Q&A/Fact Sheet

May 2010

Land Application and

Composting of Biosolids
What are biosolids?

What are some of the benefits of

biosolids land application?

Every day, wastewater treatment facilities across the country

treat billions of gallons of wastewater generated by homes and
businesses. The treatment process produces liquid effluent that
is discharged to water bodies or reused as well as a byproduct
of solid residues (sewage sludge) that must be managed in an
environmentally responsible manner. Although the terms biosolids and sewage sludge are often used interchangeably,
they are not the same. With further treatment, sewage sludge
can yield biosolids, which is defined by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as nutrient-rich organic materials
resulting from the treatment of domestic sewage in a treatment
facility... that can be recycled and applied as fertilizer to improve
and maintain productive soils and stimulate plant growth.1

The benefits of biosolids for both soil and vegetation are numerous and well recognized.6 Biosolids provide primary nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorous) and secondary nutrients such as
calcium, iron, magnesium and zinc. Also, the use of biosolids
increases crop yields and maintains nutrients in the root zone
and unlike chemical fertilizers, biosolids provide nitrogen that
is released slowly over the growing season as the nutrient is
mineralized and made available for plant uptake.7 Land application of biosolids can also offer net greenhouse gas benefits by
recycling carbon to the soil and fertilizing vegetation for further
carbon dioxide capture.8

What are the various options to

manage solidresiduals?

What is the federal regulation that

governs the management of biosolids
and how was it developed?

Approximately 7,100,000 dry tons of solid residuals are generated each year from the treatment process at the more than
16,000 municipal wastewater treatment facilities in the U.S.2
Since most U.S. wastewater treatment facilities are publicly
owned and operated, management options are decided by local
professionals. Behind the scenes, they must balance the needs
of their communities for sanitation and public health protection with environmentally sound and sustainable methods of
residuals management. Approximately 55% of the total residuals generated each year are further treated and land applied as
biosolids. Other management options include incineration/processing for energy recovery or landfill disposal. 3

The federal regulation governing the management of biosolids

is 40 CFR Part 503 and is based on the 1987 Clean Water Act
amendments that directed EPA to research and promulgate
regulations for use and disposal of sewage sludge.9 EPA undertook a comprehensive process to study land application and
other biosolids management practices. Based on the results
of its risk assessment, EPA identified and set numeric limits for
the nine trace elements (heavy metals), which have high enough
potential risk to require monitoring. EPA also mandated that
treatment facilities use at least one of several alternative technologies to significantly decrease or eliminate levels of pathogens in biosolids.10

Are biosolids treated before they are land applied?

Do states implement their own

land application programs?

Biosolids that are land applied have been treated to minimize

odors and to reduce or eliminate pathogens. There are two
classes of biosolids that are land applied, referred to as Class B
and Class A. Class B biosolids are treated to achieve significant
(i.e., 99%) pathogen reduction and subject to site use and access restrictions, and Class A biosolids are disinfected to a level
that inactivates pathogens and are subject to fewer site-specific
controls. If, in addition, heavy metal concentrations are sufficiently low, Class A biosolids can be bagged and distributed
for home garden use without further regulationreferred to as
Class A, EQ (exceptional quality) biosolids.4 Composted biosolids generally achieve Class A, EQ status.

Land application is widely practiced in the U.S. In fact after EPA

issued the Part 503 rule in 1993, most states implemented complementary land application programs to strengthen oversight
and safety of the practice. Only nine states have no biosolids
specific regulations and rely exclusively on Part 503.

Land Application and Composting of Biosolids

What is the scientific basis for

biosolids land application?

Did EPA assess trace metals and

chemicals in biosolids?

The broad weight of scientific evidence and opinion supports

recycling biosolids to land as an environmentally responsible
method of reuse when managed utilizing best practices and in
compliance with the Part 503 rule. Federal policies supporting
and promoting the beneficial recycling of biosolids are based
upon science demonstrating the safety and benefits of such
recycling. These policies are not driven by economics, and the
choice to recycle biosolids remains a state or local decision.

