in space, then
there is only one correct trend for the line.

There are many conventions for writing down the orientation of a trend and plunge. One
common convention is to write the plunge, followed by an arrow, and then the trend (e.g., 45
065). This order of numbering implies a line plunging 45 in direction 065. On a geological
map, a lineation is shown an arrow with no tail (Figs. 4.6a and b). The arrow is oriented in the
direction of the trend. The plunge amount is written by the front tip of the arrow. If the lineation
has no plunge, we depict it with a two-headed arrow (Fig. 4.6c). Instructions for how to measure
lineations are given in the Appendix.

4.6 Planes
4.6.1 Strike, dip and dip direction,
Most geologists use one of two different conventions to describe the orientation of a planar
surface in space: 1) Strike, dip, and dip direction; or 2) Dip and dip bearing. It is probably
more common to use strike, dip, and dip direction to define the orientation of a planar element.
We describe strike, and dip and dip direction measurements in this section, and dip and dip
bearing measurements in the following section. We will use a book as our standard for a planar
marker.
The strike is the most difficult of the spatial orientation measurements to comprehend. The
strike is the direction of any and all horizontal lines on a plane. Every inclined plane will contain
an infinite number of strike lines, each of them different distances above or below a horizontal
datum. All strike lines on that plane must, however, be parallel to each other. That is, all strike
lines of a plane will have the same bearing or orientation in space. That is why we can define a
single strike for any plane. By this definition, a horizontal book has no strike line, since there is
more than one horizontal line. Figure 4.7 shows a book that is tipped up in an aquarium (We
recommend, despite the temptation, not to try it with this book). If you fill the aquarium with
water, the intersection of the water line with the book will show you one of the many strike lines
on this plane. For the specific scenario in Fig. 4.7, the long direction of the aquarium is oriented
NS and the strike line of the book is oriented NS. Since the strike line is a horizontal line in
space, as discussed above, the trend is both 000 and 180. Imagine a slightly different orientation
of the book in the aquarium, with the book standing on a corner (Fig. 4.7b). In this case, the
strike line trend is still both 000 and 180. This is a critical point: The strike line does not need to
be parallel to the edge (or binding) of any planar surface.
The dip is the direction angle of maximum inclination on the plane. The direction of the dip is
necessarily perpendicular to the strike line. As with a plunge, we always measure the dip
downward from horizontal. The value of the dip varies from 0 to 90. So, a horizontal book has a
dip of 0, a vertical book has a dip of 90, a book that is oriented halfway between these endmembers has a dip of 45. Planes that dip between 0 and 30 are shallowly dipping, between 30
and 60 are moderately dipping, and between 60 and 90 are steeply dipping. The only
complication with a dip measurement is that it requires a dip direction. The dip direction is
necessarily perpendicular to the strike line, and is usually approximated by one of the 8 directions
N, NE, E, SE, S, SW, W, NW In the aquarium example, the books in Figs. 4.7a and b strike NS,
and dip 60 to the East (specified as 60 E). The book Fig. 4.7c strikes NS and dips 60, given by
the measurement 000, 60 W.4.
There are different conventions for strike and dip. One convention is to give the azimuth or
quadrant measure of either end of the strike line (i.e. as 000 or NS), a comma, and then followed

by the dip and the dips direction (60E): NS, 60 E or 000, 60E (For Figs. 4.7a or b). In this case,
Fig. 4.7c could be characterized as 000, 60W or NS, 60W. Another common convention is the
use of a slash to separate the strike from the dip and dip direction e.g. 000/60E. An alternative
convention is the right-hand rule. In the right-hand rule convention, the dip is always oriented
to the right hand (clockwise) side of the designated strike line when looking downwards. In
practical terms, this means that you identify one end of the strike by determining which you must
face to have your right hand point in the direction of the dip; you record the direction in which
you are facing as the strike direction. The advantage of this system is that no dip direction is
necessary. So, Figs. 4.7a and b are characterized as 000, 60 and Fig. 4.7c is characterized as 180,
60. This is the most common version of the right hand rule, but it is as well to note that one
textbook (Barnes 1991) suggests the opposite convention for the right-hand rule.
On a geological map, the strike line is shown as a line with a small dash coming out in the middle
of it on one side (Figs. 4.6d and e). The dash is oriented in the direction of the dip and the dip
amount is written by that dash. Special symbols are used if the bed is flat-lying or vertical (Figs.
4.6f or g). If the planar feature has a facing direction, such as sedimentary bedding, we reserve
the strike and dip symbol for the general case where the stratigraphy dips between 1 and 89. If
the bedding is overturned, another loop is added to the dip symbol to indicate that fact (Fig. 4.6h).

4.6.2 Dip and dip bearing

An alternative way to measure the orientations of planes is to use their dip and dip bearing. Dip
bearing means the accurate direction of dip (measured either by an azimuth, e.g. 050, or quadrant
measure, e.g. N50E) rather than the general direction (e.g. NE). Technically the dip and dip
bearing measure a line in space rather than a plane. In fact, the dip bearing is the orientation of
the steepest line on a plane and the dip is the plunge of that line. That line uniquely defines a
plane only because it is specified to be the steepest line on that plane.
The dip bearing is, by definition, 90 different from the strike. Thus, for our example in the book
in the aquarium example (Fig. 4.7a), the steepest line has a bearing of 090. Thus, the dip
direction is 090. The dip of the plane is 60. For Fig. 4.7b, the dip direction is also 090 and the
dip of the plane is 60. For Fig. 4.7c, the dip direction is 270, not 090, because the bearing of the
line is to the W. The dip of the plane is still 60.
The dip and dip bearing can be reported by: dip, dip bearing or dip/dip bearing. For the examples
of Figs. 4.7 a and b, it is 60, 090. For the example in Fig. 4.7c, the measurement is 60, 270 or
60/270. This way of writing the dip and dip bearing removes confusion whether the measurement
is a strike and dip (with right hand rule, since no direction is given, e.g., 000, 60) or a dip and dip
direction (e.g., 60, 090).

4.6.3 Apparent dips

Any line that lies within an inclined plane and has a trend other than the trend of the strike must
be inclined relative to the horizontal. Since the dip is the line of maximum inclination, all other
inclined lines must have inclinations less than the value of the dip. An analogy is given in Fig.
4.8a: the skier traveling directly from start to finish is going down slope in the true dip direction;
the others are traveling down lower slopes along apparent dips. We often underscore the distinct
character of the dip line by saying that its inclination is the true dip of the plane (). Since the

inclination of a line other than the dip is not equal to the value of the dip, we often refer to its
inclination as an apparent dip () of the plane in a given direction. It is important to recognize
that any apparent dip is a line in space, and so we must define both its trend and plunge values in
order to fix or describe that apparent dip. Note also that the magnitude of an apparent dip is not
arbitrary. Lines with trends parallel to the strike will have inclinations of zero (their apparent dip
is zero). Lines with trends parallel to the trend of the dip will have an inclination equal to the true
dip of the plane. Any line oblique to the strike or the dip will have an inclination between zero
and the true dip. You can calculate the value of the apparent dip () of a line if you know both
the angle between the trend of the strike and the trend of the line of apparent dip () and if you
know the value of the true dip () of the plane (Fig. 4.8c):
tan = tan sin
Clearly, if you know two pieces of information, such as the orientation of the strike and an
apparent dip in a particular direction, you can determine the true dip of the plane. A more typical
situation is that in which one knows the trends and plunges of two apparent dips. With this
information, one can determine the strike and dip of the plane. This can be very useful in
situations such as the base of cliffs (if it is safe!) or underground, where a plane can be seen on
several vertical faces, but there is no accessible horizontal exposure to determine the strike.
4.7 Lines within Planes: Pitch and pitch direction
A pitch records the orientation of a linear element that is associated with a plane, such as striation
or a slickenfiber on a fault plane. The pitch is usually defined to vary between 0 and 90 and must
always be given with a pitch direction (see below). Pitch is synonymous with a rake.
Figure 4.9 shows an example of a plane that strikes 000 and dips 60 E. The black pencil pitches
at an angle of the 30 from the South end of the strike line. Therefore, the pitch measurement is:
000, 60 E: 30S. The red pencil pitches at an angle of 80 from the North end of the strike line.
Therefore, the pitch measurement is: 000, 60 E; pitch: 80N. Some students find the pitch
direction, but not the pitch amount, difficult to understand. In the example of the red pencil, the
trend of that pitch in space is almost E. The pitch, however, must be measured from one end of
the strike line, which defines its orientation. Some conventions use a 0 180 scale for pitch,
defining 0 as the end of the line given by a strike measurement.

