Mechanical Design

of
Overhead Lines

Main Components of Overhead Lines

main components of an overhead line are:
1.

Conductors : carry electric power from the

sending end station to the receiving end
station.

2.

Supports : poles or towers.

3.

Insulators: Attached to supports and

insulate the conductors from the ground.

4.

Cross arms : Provide support to the

insulators.

5.

Miscellaneous items: danger plates,

lightning arrestors, anti-climbing wires etc.

Conductor Materials

erial should have the following properties :

1.
high electrical conductivity.
2.
high tensile strength in order to withstand
mechanical stresses.
3.
low cost so that it can be used for long distances.
4.
low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume
is small.
ommonly used conductor materials.
1.

Copper

2.

Aluminum

3.

Steel-cored aluminum

4.

Galvanized steel

5.

Cadmium copper

1. Copper:

High electrical conductivity

Greater tensile strength

High current density

Metal is quite homogeneous, durable and has high
scrap value

Higher cost and non-availability

Trend is to use aluminum in place of copper

2.
Aluminum:
Cheap and light as compared to copper
Smaller conductivity and tensile strength compared
to copper
q

Relative comparison of the two materials

isConductivity
as:
of aluminium is 60% that of

copper.

For the same resistance: the diameter of

aluminium conductor is about 126 times the
diameter of copper conductor.

The specific gravity of aluminium (271 gm/cc)

is lower than that of copper (89 gm/cc).

Aluminium conductor has almost one-half the

weight of equivalent copper

Aluminium conductor being light, is liable to

greater swings and hence larger cross-arms are
required.
Due to lower tensile strength and higher coefficient of linear expansion of aluminium, the sag
is greater in aluminium conductors.

Aluminum has an edge over

copper, WHY?

of cost,
conductivity, tensile strength, and weight
makes aluminium profitable for widely uses.

Combined properties

3. Steel cored
aluminium
Aluminium conductor is reinforced with a core of
q

galvanised steel wires.

result of this composite conductor is that:

Steel core takes greater
percentage of
mechanical strength.

Aluminium strands
carry the bulk of
current.

The steel cored aluminium conductors

have the following advantages :
The reinforcement with steel increases
the tensile strength but at the same
time keeps the composite conductor
light.

1.

Therefore, steel cored aluminium

conductors will produce smaller sag and
hence longer spans can be used.
2.

Due to smaller sag with steel cored

aluminium conductors, towers of
smaller heights can be used.

4. Galvanised
steel:
Used for extremely long spans.

Also for short line sections exposed to abnormally

high stresses due to climatic conditions
q

Not suitable for transmitting large power over a long

distance
q

5. Cadmium
copper:
Copper alloy with cadmium
q

Addition of 1% or 2% cadmium to copper increases

the tensile strength by about 50%.
q

Conductivity is only reduced by 15% below that of

pure
copper.
q
Useful for exceptionally long
spans.
q
High cost of cadmium, economical only for lines of smal
q

Line Supports
The supporting structures for overhead line
conductors.

various types of poles and towers

Line supports should have the following
properties :
1.
High mechanical strength
q

2.

Light in weight

3.

Cheap in cost

4.

Longer life

5.

Easy accessibility

The line supports used for transmission

and distribution of electric power are of
various types including:

1.

wooden poles

2.

Steel poles

3.

R.C.C. poles

4.

steel towers

1. Wooden poles:
Cheap, easily available, provide insulating
properties.
q
Widely used for distirbution purposes in rural
areas as an economical proposition
q

the portion of the pole below the ground level is

impregnated with preservative compounds like
q

creosote oil
main objections to wooden supports are :
1.

Tendency to rot below the ground level

2.

Comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)

3.

Cannot be used for voltages higher than 20 kV

4.

Less mechanical strength and

5.

Require periodical inspection

Wooden poles (Double pole structures of the

A or H type)

2. Steel poles:

Substitute for wooden poles

Greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit

longer spans
Used for distribution purposes
Galvanised or painted in order to prolong its life

e steel poles are of three types

1.

Rail poles

2.

Tubular poles

3.