After reviewing over 200 specific compounds and elements from

an initial candidate list of thousands, EPA targeted at least 22
constituents for a formal risk assessment to examine the quantities of the metals and chemicals in biosolids, their toxicity, routes
of potential exposure to humans and the environment, and many
other factors. The risk assessment ultimately determined that
limits were advisable for nine trace elements (arsenic, cadmium,
copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, and zinc),
primarily to protect against toxic effects to plants and entry into
the food chain.13 A four-year study by the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) of Denver Metro Wastewater Reclamation District land
application sites measured the effects of the application of Class
B biosolids on the nutrient and metal content of soils, groundwater, and surface waters and found that soil data indicated that
biosolids have no measurable effect on the concentrations of
constituents monitored. Further, the study did not establish any
adverse biosolids-related effects on soils, crops, or groundwater
on or near the biosolids application site.14

Has EPA requested any independent

studies to determine if the science
supports biosolids land application?
Since the implementation of Part 503 rule, two reports of the
National Research Council (NRC) of the National Academy of
Sciences have considered whether land application of biosolids is safe and beneficial. In 1996, the NRC published Use of
Reclaimed Water and Sewage Sludge in Food Crop Production,
which concluded that the application of biosolids to farmland
when practiced in accordance with existing federal guidelines
and regulationspresents negligible risk to the consumer, to
crop production, and to the environment. The report concluded
that current technology to remove pollutants from wastewater,
coupled with existing regulations and guidelines governing the
use of reclaimed wastewater and sludge in crop production,
are adequate to protect human health and the environment.11
In 2000, EPA asked the NRC to review the science and methods supporting Part 503 to address concerns regarding human
health impacts of land application of biosolids. As a result of its
search for evidence on human health effects related to biosolids, the NRCs 2002 report concluded that there is no documented scientific evidence that the Part 503 rule has failed to
protect public health; [a] causal association between biosolids
exposures and adverse health outcomes has not been documented; and there are no scientifically documented outbreaks
or excess illnesses that have occurred from microorganisms in
treated biosolids.12 The NRC also observed that persistent
uncertainties regarding the safety of land application necessitate more scientific research, but it did not call for any specific
changes to Part 503. EPA continues to reevaluate the adequacy
of the Part 503 regulations and has not found a need to establish
more stringent requirements or regulate additional pollutants.

How do biosolids programs and

regulations reduce or mitigate the risk of
these trace metals and chemicals?
Current biosolids programs mitigate the risk of chemicals
and trace metals in several ways. Federal guidelines limit the
amount of biosolids that may be applied to the land, which ensures that metal concentrations on biosolids-amended soils do
not exceed safe levels. Trace chemicals that on occasion have
been identified in biosolids have not been found in environmentally or toxicologically significant amounts; and, the trace
amounts of these substances that may be present typically
bind to soil constituents, limiting human exposure. 15 Industrial
pretreatment programs required under the Clean Water Act also
reduce or eliminate many hazardous chemicals entering the
treatment facility.16

What does the scientific literature state about

the potential risk of these contaminants?
A 2005 literature review on the issue of trace contaminants concluded that, because of the capacity of land-based systems
to buffer the potential toxic effects of waste-associated organic
contaminants and to contribute to their assimilation into the soil,
the majority of studies conclude that they pose little or no risk to
the environment when applied appropriately.17

Land Application and Composting of Biosolids

How are pathogens in biosolids regulated?

from waterbodies; state regulations typically require site specific

data on proposed land application sites so that sites with shallow water tables or inappropriate soils will be precluded 22; and
additional state requirements include limits on maximum slopes,
prohibition on application during significant precipitation, and
bans on biosolids application on standing water or wetlands.

