Spencer Leonardis

1-14-2015
Discussion ?
Math 111A

1.1. Let S and T be sets and let f : S T be a function. Prove the following:
(a) If U is a set and g : T U is a function such that g f is injective then also f is injective.
Proof. Let s 1 , s 2 S and assume that s 1 6= s 2 . Since g f is injective we have g( f (s 1 )) 6= g( f (s 2 ))
so we must have f (s 1 ) 6= f (s 2 ). Thus f is injective.
(b) If R is a set and h : R S is a function such that f h is surjective then also f is surjective.
Proof. Assume that f h is surjective. Then for every t T there exists an r R, for which
f (h(r)) = t. Let s S. Then for each r R we have h(r) = s. This shows there is ans S such that
f (h(r)) = f (s) = t. Thus f is surjective. 
(c) Show that if g, h : T S are functions satisfying g f = id s and f h = id t then f is bijective
and g = h = f 1 .
(d) Show that for subsets V1 and V2 one has (i) f 1 (V1 V2 ) = f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ) and
(ii) f 1 (V1 V2 ) = f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ).
Proof (i). First we show that f 1 (V1 V2 ) f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ). Assume that a f 1 (V1 V2 ). Then
f (a) V1 V2 implying that f (a) V1 or f (a) V2 . If f (a) V1 , then a f 1 (V1 ) and if f (a) V2 ,
then a f 1 (V2 ). Thus a f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ). Now let a f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ). This means that
a f 1 (V1 ) or a f 1 (V2 ). If a f 1 (V1 ), then f (a) V1 and if a f 1 (V2 ), then f (a) V2 . This
means that f (a) V1 V2 , so a f 1 (V1 V2 ). We have shown that f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ) f 1 (V1 V2 )
and since it was previously demonstrated that f 1 (V1 V2 ) f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ), we may conclude
that f 1 (V1 V2 ) = f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ). 
Proof (ii). First we show f 1 (V1 V2 ) f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ). Let a f 1 (V1 V2 ). Then f (a) V1 V2
implying that f (a) V1 and f (a) V2 . This means that a f 1 (V1 ) and a f 1 (V2 ). Thus
a f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ). Now suppose that a f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ). Then a f 1 (V1 ) and a f 1 (V2 ).
This means that f (a) V1 and f (a) V2 , implying that f (a) V1 V2 . Thus a f 1 (V1 V2 ). We
have shown that f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ) f 1 (V1 V2 ) and since it was previously demonstrated that
f 1 (V1 V2 ) f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ), it follows that f 1 (V1 V2 ) = f 1 (V1 ) f 1 (V2 ). 

(e) Show that for subsets U1 and U2 one has (i) f (U1 U2 ) = f (U1 ) f (U2 ) and
(ii) f (U1 U2 ) f (U1 ) f (U2 ). Give an example where the last inclusion is not an equality.
Proof (i). Suppose that t f (U1 U2 ) = { f (a) : a U1 U2 }. Then t = f (s) for some s U1 U2 .
Thus s U1 or s U2 . If s U1 , then t = f (s) { f (a) : a U1 } = f (U1 ). If s U2 , then
t = f (s) { f (a) : a U2 } = f (U2 ). Thus f (s) = t f (U1 ) f (U2 ). This shows that f (U1 U2 )
f (U1 ) f (U2 ). Now assume that t f (U1 ) f (U2 ). This means that t f (U1 ) or t f (U2 ). If
t f (U1 ), then t = f (s) for some s U1 . If t f (U2 ), then t = f (s) for some s U2 . Thus t = f (s)
for some s U1 U2 and t = f (s) { f (a) : a U1 U2 } = f (U1 U2 ). This shows that
f (U1 ) f (U2 ) f (U1 U2 ) and since f (U1 U2 ) f (U1 ) f (U2 ), it follows that
f (U1 U2 ) = f (U1 ) f (U2 ). 
Proof (ii). Let t f (U1 U2 ) = { f (a) : a U1 U2 }. This means t = f (s) for some s U1 U2 .
Since s U1 , we have t = f (s) { f (a) : a U1 } = f (U1 ). Since s U2 , we have
t = f (s) { f (a) : a U2 } = f (U2 ). This demonstrates that t f (U1 ) f (U2 ). Therefore
f (U1 U2 ) f (U1 ) f (U2 ). 
1.2. Assume that n N. Let d 0 , d 1 , . . . , d r {0, . . . , 9} be its decimals read from left to right; that is,
n = d 0 + d 1 10 + 32 102 + + d r 10r .
(a) Show that n d 0 + + d r mod 9.
Proof. If n d 0 + + d r mod 9, then we have
n (d 0 + + d r ) = d 0 + 10d 1 + 102 d 2 + + 10r d r (d 0 + + d r ) = 9d for some d Z. we may
rearrange the preceding equality as (d 0 d 0 ) + (10d 1 d 1 ) + (102 d 2 d 2 ) + + (10r d r d r )
= (?) 0 + 9d 1 + 99d 2 + + (10r 1)d r = 9d. Since the coefficients of d 0 , . . . , d r on the right hand

side of (?) are all equal to 10r 1 for some r N0 , we must show that 9 | (10r 1).
We will use induction on r N0 . Setting r = 0, we obtain 9 | 0 which is true since 0 = 9d for d = 0.
Assume 9 | 10r 1. Then there exists d Z for which 10r 1 = 9d. Notice that 10r+1 1
= 10r 10 1 = 10(9d + 1) 1 = 10 9d + 9 = 9(10d + 1). This demonstrates that 10r+1 1 = 9(10d + 1)
= 9c for some c Z. We have shown that if 9 | 10r 1 then 9 | 10r+1 1, completing the induction.

Since 9 | 10r 1, the coefficients of d 0 , . . . , d r in (?) are all divisible by 9.

