Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
Definition:
Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in
a factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or subassemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located.

1.1 Need for prefabrication

Prefabricated structures are used for sites, which are not suitable
for normal construction methods; such as hilly region, and also when
normal construction materials are not available.
Structures which are used repeatedly can be standardized; such as
mass housing, storage sheds, godowns, shelters, bus stand, security
cabins, site offices, foot over bridges, tubular structures, concrete
building blocks etc., can be made of prefabricated structures.
Prefabricated structure facilities can also be created at near a site
as is done to make concrete blocks used in plan of conventional
structures.
Speed in construction
Less Lack of space ( for proper utilization of space)
Control over material.
Mass production
Production even difficult weather conditions

1.1.1 An Overview: Advantages of Prefabrication

Quality and accuracy

Precast concrete units are made in a factory in a favorable environment and
with tight production control. This produces units with high quality performance and
appearance. The designer can select from a range of finishes and be able to inspect
and accept the units before they are fixed in place. Factory production control
ensures that the reinforcement is located accurately and that the units are made to
tight dimensional tolerances. The structural connections are designed to enable
adjustments to be made on site, so the frame can be erected to very precise
dimensions. This greatly assists the subsequent installation of cladding, windows
and other elements.
Speed of construction
Speed of construction is a major consideration in most building projects and it
is here that precast concrete frames excel. This advantage is maximized if the
layout and details are not too complex. Designing for maximum repetition will make
manufacture of the precast units easier and construction faster, but precast
concrete can be used in complex and irregular structures, although it may not then
provide the same efficiency of construction as a rationalized design.
Frame cost

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In addition to the economic advantages of faster construction, the capital

cost of a precast concrete frame can be less than that for alternative farming
methods designed to give an equivalent performance. Alternative frames for a fivestorey commercial building have been compared.'1' These showed that the cost of a
precast concrete frame was 21 % less than a steel frame with steel deck composite
floors, and 14% less than a more traditional steel frame with precast concrete
floors. Another comparison on a higher, seven-storey structure, suggested a similar
saving.'2' these savings may not be realized on all projects, because the difference
will be influenced by the particular design parameters, but they demonstrate a
potential cost saving which is worth considering.
Overall cost
The total cost of a building is related to the speed of construction, the cost of
the frame, other construction costs, land costs and interest rates. Although the
basic cost of the frame is important, speed of construction is often the dominant
consideration, particularly in times of high interest rates and land values. Where the
building is to be let, extra rental can be obtained from earlier completion.
Thermal capacity
The high thermal capacity of a concrete structure can help to control
temperature fluctuations. This can reduce the risk of condensation. Peak demands
on the heating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment may also be reduced and
lead to cheaper service installations and lower running costs.
Buildability
Precast concrete frames can greatly improve buildability. Compared with
many other methods of construction, precasting removes many of the sensitive site
operations to the more stable environment of the factory. Bad weather has little
effect on the rate of frame construction and little protection is needed on site.
Precast concrete frames are precisely manufactured to improve speed of
erection. The care taken in design and detailing of the connections ensures that
erection is simple and rapid, and structural integrity is achieved during erection.
Crane hook time is kept to a minimum.
The precast concrete supplier, as a single subcontractor, is usually
responsible for the design, production and erection of the frame. Minimizing the
number of subcontractors simplifies contract programming and can reduce
pressures on the management team. Contract periods may also be forecast more
confidently because, with fewer operations, there is less to go wrong.
Structural efficiency
Precast concrete offers considerable scope for improving structural efficiency.
Longer spans and shallower construction depths can be obtained by using
prestressed concrete for beams and floors. The examples of buildings given later in
this Section and elsewhere in this publication, demonstrate the considerable
flexibility that is possible in design. Many of the available precast concrete units
have been tested, both in the laboratory and in service, to obtain maximum
structural efficiency.
Fire resistance

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Concrete has its own built-in fire resistance. This is present during all
construction phases and does not depend on additional board or sprayed protection.
Obtaining a two-hour fire resistance presents little problem, and four hours may also
be achieved.

1.2 Principles
Most projects benefit from disciplined design. This is inherent in the design of
a precast concrete frame, because the designer seeks as much repetition as
possible so that the precaster can take advantage of greater mould re-use and
standardization of details to reduce the cost of manufacture

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1.3 Materials
All materials shall conform to Part 5 Building Materials. Use of materials for
plain and reinforced concrete shall satisfy the requirements of IS 456.

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While selecting the materials for prefabrication, the following characteristics shall
be considered:
1. Easy availability;
2. Light weight for easy handling and transport;
3. Thermal insulation property;
4. Easy workability;
5. Durability;
6. Non-combustibility;
7. Sound insulation;
8. Economy;

Cements

The most common cements used are ordinary and rapid-hardening Portland
(including white), sulphate-resisting and high alumina cement. Universally the
chemistries, performance, colours, etc., vary over quite a large range, but they all
have to comply with a Standard such as BS, demanding minimum requirements.

Aggregate

These fall into two main types, each with several sub-groups:
Natural Aggregates:
Flint,
Volcanic (granites, basalts, feldspars, etc.)
Sandstone
Limestone (sedimentary, oolitic, etc.)
Marble (calcite)
Barytes
Natural sands (siliceous mainly, river, dune, wadi, marine)
Perlite
Vermiculite
Synthetic Aggregates:
Sintered pulverised fuel ash
Expanded shale
Expanded slate
Expanded clay
Foamed slag
Crushed bricks
Calcined flint
Reconstituted concrete
The selection of aggregates for any particular precast concrete operation is a
function of many factors of which economic availability and performance
requirements are probably the following reactions are most important.