As established by the Part 503 rule, treatment of biosolids to

Class B or Class A standards eliminates 99% or more of the
pathogens that may exist in sewage sludge. Ongoing research
has continued to validate a technology-driven approach to reducing or eliminating pathogens in biosolids and shows low risk
for the transmission of pathogens from land application sites to
surrounding residents. No scientific studies have demonstrated
any link between the existence of human pathogens in biosolids
and illnesses in nearby residents. The conclusion that application of biosolids utilizing best management practices poses
negligible health risks from pathogens is based on scientific
understanding about pathogen survivability in the environment.
Many pathogens do not survive passage through the collection and treatment system and through the additional treatment
processes that further disinfect solids and effluent.18 Further,
pathogens are enteric organisms that prefer and need the conditions inside the human body to thrive.

Have there been long-term studies on

ground water safety where biosolids
have been land-applied?
Studies have concluded that there are no impacts on groundwater quality at properly managed biosolids application sites.
For example, a 1999 study reported that after 20 years of land
application, tests of deep wells at an agricultural research site
demonstrated no evidence of nitrate leaching and negligible
fecal coliform concentrations.23 Also, a 2008 literature survey
concluded that groundwater contamination from land application of biosolids does not appear to be likely.24

What does the scientific literature conclude

about pathogens in biosolids?

Can odors from biosolids land-applied

sites cause health problems?

A recent review of biosolids pathogen research literature stated

that the overall conclusion we have reached based on all of
our land-application studies over the past two decades and an
in depth review of other relevant land application studies is that
land application of Class B biosolids is sustainable. Specifically,
the risks to human health posed by many microbiological entities within biosolids have been shown to be low if current EPA
regulatory guidelines are followed. In addition, risks from indirect exposures such as aerosolized pathogens or contaminated
groundwaters appear to be particularly low.19 This conclusion
is consistent with the practical experience in the wastewater
treatment sector where exposure to biosolids has not been
associated with illness.20 Microbial risk assessment and control
remains a priority for the scientific community, however, and
pathogen-related issues continue to be closely monitored.21

No data has shown that odors from biosolids cause toxicological effects on individuals.25 Most odors in biosolids are caused
by sulfur compounds that only cause toxic effects in concentrations vastly greater than that which triggers a smell. Further,
gases with a possible toxic effect are not present in biosolids in
concentrations that would endanger nearby residents. Although
there has not been any observed health risks, site and processspecific stabilization or vector attraction reduction criteria are
essential. Accordingly, local agencies invest significant resources for odor control.

What is being done to address complaints

of alleged health impacts from individuals
living near land-application sites?
The Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF) has
produced a draft investigative protocol entitled, Epidemiologic
Surveillance and Investigation of Illness Reported by Neighbors
of Biosolids Land Application.26 The protocol was developed for
medical providers and public health officials to use when citizens
report health symptoms that they attribute to the application of
soil amendments such as fertilizer, biosolids, animal manures,
and food residuals. The goal is to provide a practical, objective,
and reliable protocol that will be broadly implemented.

What is the potential for contamination of water

resources from biosolids land application?
Like any nutrient-rich fertilizer, biosolids should be applied in
ways that minimize risk of leaching of nutrients or other constituents to groundwater or runoff to nearby surface waters.
Current land application programs have been successful in
minimizing these risks through regulation and best management practices. For example, the amount of biosolids applied
to a field is limited to the amount needed to meet the nitrogen
requirement of the crop grown (referred to as the agronomic
rate); biosolids may not be applied within a 10 meter setback

Land Application and Composting of Biosolids

How do biosolids differ from other fertilizers?

Are pathogens present in biosolids compost?

Biosolids offer a sound alternative to chemical and manurebased fertilizers, which are often untreated or minimally treated
before field application. Pathogen concentrations are magnitudes higher in untreated manures than in biosolids and, unlike
biosolids, pathogen concentrations in manures are not strictly
regulated.27 Since they are unregulated, manure-based fertilizers may pose a greater risk of transmitting pathogens or trace
organic constituents such as antibiotics to soil or humans.
Many chemical fertilizers are petroleum-based products, which
increases the costs to farmers and contributes to the release of
greenhouse gas emissions in the production cycle.

Composting is not a sterilization process and a properly composted product maintains an active population of beneficial
microorganisms that compete against the pathogenic members.
Composting biosolids reduces bacterial and viral pathogens to
non-detectable levels if the temperature of the compost is maintained at greater than 55 C for three days or more.