Rolled steel joints

3. RCC
poles:

Greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit

longer spans than steel poles.
q

Require little maintenance and have good

insulating properties.
q
Holes in the poles facilitate the climbing of poles
and at the same time reduce the weight of line
supports
q

main difficulty with the use of these pole

Heavy weight and high cost of

transport
Often manufactured at the site in order to
avoid heavy cost of transportation.

R.C.C. poles

4. Steel
towers:

Used for long distance transmission at higher

voltage.
Steel towers have:
q

Greater mechanical strength

Longer life

Withstand most severe climatic

conditions

o use of longer spans

Single circuit Permit
tower the
Double circuit tower

The double circuit has the advantage that:

It ensures continuity of supply.

If there is breakdown of one circuit, the continuity

of supply can be maintained by the other circuit.

Single circuit tower

Steel Towers
double circuit tower

Double circuit tower

A Stockbridge damper
is a tuned mass damper used to suppress windinduced vibrations on taut cables, such as
overhead power lines. The dumbbell-shaped device
consists of two masses at the ends of a short length
of cable or flexible rod, which is clamped at its
middle to the main cable. The damper is designed
to dissipate the energy of oscillations in the main
cable to an acceptable level.

Space Dampers
In very high voltage transmission lines, conductor
bundles are used for each phase to fulfil electrical
requirements. Spacing devices are installed on the
bundles to maintain subconductor separation. Elastic
and damping elements are introduced into the spacing
devices for distributing the damping effect along the
spans, which prevents entrapment of vibration
between spacers and avoid bending stress at the
spacer clamps.

Insulators
Insulators provide necessary insulation between
line conductors and supports and thus prevent
any leakage current from conductors to earth.
q

Insulators should have the following

properties :
1.
High mechanical strength
2.

High electrical resistance of insulator

material

3.

High relative permittivity of insulator

material(dielectric)

4.

The insulator material should be non-

Types of Insulators
The successful operation of an overhead line depends
to a considerable extent upon the proper selection of
insulators.

There are several types of insulators but

the most
commonly used are:
Pin type insulators
Suspension type insulators
Strain insulators
Shackle insulators

Porcelain Insulator
Properties of Porcelain
Insulator
Property

Dielectric
Straingth
Compressive
Strength
Tensile Strength

Value(Approximate)

60 KV / cm
70,000 Kg / cm2
500 Kg / cm2

Glass Insulator
Now days glass insulator has become popular in transmission and
distribution system.
Annealed tough glass is used for insulating purpose.
Glass insulator has numbers of advantages over conventional porcelain
insulator
Properties of Glass
Insulator
Property

Dielectric
Strength
Compressive
Strength
Tensile Strength

Value(Approximate)

140 KV / cm
10,000 Kg / cm2
35,000 Kg / cm2

Pin type insulators:

Pin type insulators are used for transmission and

distribution of electric power at voltages

33 kV.

upto

uses of insulator failure:

q

Insulators are required to withstand both

mechanical and electrical stresses.

The electrical breakdown of the insulator can occur
either by flash-over or puncture.
q

case of flash-over:
Insulator will continue to act in its proper capacity
unless extreme heat produced by the arc destroys the
insulator.
In case of puncture:
Discharge occurs from conductor to pin through the
body of the insulator

Arcing distance is a +
b + c for the
insulator.
The ratio of puncture
strength to flashover
voltage is known as
safety factor
Safety
factor of
insulator
=

Puncture
strength
Flash - over
voltage

It is desirable that the value of

safety factor is high so that flashover takes place before the
insulator gets punctured.

Suspension type insulators:

Pin insulator is not economical
beyond 33 kV.
q

High voltages >33 kV suspension

type insulators is used.
q

Number of porcelain discs

connected in series by metal
links in the form of a string.
q

Each unit or disc is designed

for low voltage, say 11 kV, for
66 kV voltage six discs in
series will be provided on
the string.

Advantag
es:
1.

Cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages

beyond 33 kV.

2.

The desired number of discs can be connected

in series.

3.

If any one disc is damaged, can be replaced

easily.

4.