Alkali-silica reaction

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Aggregates containing silica minerals are susceptible to attack by alkalis

(Na2O and K2O) from the cement or other sources. Alkali-silica reaction causes
cracking and reduces the strength of concrete.
Effective means of reducing the risk of alkali aggregate reaction include:
1. Control on the amount of cement used in the concrete mix;
2. Use of a low alkali cement;
3. Use of an appropriate cement replacement such as pulverized fuel ash (pfa);
and
Alkali-carbonate reaction
Some carbonate aggregates may be susceptible to alkali-carbonate reaction,
which is similar to alkali-silica reaction in its effects. If carbonate aggregates are to
be used, specialist attention should be taken.
Chlorides in concrete
Reinforcing steel is susceptible to corrosion with the presence of chloride in
concrete.
The total chloride content of the concrete mix arising from the aggregate,
admixtures and any other source should not exceed the limits given in Table 2.3.
The total chloride content should be calculated from the mix proportions and
the measured chloride contents of each mix constituent.
Table 1.1 Chlorides in concrete

Water
It has often been stated that water which is fit enough for drinking can be
used for concrete but this is not always the case. Several Standards exist for water
for concrete and the best answer to the question of the suitability of a source of
water is to make the product with that water and see if it has the required
properties In most countries water is the cheapest ingredient of the mix and
production bonuses paid on quantity rather than quality encourage the use of too
much water. Machine-intensive processes generally will only accept a water content
consistent with good mix design practice. The labour-intensive processes are
different and in these one should only have enough water to achieve the minimum
workability requirements.

Concrete:
Precast concrete should have highest possible quality; both in terms of
strength and durability. The concrete is accurately delivered to every part of the
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mould ensuring zero segregation honey- combing and minimal vibration. Using
materials that have passed strict quality control procedures, rapid hardening
cement is mixed with excellent quality aggregates of known source and purity, often
in computer controlled batching and mixing plant; to produce concrete of Specified
workability and strength. Even the introduction of small quantities of
uncontaminated recycled concrete, usually from the factory's own waste production,
super plasticizers and pozzolana materials (such as pulverized fuel ash) has not
reduced this standard.

Steel reinforcement (as prestressing):

Precast concrete elements can, if necessary, be heavily reinforced because
they are cast horizontally. BIS permits up to 10 per cent of the cross-section to be
reinforced, although this amount Ls rarely used in favor of higher concrete
strengths.
High tensioned hot rolled ribbed bar is used 95% of cases, even in shear links
where mild steel bars to be used. The small cost difference compared to the
additional Strength, i.e. 460 Vs 250N/mm, and the need lot consistency of habit
when assembling cages, it make more economical Tying wire is more secure around
ribbed bar making the cage more robust. Mild steel is often used lot projecting
loops, etc., because it is easier to hand - bend tin site. bar diameters commonly
used are 8 and 10 mm for common Stirrups, 10 and 12mm for beam stirrups and
other distribution Or and crack bars, and 16, 20, 25, 32 and 40mm for main flexural
bars.
Reinforcement is used for one or more of the following reasons:
(a) Structural (loading, fire, earthquake, etc.)
(b) Handling (to withstand stacking, transport and erection stresses)
(c) Shrinkage (to withstand differential stresses)

Reinforcement Spacers

Spacers are designed to maintain the specified minimum cover between the
steel reinforcement and the mould and may be made of a variety of materials, viz.:
(a) Concrete or mortar blocks with or without tie wires.
(b) Asbestos cement.
(c) Plastics, usually filled polyethylene or polyamide.
(d) Steel with end-leg protection.

Reinforcing fibers and meshes

Fibres and meshes made from steel, polypropylene, glass and carbon are in
current use in many types of precast product. Their main applications are for
concretes where thin sections, impact resistance or special thixotropic properties
are required. Only carbon and steel fibres and meshes are true reinforcing materials
as they have strengths and moduli in excess of concrete, whereas polypropylene
and glass have moduli either lower or of the same order as concrete.
Apart from steel meshes, steel fibres have an application in specific products
where a combination of high strength and impact resistance is required, viz.
explosion-resistant units. However, the fibres require careful handling using steelfaced gloves, and slow addition to a working pan mixer otherwise the fibres tend to
form balls or clots. Extra water and/or the use of workability admixtures is required
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to give an adequate workability, and compaction by vibration needs to be more

energetic than for a conventional mix.
Polypropylene and the other plastics fibres being developed have the most
promise, and give good impact resistance to products such as pipes, pontoons, etc.,
and stabilised high air content systems in architectural products such as the
thixotropic Faircrete.
Glass fibres have had a chequered history since their use was taken up in the
late sixties. From the thermodynamic point of view, the different heats of formation
of calcium and sodium silicate indicate that the lifetime in a weathering situation
will be limited. An optimistic picture can only be painted for zirconium glass fibre in
cement matrices.