4.8 Graphical Technique 1: Rose diagrams

Rose diagrams are one way to represent two-dimensional orientation data graphically. A useful
way to think of a rose diagram is as a kind of radial histogram. The diagram is based on a grid of
concentric circles with radii that increase by constant amounts, and a set of radial lines (Fig.
4.10). The radial lines are separated by a fixed angle, the class interval, to each other, typically
either 5 or 10 (Fig. 4.10), defining a series of sectors.
Each line whose orientation you record is represented on the rose diagram by filling part of a
sector in the same orientation as the line. So, for the example in Fig. 4.11, an orientation of 352
falls into the sector from 350 to 000. This process continues with all measurements. Successive
measurements in the same sector are built out to progressively further circles (Fig. 4.11b). Data
falling in a different sector are plotted from the origin of that sector (Fig. 4.11c).

To draw a rose diagram from many measurements, first group all your data into class intervals.
Next, decide on a radial scale: the smallest circle will represent a certain number of
measurements, and larger circles are multiples of that measurement. Choose the scale of the rose
diagram so that the maximum number of measurements in any sector can be plotted in the space
available, just as you would choose the scale on a graph to accommodate the largest values of
data present. Finally, fill in each sector up to the number of measurements in that class interval of
orientations, according to the scale chosen. You can represent the actual numbers in each class
interval, or convert them to percentages, which has the advantage that you can compare data sets
with different total number of data points. At the end of the plotting, the diagram will look like a
flower (although a pretty pathetic flower in many cases) with clusters of filled sectors informally
called petals. In many cases, there is a single, obvious long petal, which indicates the most
common direction of the data.
There are two major benefits of a rose diagram. First, the orientation data are presented in a
visual manner, so that a preferred orientation is usually immediately obvious. One caveat is that
the sectors become wider at the higher radii, which tends to exaggerate visually the data. In the
case of diffuse patterns, statistical methods must be used to determine spatial orientation. The
second advantage of a rose daigram is that orientation data from over a wide area is summarized
in a single plot. The critical observation is that a rose diagram provides no information about the
relative spatial position of the measurements with respect to each other. Figure 4.11c shows this
by showing two spatial configurations that are characterized by the same rose diagram.
Figure 4.12 is a rose diagram constructed for planes with no preferred end or direction (nondirectional), in this case the strike lines of faults. One could also construct a diagram for linear
elements with no preferred direction, such as an elongation direction or mineral lineation. For
any given marker, two sectors are filled, that correspond to both ends of the strike line. Rose
diagrams of this type are usually plotted as symmetric diagrams, with a long petal on one side
(e.g. the 030-040 or 110-120 sectors on the figure) corresponding to an equal length petal on
the other side (e.g. the 210-220 or 290-300 sectors). Such symmetric rose diagrams are used
for strikes of joints, fractures, etc., making them the most common type in structural geology.
Sometimes only one half of the symmetric rose diagram may be shown. Asymmetric rose
diagrams, like those shown in Fig. 4.11c, are used in cases where there is a preferred end of a line
(the data is directional), such as paleocurrent directions in sedimentary rocks, or dip bearings (see
Fig. 4.13). It is often instructive to use linked symmetric and asymmetric rose diagrams as a
means to portray orientation data for structural elements (Fig. 4.14).
An alternative way of plotting two-dimensional data is to use a conventional histogram (Fig.
4.15), which is similar to a rose diagram. The only difference is that the frequency is plotted
along one axis (commonly the y-axis) against the class interval along the other axis (commonly
the x-axis). If a strike histogram is used, the graph all frequencies that are 180 apart will be
identical, similar to a symmetrical rose diagram (Fig. 4.15a). A histogram for directional data
will have unique frequencies for each class interval (Fig. 4.15b). Rose diagrams have the
advantage over conventional histograms of representing of orientation directly and are therefore
more commonly used than straightforward histograms for angular data (cf. Figs. 4.13, 4.14, and
4.15).
A useful refinement to rose diagrams is to show some other aspect of the data by ornaments
within the petals: for example, one could subdivide the faults in each petal of Fig. 4.12 by the
map length of the fault.
4.9 Graphical Technique 2: Stereonets
7

Stereographic nets or stereonets are the most commonly used way of graphically representing
three-dimensional orientation data in two-dimensions. Stereonets can be thought of as a sort of
graph that shows strikes, dips, and dip directions for planes all at once, or trends and plunges for
lines. Therefore stereonets contain more information than rose diagrams, which can only show
strikes or dip directions or trends. For this reason, a stereonet should be used in preference to a
rose diagram whenever it is necessary or desirable to show the full three-dimensional orientation
of features. A stereographic net with data added to it is sometimes called a stereoplot.
Stereonets are also an extremely useful tool for solving practical problems concerning the relative
orientations and intersections of lines and planes. Stereonets have a further practical use besides
representing the orientations of lines and planes: Rotation of orientation data. Stereonets are
unsurpassed in their ease of use for rotation problems. Use of the stereonet does require some
mental attention and practice. Most structural geologists use computers to draw stereonets, and
consequently we focus our treatment on understanding stereonets rather than the details of their
construction. For this information, Hobbs et al. (1976: Appendix A) or Marshak and Mitra
(1998: Chapters 5, 6, and 8) are recommended. The remainder of this section focuses on plotting
three-dimensional data on to stereonets.

4.9.1 Construction and nomenclature of stereonets: Lines

A stereonet consists of only three parts (Fig. 4.16). The first element is the outer circle, known as
the primitive circle. The second element is a series of lines that connect the North (top) end of
the circle to the South (bottom) end of the circle, known as great circles. Most of the great
circles are curves, except for the straight line that connects the North and South ends and goes
through the middle of the circle. The last element is the series of small circles, which are
concentric curves centered on both the North and South ends of the circle. The only small circle
that is not curved is the one that connects the West (left) and East (right) end and passes through
the center of the primitive circle.
Stereonets are constructed by spherical projection. Figure 4.17 shows a transparent ball, known
as a projection sphere, with a radius R and a center O. A horizontal plane is drawn that contains
the center O: This plane corresponds to the great circle of the stereonet. The top of the projection
sphere is known as the zenith point (Fig. 4.17a).
We first characterize any linear element in space by finding its spherical projection. To find the
spherical projection of a linear element, we must imagine that the linear element passes through
the center of the projection sphere so we must conceptually move the element, preserving its
orientation, to the center of the projection sphere. Next we imagine that the linear element
extends downward to intersect the projection sphere at a single point (Fig. 4.17). This point is the
spherical projection of the linear element. Once we know the spherical projection of a linear
element, we can easily determine its stereographic projection. A straight line from the zenith
point to the spherical projection (point of intersection) will pass through a single point on the
horizontal plane containing the point O. That single point (A), in the horizontal plane, is the
stereographic projection of the linear element (Fig. 4.17b). Only if a line is vertical will its
projection coincide with the center of the stereonet (point O). In structural geology, all lines (and
planes) are extended downward to intersect the projection sphere, so we call our stereonets lower
hemisphere stereographic projection.
4.9.2 The cereal bowl analogy: Lines
8