Greater flexibility to the line, string is free to

swing in any direction where mechanical stresses
are minimum.

5.

The additional insulation required for the

Strain insulators:
Used at dead end of the line or there is corner or
sharp curve.
q

For excessive
tension, strain
insulators are used.
q

For high voltage

transmission lines,
strain insulator consists
of an assembly of
suspension insulators.
q

At long river spans, two

or more strings are used
in parallel
q

Shackle insulators:
q

For low voltage lines (< 11 kV), shackle

insulators are used as strain insulators.

Now a days, they are frequently used for low

voltage distribution lines.
q

Potential Distribution over Suspension Insulator

String

The porcelain portion of each disc is in between two

metal links forms a capacitor C .
q

Charging current same through all the discs.

Voltage across each unit Same.

Capacitance also exists (shunt capacitance C1)

between metal fitting of each disc and tower or
earth.

Due to shunt capacitance, charging current

q

is not the same through all the discs of the

string.

Therefore, voltage across each disc will be

different.

Important
points:
1.

Non uniform voltage distribution across string.

2.

Disc nearest to the conductor has maximum

voltage.

3.

Probability of disc puncture is more in nearest

disc due to max electrical stress.

4.

In case of DC, voltage across each unit of string

remain same.

String Efficiency
The ratio of voltage across the whole
string to the product of number of discs
and the voltage across the disc
nearest to the conductor.
Voltage across the string

String
efficiency =
n Voltage across disc nearest to conducto
n = number of discs in the string

Greater the string efficiency, the more

uniform is the voltage distribution.

Mathematical expression:
Assume, C1 = KC

Applying KCL to node A

V2 = V1 (1 + K)
We get
. (i)
.
Applying KCL to node B
We get
V3 = V1[1 + 3K +
.
K2] .(ii)
Voltage between
conductor
is V2 + V3
V =and
V1 +
V = V1(1 + K) (3 + K) ....(iii)

(Equivalent circuit
for a 3-disc string)

Now, we can
calculate
Voltage
across top unit V1, Voltage across 2nd unit
V2, Voltage across 3rd unit V3

Voltage across the string

%age String
efficiency =

X
100
n Voltage across disc nearest to conducto
V
=
3 x V3

X
100

Points from the above

mathematical
If K = 02 thenanalysis
we get, V2 := 12 V1 and V3 =
1.

164 V1
voltage across other discs decreasing
progressively as the cross-arm in approached.
2. Greater the value of K (= C1/C) lesser is the string
efficiency.
3. The inequality in voltage distribution increases
with the increase of number of discs in the string.

Methods of Improving String Efficiency

e various methods of improving string efficiency are :

1. By using longer cross-arms
2. By grading the insulators
3. By using a guard ring

Important Points
1.

The maximum voltage appears across the

disc nearest to the conductor.
The voltage across the string is equal to
phase voltage i.e.,

2.

3.

Voltage across string = Voltage between

line and earth
= Phase Voltage
Line Voltage = 3 Voltage across
string

Corona
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing
noise and production of ozone gas in an
overhead transmission line is known as
corona.
The higher the voltage is raised
the larger and higher the luminous envelope becomes
greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio
noise
q

Critical disruptive voltage:

The value of voltage at which corona occurs.

eory of corona formation.

Ionization in the air due to cosmic rays and UV
radiation etc
q
Under the influence of potential gradient, the
existing free electrons acquire greater velocities.
q

At 30 kV per cm (max. value), the velocity acquired

is sufficient to strike a neutral molecule to dislodge
one or more electrons from it.
q

The result of this ionization is that either corona is

formed or spark takes place between the conductors.
q

Factors Affecting Corona

The following are the factors upon which corona
:
1.depends
Atmosphere:
In the stormy weather, the number of ions is
more than normal and as such corona occurs at
much less voltage as compared with fair weather.