Structural steel and bolts

Structural .steelwork .sections are used in many type of precast elements,
especially at the connections. These include rolled rectangular and square hollow
sections (RHS, SHS), solid billets, channels and angles, plates and welded-tees, etc.
Details of how these ate used in practice are given in Sections 8.4 and 9.2.
Structural sections such as Universal beams and columns (UB, UQ may be cast into
precast elements to enhance strength where the reinforced concrete capacity is
exhausted. However, this may have severe cost implications that must be carefully
examined.
Rolled steel sections and bent or flat steel plates ate welded to form steel
connectors in many highly stressed support situations where direct contact between
concrete surfaces Ls to be avoided. The steel used is grade 43 (mostly) or grade 50.
Welded electrodes ate mostly grade E43. When used to join grade 43 steel, the
yield strength of the weld, (py 215 N/mm 2. When used in combination with grade
50, steel grade E5l electrodes gives py 255N/mm2 . The usual rules for lap
lengths (4tw), throat thickness (0.7tw) and returns and run-outs (2tw) apply, where
tw is the leg length. Intermittent fillet welds are rarely used as weld lengths tend to
be short.| Hot dipped galvanized steel is used for exposed connections, usually of
secondary structural significance, such as dovetail channels for brick ties. The basic
plate is grade 43 steel, and grade 50 Ls used in the more highly stressed plates.
Black bolts grade 4.6 (py 195N/nun in tension and 160N/mm2 in shear)
and 8:8(py: 450:375) are used in many connections. High strength friction grip bolts
are used in special circumstances where the integrity and safety (both temporary
and permanent) of oonncttions made with ordinary bolts in clearance holes cannot
be guaranteed

Non-cementitious materials
Epoxy-based mortars are used to make, either partially Or completely,
connections where a rapid gain in strength is required, e.g. up to get 40N/mm 2 in 23hours. Can is taken to ensure that these materials have not exceeded their shelf
life and are being used correctly for the right application. The: thermal expansion of
epoxy materials is seven times that of concrete, and this should be accounted for in
design. Epoxy compounds comprise two parts to be site mixed: (I) epoxy resins; and

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(2) hardeners. They are occasionally used as pressure: injections for crack filling or
to restore tensile strength. Manufacturers procedures should be strictly adhered to.
Neoprene, rubber* and mastics art: used for soft bearing, backing strips, etc.
The PCI Manual on Architectural Precast Cladding2 gives. Extensive guidance on the
use of these materials. Although they are not used extensively in precast structure,
a typical range of applications is given in Table

1.3.1 Equipments
Moulds
Moulds are basically means by which:
1. Concrete is kept to a required shape until it is strong enough to be
demoulded, or
2. Concrete is moulded on a machine and retains that shape on virtually instant
demoulding, or
3. Concrete is shaped immediately after casting using additional or secondary
mould acting on previously un-moulded surfaces.
The one thing that all moulding techniques and moulds have in common is
dimensions. Whether these are critical for structural, architectural and/or
contractual reasons is a matter that causes quite a lot of argument. The
specification for the product should state strictly what is required, bearing in mind
what is practical and how the product is to fit into the main construction. All too
often precast products such as cladding are specified on a dimension such as:

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Where, A is the target dimension often called the work size.

Two important points need to be borne in mind:
1. Tolerance is an easy thing to find during construction but is a very difficult
thing to lose. By this is meant that a product that is too large will generally
cause more problems than a product that is too small, i.e. a joint can be filled
with mortar, sealant, etc., when the product is nearer A-y but needs cutting
back when there is too much A+x.
2. Moulds tend to grow in size with continuous usage.
Figure shows how a joint can be designed to cater for resistance to arries damage
and give apparent uniform joint thickness.

Fig 1.1 Chamfered joint to cater for tolerances and arris damage.

1.4 Modular coordination

Module
A unit of size used in dimensional co-ordination.
Basic Module:
The fundamental module used in modular co-ordination, the size of which is
selected for general application to building and its components.
[NOTE The value of the basic module has been chosen as 100 mm for the maximum
flexibility and convenience. The symbol for the basic module is M.]

Modular Co-ordination
Dimensional co-ordination employing the basic module or a multi-module.
The purposes of modular co-ordination are:
a) To reduce the variety of component sizes produced, and
b) To allow the building designer greater flexibility in the arrangement of
components.
Modular Grid
A rectangular coordinate reference system in which the distance between
consecutive lines is the basic module or a multi-module. This multi-module
may differ for each of the three orthogonal dimensions of the grid, two in plan
and one in vertical direction.
Multi-module
A module whose size is a selected multiple of the basic module.
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1.4.1 Modular Co-Ordination, Architectural Treatment and

Finishes
Modular Co-ordination
The basic module shall be adopted. After adopting this, further work is
necessary to outline suitable range of multi modules with greater increments,
often referred to as preferred increments. A set of rules as detailed below
would be adequate for meeting the requirements of conventional and
prefabricated construction.
These rules relate to the following basic elements:
a. The planning grid in both directions of the horizontal plan shall be:
1) For industrial buildings
15M for span up to 12m
30M for span between 12m and 18m, and
60M for Spans over 18m
2) 3 M for other buildings.
The centre lines of load bearing walls should preferably coincide with
the gridlines.
b. The planning module in the vertical direction shall be 2 M for industrial
buildings (height above 2.8m) and 1 M for other buildings (height upto
2.8m).
c. Preferred increments for sill heights, doors, windows and other
fenestration shall be 1 M.
d. In the case of internal columns, the grid lines shall coincide with the
centre lines of columns. In case of external columns and columns near
the lift and stair wells, the grid lines shall coincide with centre lines of
the column in the top most storey or a line in the column 5cm from the
internal face of column in the top most storey.