One can imagine a stereonet as looking straight down at a cereal bowl, with only one eye open (if
you have both eyes open, you are seeing in three dimensions because of the distance between
your eyes and the resultant stereo vision). Further, imagine that there is a spoon in the cereal
bowl (Fig. 4.18). Technically, the spoon must always go through the centre of the top of the
cereal bowl, equivalent to point O, the center of the projection sphere. Essentially, a stereonet is
just a way of knowing the orientation of the spoon by looking only at where the spoon touches the
cereal bowl. If the spoon is horizontal, it will intersect at the bowl at the rim (in two places: Fig.
4.18a). When you look down on the bowl, the spoon touches on the edge of the circle that
defines the top of the bowl.
Lines require knowledge of the trend. Trend information is easy to see on a stereonet; it is
similar to a rose diagram in this respect. In the Fig. 4.18a, the spoon was oriented NS and it
touched the cereal bowl at the top and bottom (N and S), marked by the two points on the
stereonet (right hand side of Fig. 4.18a). The spoon is oriented sideways in Fig. 4.17b, which in
map coordinates is East-West (090-270). Now, consider a case where a horizontal spoon is
oriented at any particular angle, say a bearing of 130 (Fig. 4.18c). As you look down on it, the
spoon would make a 130 angle (in a clockwise sense) to the North arrow, and thus the spoon
would intersect the outside of the circle about one half way between the E and S part of the
primitive circles.
But, lines also require knowledge of the plunge, information that is missing from rose diagrams.
If the spoon is oriented vertically, it touches only at the bottom of the bowl (Fig. 4.18d). When
looking down, the spoon touches in the middle of the circle. Last, imagine a spoon that is
oriented at some angle (a plunge of 20) with a bearing of 090 (Fig. 4.18e). When looking down,
the spoon touches at a point midway between the horizontal orientation (primitive circle) and the
vertical orientation (center of the stereonet). This is the essence of a stereonet: Steeper lines are
represented by points located closer to the middle of the circle, and horizontal lines are
represented by points located near the primitive circle (near the edge of the plot). Thus, one
knows the trend of the line from the orientation of its projection point from the center of the
circle, and the plunge of a line by the distance of its projection point from edge of the circle
towards the center of the circle.

4.9.3 Construction and nomenclature of stereonets: Planes

The stereographic projection of a plane is more complicated than that of a line. The spherical
projection of a plane is shown in Fig. 4.19. A dipping plane (that passes throught the center of
the projectin sphere) intersects the circle along an arc. If you consider that this arc is a collection
of individual points, you can envision how to construct the stereographic projection of the plane
by connecting each point along the arc with the zenith point, finding the points where those lines
intersect the horizontal plane, and connecting those points to create a smooth curve within the
primitive circle. The stereographic projection of a plane is that curved line.
In fact, these arcs correspond to the great circles on the stereonets. Figure 4.20 shows the
orientation of the great circle lines at 10 increments. The steeper the dip of the plane, the
straighter the arc, and a vertical plane projects as a straight line. A horizontal plane intersects on
the primitive circle and therefore should be drawn around the entire edge.
4.9.4 The cereal bowl analogy: Planes
The same cereal bowl analogy could be used for planes. Rather than a spoon, you have to
imagine a plate (or tea saucer) that has the same radius as the bowl and passes through its centre
(Fig. 4.21). The analogy works as described above: the stereographic projection of the plate
9

(plane) is the line that you would see looking vertically down into the cereal bowl where the plate
touches the cereal bowl. Planes require a strike, a dip, and a dip direction. The strike is the place
where the plate intersects the rim of the bowl (i.e., the primitive circle) at two distinct places (Fig.
4.21 b,c). These two points are the ends of the strike line. In the example of Fig. 4.21c, the points
intersect at 020 and 200. The only exception is the case of a horizontal plate (Fig. 4.21a). In this
case, because the plate has the same radius as the bowl, it will just sit on top of the bowl. Thus, a
horizontal plate (plane) is defined by a circle: there are no points because it does not have a strike.
All other plates appear as curved lines that intersect the edge of the bowl. The dip of the plate
controls the curvature of the line, and the distance of the centre of the line from the centre of the
stereonet. As discussed above, a horizontal plate has the largest curvature, forming a circle. If the
plate is vertical, as you look down on it, it traces a straight line across the bowl through the centre
of the stereonet (Fig. 4.21b). All other orientations (e.g., Fig. 4.21c) trace out a curved line: the
greater the dip, the closer the centre of the line will be to the centre of the stereonet.
The dip direction controls the direction of curvature. For a NS striking plate, the curve bows out
to either the right (E) or the left (W). An E dip direction is shown in Fig. 4.21c.

4.9.5 Poles to Planes

Structural geologists find that it is often more useful to plot poles to planes on a stereonet than
the planes themselves. The pole to the plane is a simple concept. Any plane has only one line
that is orthogonal to all lines that lie within the plane, and so is orthogonal to the plane. That line
is the pole to the plane. Imagine, for instance, a pencil whose eraser end has been attached to a
piece of cardboard (Fig. 4.22a). The pencil is the pole to the cardboard plane.
Because the pole to a plane is a line, it intersects the projection sphere in one place and its
stereographic projection is a point (Figs. 4.21 and 4.22b). Using poles to planes therefore allows
one to describe the orientation of a plane by a single point.
Figure 4.23 shows the poles to the planes for 020, 50 E, 080, 85 S, and 330, 10 SW. To
understand poles to planes, you need to think about both the strike and dip of the plane. The dip
is easier to understand than the strike. The plane that dips steeply (85) is characterized by a pole
located near the primitive circle. The plane the dips shallowly (10) is characterized by a pole near
the center of the stereonet (compare to Fig. 4.22a). The moderate dipping (50) plane pole plots in
an intermediate position.
The exact location is more difficult to understand, so if you do not follow the rest of the
paragraph, do not worry: Practice will make this clear. The location of any pole lies on a vertical
plane that contains the dip direction (which is exactly orthogonal to the strike direction). The dip
direction is actually the centre of the line that represents the plane. The pole to the plane lies is
always found on the opposite side of the stereonet center from the dip direction. Thus, for the
020, 50 E plane, the pole to the plane is located on a vertical plane striking 110 (020+90). The
pole plots in the NW quadrant of the stereonet, not the SE quadrant, away from the dip direction.
The pole to the 080, 85 S plane plots on 170, vertical plane, in the N section of the stereonet. The
pole to 330, 10 SW plane plots on 240 (330-90), vertical plane, in the NE section of the stereonet.
4.9.6 Pitches

10

The last feature to plot on a stereonet is a pitch. A pitch, as described above (4.7), is an angle that
describes a line associated with a plane by measuring, within the plane, the angle between the
strike of the plane and the line (Fig. 4.24a). Pitches have values between 0 and 90. To plot a
pitch, one counts along the great circle, from the end of the strike line designated by the pitch
direction, to the value given by the pitch. Pitches of 0 plot on the primitive circle. Pitches of 90
plot at the centre of the line representing the plane, closest to the center of the stereonet.
The results are in Fig. 4. 24b, as well as for a pitch of 40 S and 90 for the same plane. The 90
pitch plots at the centre of the line representing the plane. closest to center of the circle. The 40 S
pitch is measured off the 200 end of the strike line, and is intermediate in location between the
primitive circle and the 90 pitch (which is the dip direction).
4.9.7 Equal angle and Equal area stereonets
The stereonet that we have used to this point in this chapter is actually only one of two types of
stereonets regularly used in structural geology. We sometimes call this type of net (shown in Fig.
4.16) a Wulff net, after the German crystallographer G. W. Wulff who was one of the first to
publish a reproduction of it. The angles between curves on the projection sphere are preserved in
this stereographic projection, so we often call this type of net an equal angle net. The equal angle
net is most useful for rotations. The Wulff net or equal area net has one significant drawback,
however. It does not preserve area. By that, we mean that identical sized circles on the
projection sphere yield different sized circles on the stereonet (Fig. 4.25b). The difference
between the size of the circles is up to a factor of two, with larger circles near the great circle. If
you are interested in statistical analyses of data, i.e. the number of points (stereographic
projections of lines) that fall within a particular region of a stereonet, you cannot simply count the
number of points per unit area on an equal angle net because areas of equal size represent
different portions of the spherical projection. Assuming that an equal number of lines intersect
the projection sphere within a circle of a given size on the sphere, the points that are the
stereographic projections of those lines will plot closer together if the lines have steep plunges
(and the points fall near the center of the primitive circle) than if the lines have shallow plunges
(and the points fall near the edge of the primitive circle). Equal-angle projections of many data
introduce a visual bias toward steeply plunging or vertical orientations.
The second type of net is called a Schmidt net, after the German structural geologist W. Schmidt
who advocated the use of stereonets in structural geology (so, if you are looking for someone to
blame for your having to learn about stereonets, Professor Schmidt is definitely your man). The
equal area stereonet has geometric properties opposite the equal-angle net. The angles between
curves on the projection sphere are not preserved in equal-area projection. Thus, circles on the
projection sphere plot as ellipses on an equal area net (Fig. 4.25b). However, the projection does
preserve area. Identical sized circles on the projection sphere may have varying ellipticity, but
they all have the same area (Fig. 4.25b). Thus, one can use this plot to evaluate the relative
spatial distribution of lines or planes. Because of their different geometric properties, structural
geologists tend not to use equal angle nets except for rotations. The Schmidt or equal-area net
looks similar to but is not identical to the Wulff or equal-angle net (Fig. 4.25c). In terms of its
use, we plot lines and planes on it using exactly the same techniques used on the equal-angle net.
Note, however, the same line or plane will not plot in the same place on the two nets.
There are two ways to show distribution data on a stereonet. The first is to use a scatter plot, in
which all the lines or poles to planes are plotted as individual points (Fig. 4.26a). Note that one
cannot use great circles to represent large numbers of planes, as the number of lines is too
cumbersome. The second alterative is to use contour plots (Fig. 4.26b, c, and d). Contouring
11