Do odors from biosolids compost

pose a health risk?
Odors from a composting operation can be a nuisance and
a potential irritant but there is no documented link to health
risks. In fact, offensive odors from composting sites are the
primary source of public opposition to the practice. Although
research shows that biosolids odors do not pose a health
threat, many experts in the field of biosolids recycling believe that biosolids generating and processing facilities have
an ethical responsibility to control odors and protect nearby
residents from exposure to such nuisances. Recently, a better
understanding of the generation of compost odors has allowed
engineers to develop means of capturing and treating these
odors so that emissions from composting facilities do not create offsite odor nuisance conditions.

Are there federal and state regulations

for other fertilizers?
Federal and state requirements for biosolids are significantly
more stringent than the controls over the use of chemical
fertilizers and manures. In many cases, untreated manure and
chemical fertilizers may legally be applied in the setback areas
where biosolids land application is prohibited.

Why compost biosolids?

According to the EPA28, composting is a viable, beneficial option
in biosolids management. It is a proven method for pathogen
reduction and results in a product that is easy to handle, store,
and use. The end product is usually a Class A, humus-like
material without detectable levels of pathogens that can be
applied as a soil conditioner and fertilizer to gardens, food
and feed crops, and rangelands. This compost provides large
quantities of organic matter and nutrients (such as nitrogen and
phosphorus) to the soil, improves soil texture, and elevates soil
exchange capacity, all characteristics of a good organic fertilizer. Biosolids compost is safe to use29 and generally has a high
degree of acceptability by the public, making it a good alternative to other bulk and bagged products available to homeowners, landscapers, farmers, and ranchers.

Are there any initiatives to develop

and implement best management
practices for biosolids recycling?
Wastewater treatment professionals are committed to promoting environmental stewardship and best management
practices by utilities for their biosolids management programs.
The Water Environment Federation (WEF) publishes technical
books, peer reviewed journal articles and technical practice
bulletins on issues relating to biosolids. WEF also sponsors
annual conferences on biosolids management practices.
Wastewater professionals also strongly support research to
further understanding of sound biosolids management practices to ensure that these remain protective of public health and
the environment. The Water Environment Research Foundation
conducts on-going scientific research on biosolids management questions. In addition to these efforts, WEF, the National
Association of Clean Water Agencies and the EPA founded the
National Biosolids Partnership (NBP) to promote biosolids best
management practices. The Partnership has created a certified
environmental management system (EMS) for biosolids programs that exemplifies the steps being taken at the local level
to ensure biosolids quality and public participation in biosolids
management decisions. Congress has provided support for
this effort since 1999.

How is biosolids compost regulated and is it safe?

Composting of biosolids is an approved Process to Further
Reduce Pathogens (PRFP) under EPAs Part 503 biosolids
regulations. Applying compost in accordance with Part 503
poses little risk to the environment or public health.30 In fact the
use of biosolids compost can have a positive impact on the environment. In addition to soil improving characteristics, reduced
dependence on inorganic fertilizers can significantly decrease
nitrate contamination of ground and surface waters often associated with use of inorganic fertilizers.

Land Application and Composting of Biosolids

About WEF
Formed in 1928, the Water Environment Federation (WEF) is a not-for-profit
technical and educational organization with 36,000 individual members and
75 affiliated Member Associations representing water quality professionals
around the world. WEF and its Member Associations proudly work to achieve
our mission of preserving and enhancing the global water environment.

Water Environment Federation

601 Wythe Street
Alexandria, VA 22314
1-703-684-2400
www.wef.org

References
1

2004 U.S. EPA data

North East Biosolids and Residuals Association (NEBRA), A

National Biosolids Regulation, Quality, End Use & Disposal
Survey (2007); www.nebiosolids.org.

40 C.F.R. 503.10(g) (2008).

Ibid. NEBRA.

Eliot Epstein, Land Application of Sewage Sludge and

Biosolids 143-158 (2003).