Architectural Treatment and Finishes

Treatment and finishes have to be specified keeping in view the requirements

of protection, function and aesthetics of internal and external spaces and
surfaces. While deciding the type of architectural treatment and finishes for
prefabricated buildings, the following points should be kept in view:
a. Suitability for mass production techniques;
b. Recognition of the constraints imposed by the level of workmanship
available;
c. Possibility of using different types of finishes
d. Use of finishes and architectural treatment for the creation of a
particular architectural character in individual buildings and in groups
of buildings by the use of colour, texture, projections and recesses on
surfaces, etc;
e. Incorporation of structural elements like joists, columns, beams, etc, as
architectural features and the treatment of these for better overall
performance and appearance;
f. Satisfactory finishing of surfaces; and
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g. Use of light weight materials to effect economy in the structural

system.
Some
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

of the acceptable methods of finishes integral with the pre casting are,
Concrete surface moulded to design/shape;
Laid-on finishing tiles fixed during casting;
Finishes obtained by washing, tooling;
Grinding, grooving of hardened concrete;
Exposed aggregates; and
Other integral finishes.

Concept Of Dimensional Co ordination

The whole concept of dimensional coordination is represented in the

following chart which indicates the application of system and final result

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1.5 Standarization
1.5.1 Standardisation

Precast concrete construction should be planned wherever possible to utilize

standardized precast concrete elements.
Most prefabricated buildings will be unique and site specific. At the
theoretical design stage, a basic layout plan should be developed which
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achieves a balance between architectural/aesthetic requirements and a high

degree of standardization. Therefore, close collaboration amongst different
design parties is essential during conceptual design to achieve the optimum
standardization

Advantages of standardization
Easier design
Easier manufacture
Easier erection and completion

1.5.2 Factors influencing the standardization

the most rational type of member for each element is selected from
the point of production from the assembly serviceability and economy
The number of types of elements will be limited and they should be
used in large quantities.
To the extent possible the largest size to be used which results in less
number of joints
The size and the number of the prefabricates is limited by the weight in
overall dimension that can be handled by the transportation.
Hence it is preferable to have all the prefabricates approximately of same
weight very near to the lifting capacity of the equipment

1.6 Systems
Prefabrication Systems And Structural Schemes
The word system is referred to a particular method of construction of
buildings using the prefabricated components which are inter-related in
functions and are produced to a set of instructions. With certain constraints,
several plans are possible, using
the same set of components. The degree of flexibility varies from system to
system. However, in all the systems there is a certain order and discipline.
The following aspects, among others, are to be considered in devising a system:
Effective utilization of spaces;
Straight and simple walling scheme;
Limited sizes and numbers of components;
Limited opening in bearing walls;
Regulated locations of partitions;
Standardized service and stair units;
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Limited sizes of doors and windows with

regulated positions;
Structural clarity and efficiency;
Suitability for adoption in low rise and high
rise building;
Ease of manufacturing, storing and
transporting;
Speed and ease of erectiow and
Simple jointing system.

1.6.1 Prefabrication Systems: Definition

The system of prefabricated construction depends on the extent of the use of
prefabricated components, their materials, sizes and the technique adopted
for their
manufacture and use in building.

1.6.2 Types of Prefabrication Components

The prefabricated concrete components such as those given below may be

used which shall be in accordance with Part 5 Building Materials and the
accepted standards [6-7A(l)], where available:
Reinforced/Prestressed concrete channel unit,
Reinforced/Prestressed concrete slab unit,
Reinforced/Prestressed concrete beams,
Reinforced/Prestressed concrete columns,
Reinforced/Prestressed concrete hollow core slab,
Reinforced concrete waffle slab/shells,
Reinforced/Prestressed concrete wall elements,
Hollow/Solid blocks and battens,
Precast planks and joists for flooring and roofing,
Precast joists and trussed girders,
Light weight cellular concrete slabs,
Precast lintel and chajjas,
Large panel prefabricates,
Reinforced/Prestressed concrete trusses,
Reinforced/Prestressed roof purlins,
Precast concrete L-panel unit,
Prefabricated brick panel unit,
Prefabricated sandwich concrete panel, and
Precast foundation.
There may be other types of components which may be used with the
approval of the Authority.
[NOTE The elements may be cast at the site or off the site. ]

1.6.3 Categories of Open Prefab System

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There are two categories of open prefab system depending on the extent of
prefabrication used in the construction as given as follows
1. Partial prefabrication system
This system basically uses precast rooting and flooring components and other
minor elements like lintels, CHAJJAS, kitchen sills in conventional building
construction. The structural system could be in the form of in-situ framework
or load bearing walls.
2. Full prefabrication system
In this system almost all the structural components are prefabricated. The
filler walls may be of bri ck/block masonry or of any other locally available
material.
3. Large Panel Prefabrication System
This system is based on the use of large prefab components. The components
used are precast concrete large panels for walls, floors, roofs, balconies,
staircases, etc. The casting of the components could be at the site or off the
site. Depending upon the extent of prefabrication, this system can also lend
itself to partial prefab system and
full prefab system.