provides values for density distributions for each point in the stereonet. The contour lines
separate areas of the stereonet where the density distributions are different. There are several
different contouring procedures (Schmidt, Mells, Kelsbeek, and Kamb). For the Schmidt or
Mells contouring, the density of data points are typically given in the total number of points (or
percent of the total number of points plotted) per 1% area of the stereonet (Fig. 4.26b and c). The
Kamb is the most statistically rigorous and is probably the best contouring approach to use if a
computer is available. Kamb contours show how much any part of the stereonet deviates from a
uniform distribution of points (measured by multiples of a calculated standard deviations; Fig.
4.26d). It is also possible and increasingly common to plot data as a scatter plot superimposed on
a contour plot, which has the advantage of observing both the original data and its smoothed
result (Fig. 4.26c and d).
4.9.8 A Misconception
A very common misconception about stereonets is that they depend on positions of lines and
planes in space. Stereonets have nothing to do with the relative positions of lines and planes in
space, however. For example, Fig. 4.27 shows two fault arrays that are different in space but
have the same representation on a stereonet. In this sense, stereonets are similar to rose diagrams:
a single stereonet may describe structures on a single outcrop or over an entire county. Rather,
stereonets display data or solve problems related to angular relations between lines and planes,
even if these lines and planes are not adjacent to each other.
4.9.9 A final word about stereonets
The stereonet is the source of mental agony for some structural geology students: others take to
them readily. Unfortunately, even with sophisticated computer graphics, a stereonet is still a
critical tool for structural geologist. If you are having difficulties with stereonets, we have the
following suggestions:
1) First and foremost, practice. Practice helps everyone.
2) Reread the section or two other references, after practicing. Good references include the
Appendix of Hobbs et al. (1976), Marshak and Mitra (1988), and Leyson and Lisle (1996).
4.10 Summary
Linear features in rocks are called lineations. We describe their orientation by a trend and plunge.
The trend can be given as an azimuth (000-360) or bearing (N, N45E, S12W, etc.). The plunge is
a number between 0 (for horizontal lines) and 90 (for vertical lines).
Planar features in rocks include bedding, faults and foliations. Planar features are described by
their orientation using either: 1) a strike, a dip value, and dip direction; or 2) a dip value and a dip
bearing. We can use an azimuth or a quadrant measure to give a strike or dip bearing. The dip
value is a number between 0 (horizontal) and 90 (vertical). The dip direction is a cardinal
direction in space (N, NE, E, etc.).
A pitch (or rake) characterizes a line that is associated with a plane. The pitch is measured as an
angle in the plane, taking the acute angle from the strike line. The pitch is a number between 0
and 90. The pitch must also be given with a pitch direction that determines which end of the
strike line was used as a reference from which the pitch angle is measured.

12

Rose diagrams provide a graphical representation of two-dimensional spatial data; they are
essentially radial histograms. Rose diagrams are based on a set of radial lines (defining class
intervals) superimposed on concentric circles. The most common orientation of a particular
marker is given by the longest petal of the rose diagram.
Stereonets are two-dimensional projections of three-dimensional data. On stereonets, lines plot
as points. Steep lines plot near the center of the stereonet, and shallow lines plot toward the edges
of the stereonet (called the primitive circle). Planes plot as curved lines. On stereonets, planes
having steeper dips are characterized by straighter lines that pass closer to the centre of the net.
The pole to a plane is a line that is perpendicular to the plane (altenatively, the pole gives the
orientation of the one line that is perpendicular to all lines that lie in the plane). By plotting the
pole to a plane on a stereonet, we can graphically represent a plane with a single point. Structural
geologists most commonly use equal area stereonets when plotting spatial data, in order to not
bias the results (such as occurs with equal angle stereonets).
Rose diagram and stereonets provide information about orientation, but no information about
distribution, of markers.

13

Appendix 1: The professional compass

Geologists use a compass to determine direction in the field (Fig. 4.4). The quality of your
geological data, and thus your geological interpretations, are based on your ability to use a
compass. Thus, it is worth knowing the names for the critical parts of the compass and
understanding how it works. Three basic types are now routinely used: The pocket transit (or
Brunton), the stratum compass, and the Silva.
The needle of the compass contains a bit of magnetic material, often magnetite, which aligns to
the Earths magnetic field. The transit compass has two levels: a round bulls eye level and a
cylindrical level. The bulls eye level, used to measure azimuthal (horizontal plane) directions,
must be level to get accurate measurements. The cylindrical level, used to measure deviations
from horizontal (inclinations), must: 1) lie in a vertical plane (compass be upright); and 2) be on
the top side of the compass. The cylindrical level is moved using a lever on the back (vernier
adjustment) of the compass. As the lever moves, the level and the vernier moves, and the center
of the vernier points to the clinometer scale that is located on the bottom of the compass. You
always want to use the scale that goes from 0 (horizontal) to 90 (vertical). The other scale is for
road grade and runs from 0 to 100% (over a 45 angle). The stratum or Silva compass may come
with a single bulls eye level.
The metal case of the transit compass is the basis for taking measurements. The brass or black
metal piece that can be folded out is called a pointer. Depending upon the manufacturer, there
may or may not be a pointer on a stratum compass. A stratum compass also has graduated hinge
scale between the top and bottom parts of the compass. You use this hinge scale to measure dip
values.
Finally, there is a ring on inside, perimeter part of the compass to which the magnetic needle will
point. This is the graduated circle, and we use it as the basis for azimuthal measurements. The
rings come in two types, depending whether the compass reads in azimuth or quadrant. Transit or
stratum azimuth compasses read from 0 to 360, marked in sequential order counterclockwise
around the ring. Quadrant compasses read from 0 to 90 in four separate sections (quadrants) of
the compass. On the bottom of the compass, there is an E on the left hand side and a W on
the right hand side.
Here is the tricky part: The azimuth markings on transit or stratum compasses run in the opposite
directions (i.e. they increase anticlockwise) from azimuth in space (which increases clockwise:
compare Fig. 4.1 to Fig. 4.4). This is required because it is the edge of the compass matters, not
the magnetic needle, that matters. Here are two examples of how that arrangement works (Fig.
4.A1). Imagine that you are aligning the compass toward a feature that is oriented toward 045 (or
NE in the quadrant system). As you point your compass in toward 045, the magnetic needle still
points at the magnetic North pole. That means, if you ignore your spatial orientation and consider
only the compass, the needle has moved counterclockwise 45 with respect to the zero mark. On
a map, however, NE is oriented clockwise 45 from N. For this reason, the ring in the compass is
marked opposite the azimuthal orientation in real space. Here is another example. Imagine
another feature that is oriented 10 west (counterclockwise) of north (an azimuth of 350). If you
orient the compass in that direction, and look only at the compass, the magnetic needle will have
moved clockwise with respect to the ring.
It is also possible to set the declination of the compass, to compensate for the fact that geographic
and magnetic North poles are not aligned. To do this, you must first loosen the screw on the