2. Conductor size:
The rough and irregular surface will give rise to
more corona.
Spacing between conductors:
If the spacing between the conductors is made very
large as
compared to their diameters, there may not be
4. Line
voltage:
any corona
effect.
If it is low, no corona is formed.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Corona

Advantag
es:
1. Virtual diameter of the conductor is increased.
The increased diameter reduces the electrostatic
stresses between the conductors
2. Corona reduces the effects of transients
produced by surges.
Disadvantag
es:
1.Loss of energy
2.Ozone production causes conductor corrosion.
3. Interference with neighbouring
communication lines.

Sag in Overhead Lines

The difference in level between points of supports
(A,B) and the lowest point(o) on the conductor is
called sag.

1.Two supports at the same level, conductor

takes catenary shape.
2. Tension To at the lowest point O acts horizontally.
3. The horizontal component of tension is constant
throughout the length of the wire.

. If T is the tension at the support B, then T = To

nductor sag and tension:

Conductor Sag should be minimum to avoid material
required and extra pole height.
q

Tension in the conductor should be low to avoid the

mechanical failure of conductor and to permit the use
of less strong supports.
q

But,

is it possible at the
same
time ? tension and minimum sag
Low conductor
are not possible

Low sag means a tight wire and high

tension.

Low tension means a loose wire and

increased sag.

In actual practice, a compromise in made

between the two.

Calculation of Sag
The tension is
governed
by:

Conductor
weight

Effects of wind

Ice loading

Temperature variations.
Conductor tension should be less than 50% of its
ultimate tensile strength.
q

Calculation of sag and tension of a

conductor when:
1.

supports are at equal levels

2.

supports are at unequal levels.

When supports are at equal levels:

= Length of span
w = Weight per unit length of
conductor
T = Tension in the conductor.

The two forces acting on the portion OP of the

conductor
are : wx of conductor acting at a
1.
The weight
distance x/2 from O.
The tension
T acting
at O.two
Equating
the moments
of above
forces about point O

Ty

2.

T y = w x x/2
y = w x2/2T
The maximum dip (sag) is
represented by the value of y at
either of the supports A and B.
x = /2 and y = S

S =w (/2)2/2T (Sag)
=w2/8T

Tx
Equating the
horizontal and
vertical components.

T=Tx and
Ty=Wx

Horizontal
component of
tension is
constant.
When
OP=x , then
T=Ty

hen supports are at unequal levels:

= Span length
h = Difference in levels between two
supports
x1 = Distance of support at lower level
(i.e., A) from O
x2 = Distance of support at higher level

ect of wind and ice loading:

tal weight of conductor per unit length is

w = weight of conductor per unit length

wi = weight of ice per unit length

ww = wind force per unit length

ROWs Management of
line

A ROW is a largely passive but critical component

of a transmission line. It provides a safety margin
between the high-voltage lines and surrounding
structures and vegetation. The ROW also provides
a path for ground-based inspections and access to
transmission towers and other line components, if
repairs are needed.
Voltage (KV)

Range of Widths(ft)

230

51 to 125

345

>125

500

>175

Thank
You

A service line may directly encountered with lightning or a

nearby hit may induced large voltage pulses in the service

Direct strike on a high-voltage overhead line

Direct strike on a low-voltage overhead line

Coupling of voltage surges

(distant lightning strike)

up to 2 km

Pow
e

r li n

es

Com
mun
icat
i on
line
Cab
s
le T
V

Back-door intrusion

These surges enter the nearby structures through the lines

Equipotential Bonding

Bonding is the most commonly employed method of

avoiding the damaging effects of side flashing.
Equipotentialization reduces fire and explosion danger and
life hazard in the space to be protected.
All continuous metalwork should be considered for bonding.
All metallic services, eg cable armouring, gas, water or
steam piping, entering the building should also be bonded
as direct and straight as possible to the earth termination
network.

Two concepts of Lightning

Protection

Attraction of
downwards
Lightning Leader
to the protection
system and
safely passing
the current into
ground

Dissipation of the
charge of the
downwards Lightning
Leader or repelling
of the Lightning
Leader away from
the protection
system

Principles of Surge Protection

Devices
l

Diverting surge current to earth

Clamping output voltage to a safe

level

Does NOT prevent lightning but

protects against effects

Main components of a
Lightning Protection System
(LPS)
Air termination

Down conductors

Earth termination