1.6.3.1 Precast Walls

Structural scheme with precast large panel walls can be classified as

given as follows

Based on the structural functions of the walls, the precast walls may be
classified as:
a) Load bearing walls,
b) Non-load bearing walls, and
c) Shear walls.
Based on construction, the precast walls may be classified as:
a) Homogeneous walls which could be solid, hollow or ribbed; and
b) Non-homogeneous walls these could be composite or sandwich
panels.
Based on their locations and functional requirements the precast walls may
also classified as:
a) External walls, which may be load bearing or
b) Non-load bearing depending upon the lay-out;
These are usually non-homogeneous walls of sandwiched type to impart
better thermal
Comforts; and internal walls providing resistance against vertical loads,
horizontal loads, fire, etc; these are normally homogeneous walls.

1.6.3.2 Precast floors

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Depending upon the composition of units, precast flooring units may be

homogeneous or non homogeneous.
a) Homogeneous floors may be solid slabs, cored slabs, ribbed or
waffle slabs.
b) Non-homogeneous floors may be multilayered ones with
combinations of light
weight concrete or reinforced/prestressed concrete, with filler blocks.
Depending upon the way the loads are transferred, the precast floors may be
classified as one way or two way systems:
a) One way system transfers loads to supporting members in one direction
only. The precast elements which come under this category are channel
slabs, hollow core slabs, channels and ties system, light weight cellular
concrete slabs, etc.
b) Two way systems transfer loads in both the directions imparting loads on
the four edges. The precast elements under this category are room sized
panels, two way ribbed or waffle slab systems, etc.

1.6.3.3 Staircase systems

Staircase system may consist of single flights with inbuilt risers and treads in
the element. The flights are normally unidirectional transferring the loads to
supporting landing slabs or load bearing walls.

1.6.3.4 Box Type Construction

In this system, room size units are prefabricated and erected at site. Toilet
and kitchen blocks could also be similarly prefabricated and erected at site.
NOTE This system derives its stability and stiffness from the box units which are
formed by four adjacent walls. Walls are jointed to make rigid connections among
themselves. The box unit rests on foundation which may be of conventional
type or precast type.

1.7 Production Transportation and Erection

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1.7.1 Manufacture of Precast Concrete Elements

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A judicious location of pre casting yard with concreting, initial curing (required
for demoulding), storage facilities, suitable transporting and erection
equipments and availability of raw materials are the crucial factors which
should be carefully planned and provided for effective and economic use of
precast concrete components in constructions.

Manufacture

The manufacture of the components can be done in a factory for the commercial
production established at the focal point based on the market potential or in a site
pre casting yard set up at or near the site of work.

1.7.1.1Factory prefabrication

Factory prefabrication is resorted to in a factory for the commercial

production for the manufacture of standardized components on a long-term
basis. It is a capital intensive production where work is done throughout the
year preferably under a closed shed to
avoid effects of seasonal variations. High level of mechanization can always
be introduced in this system where the work can be organized in a factorylike manner with the help of a constant team of workmen.

1.7.1.2 Site prefabrication

Prefabricated components produced at site or near the site of work as

possible.
This system is normally adopted for a specific job order for a limited period.
Under this category there are two types that is semi-mechanized and fullymechanized.

1.7.1.3 Semi-mechanized

The work is normally carried out in open space with locally available labour
force. The equipment machinery used may be minor in nature and moulds
are of mobile or stationary in nature.

1.7.1.4 Fully-mechanized

The work will be carried out under shed with skilled labor. The equipments
used will be similar to one of factory production. This type of precast yards
will be set up for the production of precast components of high quality, high
rate of production. Though there is definite economy with respect to cost of
transportation, this system suffers from basic drawback of its non-suitability
to any high degree of mechanization and no elaborate arrangements for
quality control. Normal benefits of continuity of work are not available in this
system of construction.

1.7.2 Processes involved in the manufacture of precast elements

The various processes involved in the manufacture of precast elements may

be classified as follows:

1.7.2.1 Main process

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 Providing and assembling the moulds, placing reinforcement cage in

position for reinforced concrete work, and stressing the wires in the
case of prestressed elements;
Fixing of inserts and tubes, where necessary (for handling);
Pouring the concrete into the moulds;
Vibrating the concrete and finishing;
Curing (steam curing, if necessary); and
Demoulding the forms and stacking the precast products.

1.7.2.2 Auxiliary process

Process necessary for the successful completion of the processes covered by

the main process:
Mixing and manufacture of fresh concrete (done in a mixing station or
by a batching plant);
Prefabrication of reinforcement cage (done in a steel yard or
workshop);
Manufacture of inserts and other finishing items to be incorporated in
the main precast products;
Finishing the precast products; and
Testing of products.

1.7.2.3 Subsidiary process

All other work involved in keeping the main production work to a cyclic
working:
Storage of materials;
Transport of cement and aggregates;
Transport of green concrete and reinforcement cages;
Transport and stacking the precast elements;
Repairs and maintenance of tools, tackles and machines;
Repairs and maintenance of moulds, and
Generation of steam, etc.
For the manufacture of precast elements all the above processes shall be planned in
a systematic way to achieve the following:
a) A cyclic technological method of working to bring in speed and economy in
manufacture;
b) Mechanization of the process to increase productivity and to improve quality;
c) The optimum production satisfying the quality control requirements and to
keep up the expected speed of construction aimed;
d) Better working conditions for the people on the job; and
e) To minimize the effect of weather on the manufacturing schedule.
The various stages of precasting can be classified as in Table 1.3 on the basis of the
equipments required for the various stages.
This permits mechanization and rationalization of work in the various stages. In the
precasting, stages 6 and 7 given in Table 1.3 form the main process in the
manufacture of precast concrete elements. For these precasting stages there are
many Technological processes to suit the concrete product under consideration
which have been proved rational, economical and time saving.
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The technological line or process is the theoretical solution for the method of
planning the work involved by using machine complexes. Figure 5 illustrates
diagrammatically the various stages involved in a plant process.