14

bottom of the compass (note: some compasses do not have a loosening screw). Then, rotate the
large screw on the side of the compass (called the magnetic declination adjustment screw). You
will notice that the entire ring moves. The reference is to the index point on the pointer side of
the compass. If the magnetic declination is zero, or is unknown, the index pin should point to 000
(Fig. 4.A2a). For an east declination, the zero mark on the ring must lie east (clockwise) of the
point (Fig. 4.A2b). For a west declination, the zero mark on the ring must lie west
(counterclockwise) of the point (Figure 4.5c). Remember to tighten the loosening screw when
done. You can check that you have performed the correct adjustment form the rule that was
deduced in 4.3. For example, West declinations require subtraction. If you adjustment has
reduced the bearings from their un-adjusted value, it is correct.
An additional adjustment may be necessary on some stratum compasses (e.g. Freiberg). This is to
compensate for the inclination of Earths magnetic field (Fig. 4.2). For use in the Northern
hemisphere, a small weight (typically a strand of copper wire) needs to be mounted on the South
compass needle at the correct distance from the fulcrum to bring the needle back to horizontal,
and visa versa for the Southern hemisphere. The closer your field area is to the pole, the greater
the combination of weight and distance from the fulcrum is necessary. In the case of Silva
compasses, it is vital to buy the correct model for the latitude and hemisphere of the field area.
To read an azimuthal direction, point the pointer of the compass in the correct orientation, level
the bulls eye level, and read off the number to which the white or North end of the magnetic
needle points. To read a quadrant direction, point the compass in the orientation of feature, level
the bulls eye level, and read off the number. Then, you must add an E or W to all
measurements that are not in a cardinal direction. Using the example (045 or NE) above, the
compass would read 45. You would read N45 and then add the letter (E) that was on the same
side of the compass as the compass needle. In the first case, you would read N45E. In the second
case (350 or 10 W of N), you would read 10, see that it was from the N side and W was the
closest letter, and read N10W. The same is true for measurements in the southern part of the
compass. For example, SE would be oriented S45E and 210 is S30W.
There are a few general guidelines for use of a compass. First, you should recall that metal
objects, including mechanical pencils, belt buckles, rings, watches, and clipboards are often
magnetic and will affect the compasses. Second. some other things that you might not notice or
think about, such as powerlines and metal pipes below ground, also affect the measurement.
Using compasses in mines can be particularly difficult because of the magnetic mine
infrastructure. Do not take measurements near iron-bearing objects. Last, some rocks are very
magnetic and affect the compass needle. For these rock types banded iron formation, highly
serpentinized peridotites, and even some oxidized granites etc. one must use a sun compass. It
is advisable to test for possible effects of rock magnetism by bringing a small sample of rock up
to the compass and observing its effect on the needle as it is moved around. As a double check in
all of the above, it is best to have some independent concept of the direction toward N (for
example, using the sun, the orientation of a road, or a GPS unit), to make sure that any
measurement makes sense.
The trend on a compass is measured with the graduated circle (Fig. 4.4). The bulls eye level must
be level to get accurate azimuth (horizontal plane) measurements. If one needs to site at an
object, there are several methods for simultaneously siting and reading the compass. One method
is to bend up the pointer with the slot. Then, bend up the mirror so that, holding the compass near
your waist, you can look down into the mirror. If the bulls eye level is level and you can look
down into the mirror, and the center of the line on the mirror goes through the slot on the pointer,

15

you are looking in exactly the direction that the compass reads. Most field geologists can site to
within 1 degree on a distant object.
The plunge or dip is read on the clinometer scale, with a range of 0 (horizontal) to 90 (vertical),
with the vernier. (Do not confuse clinometer scale with the grade % scale that goes from 0 to
100 over 45). This vernier is moved to the correct position by leveling the attached cylindrical
level, by using the vernier adjustment lever on the back of the compass.

Appendix 2: Step-by-step instructions for using compasses.

A2.1 How to measure a linear object: trend and plunge
We will use a pencil as our example of a linear marker, with its orientation given in Figure 4.5.
The first task is to determine the trend (Fig. 4.A3a).
Transit:
- Point your compass in the direction of the pencil, making sure that the pencil plunges
downward away from you.
- Level the bulls eye level.
- Standing directly above the compass and having folded the pointer out fully, make
sure you can see the entire pencil through the slot in the pointer.
- Make sure the bulls eye level is still horizontal.
- Record the measurement reading off the white end of the arrow.
- Point your compass toward N and make sure that your measurement makes sense.
The second task is to measure the plunge (Fig. 4.A3b). The two long sides of the compass
informally called the measuring edges (Fig. 4.A4) are critical.
- Line up a measuring edge with the lineation.
- Rotate the compass (about the measuring edge aligned with the lineation) until it lies
in a vertical plane
- Using the lever on the base of the compas, adjust the cylindrical level until the
clinometer level becomes level. If the clinometer level is not on top, you must turn
over the compass and start over.
- Read off the number and record it.
- Double check that your trend is correct for the case of very shallow or very steep
lineations.
Stratum:
-

Align one edge of the folding top of the compass with the pencil.
Holding the edge of the folding top against the lineation, open the hinge of the
compass and rotate the compass about this edge of the folding top until the bulls eye
level is horizontal.
Free the compass needle and let it reach a stable position.
Lock the needle in this position.
Remove the compass and read the trend. Be careful to read the correct end of the
needle. In many stratum compasses, the correct end of the needle (e.g. black or red) is
the same as the colour of the dip scale that is visible on the top of the compass.
Record the plunge measurement using the graduated dip scale attached to the folding
top.

Silva type:

16

Place the edge of a flat non-magnetic surface, such as a hard-backed field notebook,
along the pencil.
Holding the edge along the pencil (lineation), rotate the surface to vertical.
Place the edge of the Silva along the surface and level the compass.
Turn the rotating casing until the North of the compass needle is pointing exactly in
the direction of the arrows on the base of the rotating casing.
Record the bearing as the number on the rotating casing beside the mark on the base
of the compass,that is in the down-plunge direction of the pencil.

To record the plunge:

- Remove the compass and flat surface.
- Rotate the rotating casing until the 90-270 axis is parallel to the mark on the compass
body.
- Place the compass with one edge along the pencil.
- Rotate the compass until it is vertical with the clinometer needle hanging freely.
Make sure that the inner scale, used for plunge measurements, is at the bottom of the
compass: otherwise, rotate the casing 180 and start again.
- Read the plunge at the tip of the clinometer needle on the inner scale. Be careful to
avoid parallax this means getting your eye close to the needle.
The most common problem with plunge measurements is that the compass is not held in a vertical
plane, because it is often requires a small amount of effort to see the face of the compass if it is
held vertically. The measurement is incorrect if this mistake is made.
A2.2 How to measure a field lineation
Structural geologists use the word lineation to describe a linear element in a rock. It might be a
specific, individual feature in a rock, a population of elongate minerals, fossils, etc., or the
intersection of two planes, which inherently forms a line. There are also lineations, such as
grooves on fault surfaces, in which the lineation occurs on a plane. In some cases, such as with
striae or other markers on well-exposed surfaces or where erosion has shaped of an outcrop to
expose an elongate mineral or fold hinge, you can measure the lineation directly. Where you can
see a lineation but cannot place the compass directly on it, the most common technique is to hold
a non-magnetic linear marker (a colored pencil, a chopstick, etc.) parallel to the linear element.
Then, one uses the protocol given above to measure the orientation of the non-magnetic linear
marker.
A2.3 How to measure planar objects
Strike, dip and dip direction with a standard transit compass
Strike, dip and dip direction measurements are generally made with a standard transit compass
(e.g. Brunton, Topochaix) and with Silva compasses.
As with linear markers, strike and dip measurements are made with two different placements of
the compass (Fig. 4.A5). If you are below the dipping plane (known as an overhanging face), you
must use the top part of the compass. The mirror can be quite helpful in measuring strike and dip,
particularly when reading a measurement that is above your head. A common mistake, when
learning to use a compass, is to use only a corner of the measuring edge on the compass.

17

If you want to use the right hand rule, make sure that the right hand side of the compass
(reckonning that the location of the pointer indicates the front of the compass) is on the side that
dips away. That is, on a dipping face, the left edge of the compass must be against the surface.
Here is the protocol for taking a strike measurement with a transit compass:
- Put a measuring edge of the compass on the plane (Fig. 4.A5a) (Make sure that the
right side of the compass points in the dip direction if you are using right hand rule
convention; this is not the case in Fig. 4.A5a).
- Adjust the compass in order to level the bulls eye level.
- Record the measurement that either end of the needle points to on the circular dial
(Read only the white end of the arrow direction if you are using right hand rule
convention).
- If you are learning to take strike and dip measurements, mark in pencil the strike line
on the planar surface. This is done by drawing a line parallel to the measuring edge,
on the planar surface.