Thus 9 | 0d 0 + 9d 1 + 99d 2 + + (10r 1)d r = n (d 0 + + d r ). Since 9 | n (d 0 + + d r ), it follows
that n (d 0 + + d r ) mod 9. 

(b) Show that n is divisible by 9 if and only if d 0 + + d r is divisible by 9.

Proof. Suppose 9 | d 0 + d 1 10 + 32 102 + + d r 10r . Then there exists d Z such that
() d 0 + 10d 1 + 102 d 2 + + 10r d r = 9d. Since 9 | (10r 1) by part (a), we may rearrange () as
d 0 + (10d 1 9d 1 ) + (102 d 2 99d 2 ) + + 10r d r (10r 1)d r = d 0 + + d r

10r 1
dr
= 9 d d 1 11d 2
9
= 9a
This demonstrates that d 0 + + d r = 9a for some a Z, so 9 | d 0 + + d r .
Now assume that 9 | d 0 + + d r . Then there exists d Z such that (?) d 0 + + d r = 9d. We may
manipulate (?) to obtain
d 0 + (9d 1 + d 1 ) + (99d 2 + d 2 ) + + (10r 1)dr + dr = d 0 + 10d 1 + 102 d 2 + + 10r d r
= n = 9d + 9d 1 + 99d 2 + + (10r 1)d r

10r 1
= 9 d + d 1 + 11d 2 + +
dr = 9a.
9

This shows that n = 9a for some a Z, so 9 | n. 

(c) Show that n is divisible by 3 if and only if d 0 + + d r is divisible by 3.
Proof. Suppose that 3 | n. Then there exists d Z such that () d 0 + 10d 1 + 102 d 2 + + 10r d r = 3d.
We may rearrange () as d 0 + + d r = 3d 9d 1 99d 2 (10r 1)d r . Since the coefficients of
d 0 , . . . , d r are divisible by 9 by part (a), each coefficient is also divisible by 3.

10r 1
d r = 3a. This shows d 0 + + d r = 3a
Thus we have d 0 + + d r = 3 d 3d 1 33d 2
3
for some a Z, so 3 | d 0 + + d r . Now assume that 3 | d 0 + + d r . Then there exists d Z such
that (?) d 0 + + d r = 3d. We may express (?) as

10r 1
r
d r = 3a. Thus n = 3a for
n = 3d + 9d 1 + 99d 2 + + (10 1)d r = 3 d + 3d 1 + 33d 2 + +
3
some a Z, so 3 | n. 
(d) Show that n d 0 d 1 + d 2 + mod 11.
Proof. If i N0 , then the coefficient of each d 2 i { d 0 , . . . , d r } is divisible by v 102 i 1.
(e)
(f )
2.1.
(a) Is commutative?
No, is not commutative since there exists b, e S such that b e = c 6= b = e b.
(b) Is associative?
Observe from the table that b d = d b = e. Since b e 6= e b, it follows that
b (d b) 6= (b d) b. Thus is not associative.
3

2.2. Suppose that is an associative and commutative binary operation on a set S. Show that
the subset T := {a S : a a = a} of S is closed under .
Proof. Suppose that a, b S. Since is a binary operation in S we have a b S. Now let a, b T.
Then (a b) (a b) = (a b) (b a) = a ((b b) a) = a (b a) = a (a b) = (a a) b = a b.
We have shown that for a, b T one has (a b) (a b) = a b. Thus a b T. 
2.3 : Let f : Q Q be defined by f (x) = 3x 1.
(a) Show that f is bijective and compute f 1 .
Suppose that x1 , x2 Q and 3x1 1 = 3x2 1. Then 3x1 = 3x2 which reduces to x1 = x2 . This shows
b+1
c
. Then
f is injective. Let b Q. Then b = for some c Z and d N. Set a :=
d
3

b+1
b+1
=3
1 = b + 1 1 = b, showing that f is surjective. Since f is both injective
f (a) = f
3
3
and surjective, it is also bijective. To find the inverse of f we interchange variables to obtain
1
1
x = 3y 1. Solving for y yields y = f 1 (x) = x + .
3
3
(b) Find a binary operation on Q such that f : (Q, +) (Q, ) is an isomorphism.
Since by part (a) f is bijective, we must define a binary operation on Q such that
f : (Q, +) (Q, ) satisfies f (a + b) = f (a) f (b).
Define : Q Q Q by (a, b) 7 a + b c. The identity element of is c = f (0) = 1. This means
that a b = a + b + 1 and f (a + b) = 3(a + b) 1
= 3a + 3b 2 + 1
= (3a 1) + (3b 1) + 1
= (3a 1) (3b 1) = f (a) f (b).

Thus there exists an isomorphism f : Q Q and : (a, b) 7 a + b + 1 is the binary operation on Q

such that (Q, +)
= (Q, ).
(c) Find a binary operation on Q such that f : (Q, ) (Q, +) is an isomorphism.
Since by part (a) f is bijective, we must define a binary operation on Q such that
f : (Q, ) (Q, +) satisfies f (a b) = f (a) + f (b).
1
Define : Q Q Q by (a, b) 7 a + b c. The identity element of is c = f 1 (0) = . This means
3

1
1
that a b = a + b and f (a b) = 3 a + b 1 = 3a + 3b 2
3
3
= (3a 1) + (3b 1) = f (a) + f (b).
1
Thus there exists an isomorphism f : Q Q and : (a, b) 7 a + b is the binary operation on Q
3
such that (Q, )
= (Q, +).
4. Assume that (S, ) and (T, ) are isomorphic binary structures.
(a) Show that (S, ) is commutative if and only if (T, ) is commutative.
Proof.
(b) Show that (S, ) is associative if and only if (T, ) is associative.