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21 | P a g e

Methods of precasting
The various accepted methods of manufacture of precast units can be
broadly classified into two methods:
The Stand Method where the moulds remain stationary at places, when
the various processes involved are carried out in a cyclic order at the same
place, and
The Flow Method where the precast unit under consideration is in
movement according to the various processes involved in the work which are
carried out in an assembly-line method.
The various accepted precasting methods are listed in Table 3 with details regarding
the elements that can be manufactured by these methods.

Preparation and Storage of Materials

Storage of materials is of considerable importance in the precasting industry, as a
mistake in planning in this aspect can greatly influence, the economics of
production.
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From experience in construction, it is clear that there will be very high percentages
of loss of materials as well as poor quality due to improper storage and transport.
So, in a precast factory where everything is produced with special emphasis on
quality, proper storage and preservation of building materials, especially cement,
coarse and fine aggregates, is of prime importance

Moulds

Moulds for the manufacture of precast elements may be of steel, timber, concrete
and plastic or a combination thereof. For the design of moulds for the various
elements, special importance should be given to easy demoulding and assembly of
the various parts. At the same time rigidity, strength and water tightness of the
mould, taking into consideration forces due to pouring of green concrete and
vibrating, are also important.

Tolerances

The moulds have to be designed in such a way to take into consideration the
tolerances given in 5.

Slopes of the Mould Walls

For easy demoulding of the elements from the mould

with fixed sides, the required slopes have to be maintained. Otherwise there is a
possibility of the elements getting stuck up with the mould at the time
of demoulding.
9.4 Accelerated Hardening
In most of the precasting factories, it is economical to use faster curing methods or
artificial curing methods, which in turn will allow the elements to be demoulded
much earlier permitting early re-use of the forms. Any of the following methods may
be adopted:
a) By Heating the Aggregates and Water Before Mixing the Concrete By heating
of the
aggregates as well as water to about 70C to 80C before making the concrete mix
and
placing the same in the moulds, sufficiently high earlier strengths are developed to
allow
the elements to be stripped and transported.
b) Steam Curing Steam curing maybe done under high pressure and high
temperature in
an autoclave. This technique is more suited to smaller elements. Alternatively, this
could
be done using low pressure steam having temperature around 80C. This type of
curing
shall be done as specified in 9.5.2. For light weight concrete products when steam
cured
under high pressure, the drying shrinkage is reduced considerably, Due to this
reason, high
pressure steam curing in autoclave is specified for light weight low densities ranging
from
300 to 1000 kg/m3. For normal heavy concretes as well as light weight concretes of
higher densities, low pressure steam curing may be desirable as it does not involve
using high pressures and temperatures requiring high investment in an autoclave
(see also 9.5.2), Steam Injection During Mixing of Concrete In this method low
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pressure saturated steam is injected into the mixer while the aggregates are being
mixed. This enables the heating up of concrete to approximately 60C. Such a
concrete after being placed in the moulds attains high early strength. Heated Air
Method In this method, the concrete elements are kept in contact with hot air
with a relative humidity not less than 80 percent. Tlis method is specially useful for
light weight concrete products using porous coarse aggregates.
Hot Water Method In this method, the concrete elements are kept in a bath of hot
water around 50C to 80C. The general principles of this type of curing are not
much
different from steam curing.
Electrical Method The passage of current through the concrete panels generates
heat
through its electro-resistivity and accelerates curing. In this method, the concrete is
heated
up by an alternating current ranging from 50 volts for a plastic concrete and
gradually
increasing to 230 V for the set concrete. This method is normally used for massive
concrete
products.
9.4.1 After the accelerated hardening of the above products by any of the above
accepted methods, the elements shall be cured further by normal curing methods to
attain full final strength.
9.4.2 Accelerated hardening may also be achieved by the following techniques:
a) Construction Chemicals Suitable construction chemicals may be used.
b) Consolidation by Spinning Such a method is generally used in the centrifugal
moulding
of pipes and such units. The spinning motion removes excess water, effects
consolidation
and permits earlier demoulding. c)
d)
e)
Pressed Concrete This method is suitable for fabrication of smrdl or large
products at
high speed of production. A 100-200 tomes press compresses the wet concrete in
rigid
moulds and expels water. Early handling and a dense wear resistant concrete is
obtained.
Vacuum Treatment This method removes the surplus air and water from the
newly
placed concrete as in slabs and similar elements. A suction up to about 70 percent
of
an atmosphere is applied for 20 to 30 minutes per centimetre thickness of the units.
Consolidation by Shock Thk method is suitable for small concrete units dropped
repeatedly from a height in strong moulds. The number of shocks required to
remove excess water and air may vary from 6 to 20 and the height of lift maybe up
to as much as half the depth of the mould.
9.4.3 After the accelerated curing of the above products by any of the above
accepted methods, the elements shall be cured further by normal curing methods to
attain full final strength.
9.5 Curing
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9.5.1 The curing of the prefabricated elements can be effected by the normal
methods of curing by sprinkling water and keeping the elements moist. This can
also be done in the case of smaller elements by immersing them in a specially
made water tanks.
9.5.2 Steam Curing
9.5.2.1 The steam curing of concrete products shall take place under tarpaulin in
tents, under hoods, under chambers, in tunnels or in special autoclaves. The steam
shall have a uniform quality throughout the length of the member. The precast
elements shall be so stacked, with sufficient clearance between each other and the
bounding enclosure, so as to allow proper
circulation of steam. Before the concrete products are subjected to any accelerated
method of curing, the cement to be used shall be tested in accordance with
accepted standards
(see Part 5 Building Materials) especially for soundness, setting time and suitability
for steam curing. In the case of elements manufactured by accelerated curing
methods, concrete admixtures to reduce the water content can be allowed to be
used. The normal aeration agents used to increase the workability of concrete
should not be allowed to be used. Use of
calcium chloride should be avoided for reinforced concrete elements.
9.5.2.2 The surrounding walls, the top cover and the floor of steam curing chamber
or tunnel or hood shall be so designed as not to allow more than 1 kcal/m2/h/OC.
9.5.2.3 The inside face of the steam curing chamber, tunnel or hood shall have a
damp-proof layer to maintain the humidity of steam. Moreover, proper slope shall
be given to the floor and the roof to allow the condensed water to be easily drained
away. At first, when steam is let into the curing chambers, the air inside shall be
allowed to go out through openings provided in the hoods or side walls which shall
be closed soon after moist steam is seen jetting out.
9.5.2.4 It is preferable to let in steam at the top of the chamber through perforated
pipelines to allow uniform entry of steam throughout the chamber.
9.5.2.5 The fresh concrete in the moulds should be allowed to get the initial set
before allowing the concrete to come into contact with steam. The regular heating
up of fresh concrete product from about 20C to 35C should start only after a
waiting period ranging
from 2 to 5 h depending on the setting time of cement used. It may be further noted
that steam can be let in earlier than this waiting period provided the temperature of
the concrete product does not rise beyond 35C within this waiting period.
9.5.2.6 The second stage in steam curing process is to heat up the concrete
elements, moulds and the surroundings in the chamber:
a)
b)
9.5.2.7
In the low pressure steam curing the airspace around the member is heated up to a
temperature of 75C to 80C at a gradual rate, usually not faster than 30C per
hour.
This process takes around 1 h to 1Y2h depending upon outside temperature. In the
case of curing under high pressure steam in autoclaves, the temperature and
pressure are gradually built up during a period of about 4 h.