For dips that are very shallow or very steep, it is possible that the dip direction is incorrect by
180. You must keep track of what scale you are using for the hinge, so that if you move past the
0 to 90 range, you will have to make an calculation in your head.
Here is the protocol for taking a dip measurement.
- Place the side of the compass on a plane.
- Make sure that the measuring edges are parallel to the line of steepest dip on the
plane.
- Rotate the level until the clinometer level becomes level. If the clinometer level is
not on top, you must turn over the compass and start over.
- Read off the number and record it.
- Point your compass in the dip direction and record the approximate bearing of the dip
direction. As a double check, make sure that the dip direction is consistent with a
direction that is 90 different from your strike measurement. (This step not needed if
using right hand rule convention).
In some cases, the dip of the planar surface will be so low that the metal ring on the bottom of the
compass will interfere with measurement. In this case, a different technique is necessary, which
hinges (pun intended) on the fact that the strike line is a horizontal line on a plane.
Here is the protocol for taking a strike measurement on a very shallowly dipping plane.
- Set the clinometer level to zero.
- Place the entire side of the compass on the planar surface; both measuring edges on
the side of the compass (Fig. 4.A4) should be in contact with the planar surface.
- Holding both measuring edges in contact with the planar surface, rotate the compass
until the clinometer level goes level.
- Trace a pencil line parallel to the measuring edge on the planar surface.
- Pick up your compass and hold it above your pencil mark.
- Standing directly above the compass, make sure you can see the entire pencil line
through the slot (or parallel to the edge) of the pointer.
- Record the measurement reading off the needle.
Strike, dip and dip direction with a Silva

18

Put a measuring edge of the compass on the plane (Make sure that the right side of
the compass points in the dip direction if you are using right hand rule convention).
- Adjust the compass in order to level the bulls eye level.
- Turn the rotating casing until the North of the compass needle is pointing exactly in
the direction of the arrows on the base of the rotating casing.
- Record the bearing at either end of the scale against the mark on the compass (read
off only at the mark furthest from you if using the right hand rule).
To record the dip:
- Turn the rotating casing until the 90-270 axis is parallel to the marks on the compass
body.
- Place the compass with one edge down the steepest dip on the plane.
- Make sure that the inner scale, used for dip measurements, is at the bottom of the
compass: otherwise, start again.
- Read the dip at the tip of the clinometer needle on the inner scale.

Dip and dip bearing with a stratum compass

It is possible to take a strike, dip and dip direction measurements and then convert them to dip
and dip bearing. Most geologists who take the letter type of measurement, however, are using a
stratum compass (Fig. 4.A6; examples include Breipthaupt, Freiberg, GeoBrunton).
The large advantage of these compasses is that you measure both the dip and dip bearing (or
plunge and plunge bearing) with a single orientation of the compass (the disadvantage is that you
need both hands to do it). The dip bearing is measured by the compass while a calibrated hinge
(between the top and the bottom of the compass) measures the dip amount.
The protocol for measuring a dip and dip direction using an appropriate compass.
- Place the folding top of the compass on the planar surface (Fig. 4.A6).
- Holding the entire top of the compass against the planar surface, rotate compass
about an axis perpendicular to the planar surface until the hinge of the compass is
approximately parallel to the strike of the plane. Open the hinge so that the body of
the compass is inclined downward slightly.
- Making sure that you hold the top of the compass against the planar surface, slowly
raise the compass body. If you have the hinge of the compass aligned parallel to the
strike of the planar surface, the bubble level will move along a path perpendicular to
the hinge (and strike of the plane) into the center of the bulls eye level. If the bubble
follows a path oblique to the hinge, adjust the orientation of the compast slightly until
it does so. This procedure sounds complicated, but with practice it becomes simple,
straightforward, and fast.
- Read off the end of the needle to get the dip bearing. In many stratum compasses, the
correct end of the needle to read is identified by the colour of the dip meter dial that
is visible on the top of the compass - either black or red.
- Read the dip value from the graduated markings on the hinge (Fig. 4.A6).
A2.4 How to measure a field foliation
Structural geologists use the word foliation to describe anything about a rock that is planar.
Planar elements in rocks may be discrete, recognizable surfaces like bedding, joints, or faults, or
they can be defined by the collective orientations of a population of planar minerals, joints, etc.
To measure a field foliation, the most common technique is to simply use the surface itself,
provided that the surface itself is exposed or that a weathered face of an outcrop is parallel to the
19

orientation defined collectively by minerals. Then, use the protocol given above for measuring
the orientation of the plane.
Sometimes it is not possible to measure the surface directly, for example because there is not
enough room because the weathered faces of the outcrop are not parallel to the orientation of
planar minerals. In these cases, you can either (1) hold a non-magnetic planar object (your field
book, an aluminum clipboard, etc.) against the rock and line it up with the planar element or
collection of planar minerals, or (2) stand some distance from the outcrop, hold your field book or
a small board in the same orientation as the planar element, and (3) then measure the orientation
of the book or board. Beware of four possible problems of doing this: 1) There is a tendency to
move the board during the measurement (while you are learning to measure planar surfaces, have
someone else hold the book); 2) The strike line need not necessarily parallel to the edge of the
field book (see Fig. 4.7); and 3) Avoid field books if the covers are not planar (warped, for
instance, from taking small excursions into nearby bodies of water); 4) Avoid steel clips on
boards that may affect your compass.
A2.5 How to measure pitch and pitch direction
You can always measure the trend and plunge of a line to fix its orientation. There are, however,
two advantages to fixing the orientation of a line on a plane by measuring its pitch: 1) It requires
only that you add one straightforward step to measuring the strike and dip of the plane; and 2)
Pitch measurements tend to be more accurate in cases where the planes dip steeply. To measure a
pitch, it is easiest to use a protractor (Fig. 4.9), although you can use the graduated markings on
the hinge of a stratum compass.
The protocol for measuring a pitch is:
1) Draw the strike line of the plane in pencil.
2) Draw a line that correlates to the lineation, such that it intersects the strike line.
3) Using a protractor, measure the angular difference between the strike line and lineation
line. Choose the side of the strike line that makes this measurement less than 90. This
is the pitch measurement.
4) Point the compass in the direction of the end of the strike line that makes an acute angle
with the lineation direction (the end of the strike line that you used for the measurement).
5) Record the pitch direction as the compass direction of this end of the strike line