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The third stage of steam curing is to maintain the uniform temperature and
pressure for a duration depending upon thickness of the section, This may vary from
3 h to 5% h in the case of low pressure steam curing and 4 h to 7 h in the case of
high pressure steam
curing.
9.5.2.8 The fourth stage of steam curing is the gradual cooling down of concrete
products and surroundings in the chamber and normalization of the pressure to
bring it at par with outside air. The maximum cooling rate, which is dependent on
the thickness of the member, should normally not exceed 30C per hour.
9.5.3 In all these cases, the difference between the temperature of the concrete
product and the outside temperature should not be more than 60C for concretes up
to M 30 and 75C for concretes greater than M 45. In the case of light weight
concrete, the difference in temperature should not be more than 60C for concretes
less than M 25. For concretes greater than M 50, the temperature differences can go
up to 75C. 9.6 Stacking During Transport and Storage Every precaution shall be
taken against overstress or damage, by the provision of suitable packings at agreed
points of support. Particular attention is directed to the
inherent dangers of breakage and damage caused by supporting other than at two
positions, and also by the careless placing of packings (for example, not vertically
one above the other). Ribs, comers and intricate projections from solid section
should be adequately protected. Packing pieces shall not discolour, disfigure or
otherwise permanently cause mark on units or members. Stacking shall be arranged
or the precast units should be protected, so as to prevent the accumulation of
trapped water or rubbish, and if necessary to reduce the risk of efflorescence.
9.6.1 The following points shall be kept in view during
stacking:
Care should be taken to ensure that the flat elements are stacked with right side up.
For
identification, top surfaces should be clearly marked.
Stacking should be done on a hard and suitable ground to avoid any sinking of
support when elements are stacked.
In case of horizontal stacking, packing materials shall be at specified locations and
shall be exactly one over the other to avoid cantilever stress in panels.
Components should be packed in a uniform way to avoid any und-ue projection of
elements in the stack which normally is a
source of accident.
9.7 Handling Arrangements
9.7.1 Lifting and handliqg positions shall be clearly defined particularly where these
sections are critical. Where necessary special facilities, such as bolt holes or
projecting loops, shall be provided in the units and full instructions supplied for
handling.
9.7.2 For precast prestressed concrete members, the residual prestress at the age
of particular operation of handling and erection shall be considered in conjunction
with any stresses caused by the handling or erection of member. The compressive
stress thus computed shall not exceed 50 percent of the cube strength of the
concrete at the time of handling and
erection. Tensile stresses up to a limit of 50 percent above those specified in Part 6
Structural Design, Section 5 Concrete shall be permissible. 9.8 Identification and
Marking
All precast units shall bear an indelible identification,
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location and orientation marks as and where necessary.