Appendix 3: Step-by-step instructions for Stereonet plotting

A3.1 Plotting lines on a stereonet
Any line will plot as a single point on a stereonet. It is quite simple to plot a line on a stereonet,
which we illustrate with the line 40 -> 050 (Fig. 4.A7). Here are the steps:
1) Using a pin or a thumbtack, pierce a hole through the center of your stereonet. If you
used a thumbtack, remove it and then poke it through the same hole so that it emerges
from the centre of the net. You will generally want to hold the tack in place with a piece
of tape. If you used a pin, you will probably want to tape your net onto a piece of stiff
cardboard or cork board.
2) Place a piece of tracing paper over the stereonet, either so the tack pierces the centre of
the paper or so that you can poke the pin through the centre of the paper and into the
centre of the stereonet. You will generally want to reinforce the centre of the tracing
paper with some clear tape.
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3) Trace the primitive circle and mark the N part of the stereonet with a small arrow.
4) Mark the azimuth 050 (or whatever is the trend of the line) on the primitive circle by
counting 50 (or the appropriate angle) clockwise from N. Write 050 (or whatever is
the trend of the line) on the outside of the stereonet at this point.
5) Rotate the trend mark so that it is oriented at either the N (or S) end of the stereonet.
6) Count in 40 degrees (or whatever is the plunge value of the line) from the edge of the
circle (N or S end) using the small circle markings.
7) Put a dot on the stereonet.
8) Rotate the trend mark back to its original position.
Now take the tracing paper off the stereonet and look at your handiwork. The 10 -> 050 line is
shown on Fig. 4.A7, as well as 85 -> 170 and 10 -> 330. The 10 -> 050 point lies on a line
between the center (vertical) orientation of the stereonet and the trend of the line marked on the
horizontal line. The 85 plunge plots near the center of the stereonet, along the line from 170
orientation and the center of the stereonet. The 10 plunge plots near the great circle at the 330
mark on the circle, along a line from that mark and the center of the stereonet.
A3.2 Plotting planes on a stereonet
Each plane plots as a curved line (called a cyclograph) on a stereonet. It is quite simple to plot a
plane on a stereonet, which we illustrate with the plane 020, 50 E (Fig. 4.A8a). Here are the
steps:
1) Place a piece of tracing paper over the stereonet, either so the tack pierces the centre of
the paper or so that you can poke the pin through the centre of the paper and into the
centre of the stereonet. Reinforce the centre of the tracing paper with some clear tape.
2) Trace the primitive circle and mark the N part of the stereonet with a small arrow.
3) Mark the azimuth 020 on the primitive circle, by counting 20 clockwise. Put a 020
mark on the outside of the stereonet at this point.
4) Mark the dip direction (020 + 90 = 110) with a D.
5) Rotate the 020 mark so that it is oriented at either the N (or S) end of the stereonet.
6) Count in 50 degrees from the edge of the circle, starting at the D mark, using the small
circle markings.
7) Trace out the great circle (N-S curve) that passes through the point that you reached.
8) Rotate the 020 mark back to its original 020 position.
Now take the tracing paper off the stereonet and look at your handiwork. The 020, 50 E great
circle is shown on Fig. 4.22 along with great circles 080, 85 S and 330, 10 SW. The 020 plane
intersects the primitive circle at 020 and 200 (020 + 180), the 080 plane intersects the primitive
circle at 080 and 260, and the 330 plane intersects the primitive circle at 330 and 150 (330-180).
The 85 S dip is nearly a straight line, the 10 SW dip is nearly as circular as the primitive circle,
and the 50 E dip is intermediate between the two.
A3.3 Plotting poles to planes on a stereonet
Here is the procedure for plotting a pole to a plane on a stereonet, for the plane 020, 50 E (Fig.
A9):
1) Place a piece of tracing paper over the stereonet, either so the tack pierces the centre of
the paper or so that you can poke the pin through the centre of the paper and into the
centre of the stereonet. Reinforce the centre of the tracing paper with some clear tape.
2) Trace the primitive circle and mark the N part of the stereonet with a small arrow.
21

3) Mark the azimuth 020 on the primitive circle, by counting 20 degrees clockwise. Put a
020 mark on the outside of the stereonet at this point.
4) Mark the dip direction (020 + 90 = 110) with a D.
5) Rotate the 020 mark so that it is oriented at either the N (or S) end of the stereonet.
6) Count out 50 degrees from the center of the circle, moving away from the D mark,
using the great circle markings. (Note, when you are first plotting poles to planes, you
may want to count in 50 degrees from the edge of the circle and then count an additional
90 degrees, since the line must be perpendicular (90 different) from the trace of the
plane. The result is exactly equivalent).
7) Put a dot on the stereonet.
8) Rotate the 020 mark back to its original 020 position.
A3.4 Plotting pitches on a stereonet
Below, we list the steps for plotting pitch, using the example of 020, 50 E with a pitch 12 N (Fig.
4.A10). Here are the steps, with the steps specifically for the pitch underlined.
1) Place a piece of tracing paper over the stereonet, either so the tack pierces the centre of the
paper or so that you can poke the pin through the centre of the paper and into the centre of
the stereonet. Reinforce the centre of the tracing paper with some clear tape.
2) Trace the primitive circle and mark the N part of the stereonet with a small arrow.
3) Mark the azimuth 020 on the primitive circle, by counting 50 degrees clockwise. Put a
020 mark on the outside of the stereonet at this point.
4) Mark the dip direction (020 + 90 = 110) with a D.
5) Mark the pitch direction with a P, depending on what side of the strike line it comes
off.
6) Rotate the 020 mark so that it is oriented at either the N (or S) end of the stereonet.
7) Count in 50 degrees from the edge of the circle, starting at the D mark, using the small
circle markings.
8) Trace out the great circle (N-S curve) that passes through the point that you reached..
9) Count in 12 degrees along the great circle that you just traced, using the small circles and
starting at the primitive circle. Make a dot at that point on the great circle.
10) Rotate the 020 mark back to its original 020 position.

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Chapter 4 Figure Captions

Figure 4.1. Conventions for measuring directions (trends) in a horizontal plane. (a) The Azimuth
(0-360) system. (b) The Quadrant (NS) system.
Figure 4.2. A cross-section through the Earths geocentric dipole magnetic field. There are two
important aspects to notice. First, the axis of the geomagnetic field does not coincide with
Earths rotation axis, so the magnetic North pole does not coincide with the geographic North
pole. This difference requires that one sets a magnetic declination on the compass. Second,
there is a vertical component to the magnetic field everywhere except near the equator. Insets
show the net force on a compass needle in the northern and southern hemispheres.
Figure 4.3. Mercator projection map showing the magnetic declination at different points around
the world in 2005 (modified from the U. S. National Geophysical Data Center;
http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/geomag/declination.shtml). Red contour lines indicate a positive
(east) declination; black contour lines indicate a negative (west) declination. The contour interval
is 2, with every 5th contour line (every 10) thicker.
Figure 4.4. Cartoon of both the pocket transit (Brunton) compass and one variety of a stratum
compass (the GeoBrunton). Both the front side and the back side are shown. Labels are
shown only on the pocket transit compass, except for the parts that are unique to the stratum
compass. Note that the standard stratum compass (e.g. Beithaupt, Freiberg) in Europe is slightly
less bulky, but contains most of the same features.
Figure 4.5. The trend and plunge of a line and space. (a) The trend of a line is its horizontal
orientation, taken by projecting the linear element into a horizontal plane. The pencil is pointing
toward the ground, as you can tell from its foreshortening. Looking straight down from above,
we see its horizontal orientation. (b) The plunge is the angle measured downward from a
horizontal line to the linear element. In this case, the angle is 45.
Figure 4.6. Symbols on a geological map for (a, b, and c) trend and plunge of linear elements, (d,
e, f, g, and h) strike and dip of planar elements, and (i and j) strike, dip, and pitch of combinations
of planar and linear elements. (a, b) The arrow gives the trend of a lineation. The plunge amount
(0-90) is written by the end of the arrow. (c) Use an arrow with heads at both ends to depict
horizontal lineations. (d, e, f, g, and h) A strike is a long line and the dip is a tick, with the tick in
the direction of the dip. We have separate symbols for flat-lying planes (g) and vertical planes (h).
If the planar surface has a facing (such as bedding), we use the symbol in d and e if the bedding is
upright and h if the bedding is overturned. (i, j) Since a pitch is a line associated with a plane, a
pitch symbol combines the strike and dip symbol with an arrow. The orientation of the pitch
arrow, with respect to the strike line, is given by the number at the end of the arrow. Thus, the
angle of the arrow with respect to the strike line and it true orientation is not drawn correctly.
Figure 4.7. A cartoon of a book in an aquarium. (a) Book leaning on one edge in water, dipping
60 degrees to the East. The strike line is the water level on the book. (b) Book standing on its
corner in water. The strike line is the water level on the book, but is not parallel to any of the
edges. (c) Book leaning the other way, dipping 60W.
Figure 4.8. (a) The problem of apparent dips as illustrated by skiers on a slope. Skiers going
directly downslope (down dip) go down a 45 incline, while those going back and forth (apparent
dip) go down at lower angles. (b) The same slope, now illustrated with compasses. If a dip
measurement is not taken directly down dip, there will be a tendency to get shallower
23