The date of manufacture shall also be marked on the
units.
9.8.1 The identification markings on the drawings
shall be the same as that indicated in the manufacturers
literature and shall be shown in a table on the setting
schedule together with the length, type, size of the unit
and the sizes and arrangement of all reinforcement.
9.9 Transport
Transport of precast elements inside the factory and to
the site of erection is of considerable importance not
only from the point of view of economy but also from
the point of view of design and efficient management.
Transport of precast elements must be carried out with
extreme care to avoid any jerk and distress in elements
and handled as far as possible in the same orientation
as it is to be placed in final position.
9.9.1 Transport Inside the Factory
Transport of precast elements moulded inside the
factory depends on the method of production, selected
for the manufacture as given in Table 3.
9.9.2 Transportfrom Stacking Yard Inside the Factory
to the Site of Erection
Transport of precast concrete elements from the factory
to the site of erection should be planned in such a way
so as to be in conformity with the traffic rules and
regulations as stipulated by the Authorities. The size
of the elements is often restricted by the availability of
suitable transport equipment, such as tractor-cumtrailers,
to suit the load and dimensions of the member
in addition to the opening dimensions under the bridge
and load carrying capacity while transporting the
elements over the bridge.
9.9.2.1 While transporting elements in various
systems, that is, wagons, trucks, bullock carts, care
should be taken to avoid excessive cantilever actions
and desired supports are maintained. Special care
should be taken at location of sharp bends and on
uneven or slushy roads to avoid undesirable stresses
in elements.
9.9.2.2 Before loading the elements in the transporting
media, care should be taken to ensure that the base
packing for supporting the elements are located at
specified positions only. Subsequent packings must be
kept strictly one over the other.
20
9.10 Erection
In the erection of precast elements, all the following
items of work are meant to be included:
Slinging of the precast element;
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Tying up of erection ropes connecting to the

erection hooks;
Cleaning of the elements and the site of
erection;
Cleaning of the steel inserts before
incorporation in the joints, lifting up of the
elements, setting them down into the correct
envisaged position;
Adjustment to get the stipulated level, line and
plumb;
Welding of cleats;
Changing of the erection tackles;
Putting up and removing of the necessary
scaffolding or supports;
Welding of the inserts, laying of reinforcements
in joints and grouting the joints; and
Finishing the joints to bring the whole work
to a workmanlike finished product.
9.10.1 In view of the fact that the erection work in
various construction jobs using prefabricated concrete
elements differs from place to place depending on the
site conditions, safety precautions in the work are of
utmost importance. Hence only those skilled foremen,
trained workers and fitters who have been properly
instructed about the safety precautions to be taken should
be employed on the job. For additional information, see
Part 7 Constructional Practices and Safety.
9.10.2 Transport of people, workers or visitors, by
using cranes and hoists should be strictly prohibited
on an erection site.
9.10.3 In the case of tower rail mounted cranes running
on rails, the track shall not have a slope more than
0.2 percent in the longitudinal direction. In the transverse
direction the rails shall lie in a horizontal plane.
9.10.4 The track of the crane should be daily checked
to see that all fish plates and bolts connecting them to
the sleepers are in place and in good condition.
9.10.5 The operation of all equipment used for
handling and erection shall follow the operations
manual provided by the manufacturer. All safety
precautions shall be taken in the operations of handling
and erection.
10 EQUIPMENT
10.1 General
The equipment used in the precast concrete industry/
NATIONAL BUILDING CODE OF INDIA
construction may be classified into the following
categories:
a)
b)
28 | P a g e

c)
d)
e)
f)
@
h)
j)
k)
Machinery required for quarrying of coarse
and fine aggregates;
Conveying equipment, such as, belt conveyors,
chain conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket
elevators, hoists, etc;
Concrete mixing machines;
Concrete vibrating machines;
Erection equipment, such as, cranes, derricks,
hoists, chain pulley blocks, etc;
Transport machinery, such as, tractor-cumtrailers,
dumpers, lorries, locomotives, motor
boats and rarely even helicopters;
Workshop machinery for making and repairing
steel and timber moulds;
Bar straightening, bending and welding
machines to make reinforcement cages;
Minor tools and tackles, such as, wheel
barrows, concrete buckets, etc; and
Steam generation plant for accelerated curing.
In addition to the above, pumps and soil compacting
machinery are required at the building site for the
execution of civil engineering projects involving
prefabricated components.
Each of the above groups may further be classified
into various categories of machines and further to
various other types depending on the source of power
and capacity.
10.2 Mechanization of the Construction and
Erection Processes
The various processes can be mechanized as in any
other industry for attaining the advantages of mass
production of identical elements which in turn will
increase productivity and reduce the cost of production
in the long run, at the same time guaranteeing quality
for the end-product. On the basis of the degree of
mechanization used, the various precasting factories
can be divided into three categories:
a) With simple mechanization,
b) With partial mechanization, and
c) With complex mechanization leading to
automation.
10.2.1 In simple mechanization, simple mechanically
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operated implements are used to reduce the manual

labour and increase the speed.
10.2.2 In partird mechanization, the manual work is
more or less eliminated in the part of a process. For
example, the batching plant for mixing concrete, hoists
to lift materials to a great height and bagger and
bulldozer to do earthwork come under this category.
10.2.3 In the case of complex mechanization leading
to automation, a number of processes leading to the
end-product are all mechanized to a large extent
(without or with a little manual or human element
involved). This type of mechanization reduces manual
work to the absolute minimum and guarantee the mass
production at a very fast rate and minimum cost.
10.2.4 The equipment shall conform to accepted
standards as listed in Part 7 Constructional Practices
and Safety.

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