measurements. (c) Diagram illustrating the angle between the trend of the strike and the trend
of the apparent dip, the dip angle , and the apparent dip .
Figure 4.9. Examples of pitch measurements on a plane oriented 000, 60 E. The black pencil
pitches 20 from the South end of the strike line (pitch = 20 S) and the red pencil pitches 80
from the North end of the strike line (pitch = 80 N).
Figure 4.10. An example of a rose diagram with a 10 class interval. The space between two
adjacent radial lines is a class interval. The concentric circles are filled in proportion to the
number of measurements that fall into that class interval. In the figure, four measurements
between 260 and 270 are recorded.
Figure 4.11. Construction of a rose diagram using the example of pencils. (a) The first
measurement of 352 falls between 350 and 000 (360). One radius is filled in that class interval.
(b) The second measurement of 358 falls in the same class interval and a second radius is filled
in. (c) The third measurement of 271 falls in the 270-280 class interval, and the first radius of
that class interval is in filled. For purposes of the rose diagram, spatial position of the
measurements is not relevant, only their orientation. Thus, the rose diagram characterizes either
the three measurements above or the three below in the box.
Figure 4.12. A rose diagram using bi-directional data (here the strikes of faults). This type of rose
diagram must be symmetric; each orientation of class interval must have the same value as the
class interval oriented 180 away.
Figure. 4.13 Rose diagram for directional data, here bedding dip azimuths. This type of rose
diagram can be asymmetric; each orientation of class interval need not have the same value as the
class interval oriented 180 away
Figure 4.14. Paired symmetric (above; strike of foliation in shear zones) and asymmetric (below;
dip directions for foliation) rose diagrams give a view of the three-dimensional nature of
structural measurements.
Figure 4.15. (a) Histogram showing number of faults per class interval versus strike of fault. For
these bi-directional data, the frequencies are identical in classes 180 apart. (b) Histogram
showing the number and percent of dip azimuths per class interval versus strike of fault.
Figure 4.16. The three parts of the stereonet. The perimeter of the circle (in bold black) is the
primitive circle. The lines that run from the north to south pole of the diagram (shown in red),
equivalent to longitude lines, are known as great circles. The arcs that are concentric about the
north and south pole (shown in black), equivalent to latitude lines, are small circles.
Figure 4.17. (a) Spherical projection, as demonstrated by a projection sphere a center O. A
horizontal plane that contains the center O contains the stereographic projection of points and
lines. Line RS passes through the center O and intersects the outside of the projection sphere.
When viewed from the top of the projection sphere, the stereographic projection of the line is the
point A in the horizontal plane. (b) How the center circle would look when viewed from above,
including the position of points O and A.
Figure 4.18. A cereal bowl analogy for stereonets. (a) Horizontal spoons touch in two places on
the rim of the bowl (primitive circle of stereonet). The trend of the spoon is NS. The right-hand

24

diagram shows where the spoon intersects the bowl, with the red dot where the front of the spoon
touches and the black dot where the back of the spoon touches. (b) Horizontal, EW oriented
spoon. (c) Horizontal spoon trending 130. (d) Vertical spoons touch the bottom of the bowl
(center of the stereonet). There is no black dot because the end of the spoon does not touch the
bowl. (e) Spoon oriented 20 -> 090.
Figure 4.19. Spherical projection, as demonstrated by a projection of plane as curved line on
stereonet. A dipping plane intersects the projection sphere as along a curved trajectory along the
outside of the sphere. When projected onto the horizontal plane, viewing it from the zenith, it
becomes a curved line. It may be easier to imagine it as a series of lines, forming points in the
projection plane, that join together to form a curved line.
Figure 4.20. Great circles on a stereonet and some corresponding planes shown on block
diagrams. The steeper dipping planes are represented by increasingly straight lines on the
stereonets.
Figure 4.21. A cereal bowl analogy for stereonets applied to planes. (a) The plate is horizontal,
and its intersection with the bowl traces out the primitive circle. A line perpendicular to the plane
intersects the projection sphere at its base and plots at the centre of the net. (b) The half-plate
strikes 020 and is vertical. The trace of the plate on the bowl is a straight line. A line
perpendicular to the plane is horizontal and plots on the primitive. (c) The plate strikes 020 and
dips 40 to the E. A line perpendicular to the plane is inclined and plots within the net.
Figure 4.22. (a) The concept of a pole to a plane, defined by a pencil that is orthogonal to a piece
of thick paper. The horizontal plane can be characterized by a single vertical line (its pole) that
orthogonal to it. (b) Spherical projection of a plane and a pole to that plane. Although the plane is
characterized as curved line on stereonet, the pole is a line and is therefore characterized by a
point.
Figure 4.23. Plot of 3 planes and the corresponding poles to planes on a stereonet: 1) 020, 50 E;
2) 080, 85 S; and 3) 330, 10 SW.
Figure. 4.24 (a) Pitches are measured inward from the primitive, along a great circle, by counting
small circles. (b) Stereographic projection of the plane 020, 50 E with lines pitching 12 N, 90,
and 40 S.
Figure 4.25. (a) The stereographic projection of a family of lines at a fixed angle from a reference
line (or a cone with a specific opening angle) is a small circle. (b) Representation of small circles
with 10 opening angles on equal-angle (at left) and equal-area (at right) projections. The equalangle projection preserves the circular shapes and angular relations, but small circles with the
same opening angles have different areas at different portions of the plot. On the equal-area
projection, the shapes of the small circles are distorted (angular relations are not preserved), but
the small circles have the same area regardless of their position on the plot. Modified from
Hobbs et al. (1976). (c) A Schmidt net, with the primitive in bold black, the great circles in red,
and the small circles in black.
Figure 4. 26. Three methods of showing distribution data on an equal area, lower hemisphere
stereonet. (a) Scatter plot showing poles to 182 small reverse faults in strata above the McConnell
thrust fault in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. (b) Contour plot of these data; contours are 2%,

25

4%, 6%, etc. of the data per 1% area of the plot. (c) Combined scatter plot and contour plot. (d)
Contour plot of same data showing Kamb contours, in multiples of 2.
Figure 4.27. Block diagrams of planar markers resulting in the same stereonets. As with rose
diagrams, the stereonet plots only the orientation of the planar markers. The distribution (relative
spatial position) of the planar markers in not portrayed.

Appendix Figure Captions

Figure 4.A1. (a) With the pointer of the compass directed toward 045 (N45E) and the compass
needle pointing N, you can read the proper azimuth (or bearing) off the graduated circle. (b) With
the pointer directed toward 350 (N10W) and the compass needle pointing N, you read the proper
azimuth (or bearing) off the graduated circle.
Figure 4.A2. Magnetic declination set, with reference to the index pin and numbers on the
graduated circle. The declinations are zero (a), 12 E (b), and 16 W (c).
Figure 4.A3. (a) We measure the trend of a line by placing the pointer (or side) of the compass
parallel to the trend line, adjusting the bulls eye to level, and reading the white end of the
compass needle. (b) We measure the plunge of a line by holding compass in a vertical plane,
with the lineation parallel to a measuring edge of the compass. The cylindrical level is adjusted
with the vernier scale, at which point the plunge is read off the clinometer scale by the center of
the vernier.
Figure 4.A4. Measuring edges. The top and bottom edges on the sides of the compass are
informally known as measuring edges. A major error when first using a compass is to have only
a corner or part of a measuring edge on a surface. To acquire good measurements, an entire
measuring edge must be on the surface.
Figure 4.A5. How to measure a strike (a) and a dip (b) with a transit compass. a) A strike line is
made by holding an entire measuring edge of a level compass against the planar surface. The
number is read off the dial. For using right-hand rule, the dip of the surface must by off to the
right hand side of the compass and only the white end of the compass is read. b) A dip is
measured by placing the entire side of the compass on the surface. The vernier adjustment lever
is rotated until the cylindrical level is horizontal. Note that the bubble in the cylindrical level
must be on top and the dip must be on the bottom of the compass. The dip is read off the
clinometer scale with the vernier.
Figure 4.A6. How to measure a dip direction and dip with a stratum compass. The entire top of
the compass is placed on the surface. Both the compass body and the hinge orientation are
modified until the bulls eye level is level. The white end of the compass needle points to the dip
direction and the hinge records the dip amount. Some care is required in reading nearly
horizontal or vertical measurements, as the dip direction may be 180 off.
Figure 4.A7. (a) Procedure for plotting lines on a stereonet, following steps in the text. (b) Plot
of 3 lines on a stereonet: 40 -> 050, 85 -> 170, and 10 -> 330.
Figure 4.A8. Procedure for plotting planes on a stereonet. The steps correspond to the protocol in
the text.

26

Figure 4.A8. (a) Procedure for plotting poles to planes on a stereonet. The steps correspond to the
protocol in the text.
Figure 4.A10. (a) Procedure for plotting pitches on a stereonet for 020, 50 E pitch12 N. The steps
correspond to the protocol in the text. (b) Three different pitch directions that correspond to the
plane 020, 50 E: 12 N, 40 S and 90.

27