See generally Gary Pierzynski, Soils and Environmental

Quality 174-80 (3d ed. 2005); Gary Pierzynski, Plant
Nutrient Aspects of Sewage Sludge, in Sewage Sludge:
Land Utilization and the Environment 21 (C.E. Clapp et al.,
eds. 1994).

Sally Brown & Peggy Leonard, Biosolids and Global

Warming: Evaluating the Management Impacts, BioCycle,
Aug. 2004, at 54, 58 (conducting a carbon accounting of
the King County, WA, biosolids program and finding that
using biosolids as a substitute for commercial fertilizers
results in a net savings in CO2 for both agricultural and forest
application sites, even without including the potential for
biosolids to increase carbon reserves in soil).

12 NRC, National Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing

Standards and Practices (2002).

EPA, Biosolids: Frequently Asked Questions,

http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/biosolids/genqa.htm (last
visited May 30, 2008), see also, EPA, Biosolids Recycling:
Beneficial Technology for a Better Environment (1994).

13 EPA, A Guide to the Biosolids Risk Assessments for the Part

503 Rule (1995).
14 Tracy J.B. Yager, et.al., U.S. Geological Survey Scientific
Investigations Report, Effects of Surface Applications of
Biosolids on Soil, Crops, Groundwater, and Streambed
Sediment Near Deer Trail, Colorado, 1999-2003, 5289 (2004).
15 Ian Pepper et al, Environmental and Pollution Science 459
(2nd. ed. 2006) See also R.Y. Surampalli et al., Long-term
Land Application of BiosolidsA Case Study, 57 Water
Sci. & Tech 345, 349 (2008) (finding the cumulative
metal loading rates after 10 years of biosolids application
were far less than USEPA limits) Gregory Evanylo et al.,
Bioavailability of Heavy Metals in Biosolids Amended
Soil, 37 Commn in Soil Sci. & Plant Analysis 2157, 2163
(2006) (finding that crops grown in biosolid-amended soils
had higher metal concentrations than a control, but that
metal concentrations in all plants were within the values
observed for uncontaminated soils); Rufus Chaney, Trace
Metal Movement: Soil-Plant Systems and Bioavailability of
Biosolids-Applied Metals in Sewage Sludge: Land Utilization
and the Environment (1994).
16 Clean Water Act 301(b)(2), 304(g) (33 U.S.C. 1311(b)
(2), 1314(g)); and, National Assn of Clean Water Agencies
(NACWA), Biosolids Management: Options, Opportunities
and Challenges 10-13 (2006) (case studies of reduction of
metals in influent and biosolids in Los Angeles and greater
Cleveland).

Water Quality Act of 1987, Pub. L. No. 100-4, 405, 101

Stat. 7, 72 (1987) (codified at 33 U.S.C. 1345).

17 Michael Overcash et al., Beneficial Reuse and Sustainability:

The Fate of Organic Compounds in Land-Applied Waste, 34
J. Envtl. Quality 29, 30 (2005).

10 EPA, Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge,

58 Fed. Reg. 9,248 (Feb. 19, 1993)
11 National Research Council (NRC), Use of Reclaimed Water
and Sewage Sludge in Food Crop Production (1996).

18 Raina M. Maier et al., Environmental Microbiology 512-13

(2000).
5

Land Application and Composting of Biosolids

19 Ian Pepper, Huruy Zerzghi, John P. Brooks, and Charles

P. Gerba, Sustainability of Land Application of Class B
Biosolids, J. Envtl. Quality 37, 58-67 (2008).

25 See Paul Chrostowki & Sarah Foster, Odor Perception and

Health Effects, 76th Annual Water Environment Federation
Technical Exhibition and Conference Workshop (2003). A
2004 literature review of the health effects of odors from
municipal wastewater operations presented five reasons
to conclude that odors do not cause illness: (1) odors do
not cause signs of illness in healthy individuals; (2) odor
acceptability varies with circumstances of exposure and
the meaning people associate with the exposure; (3) below
toxic levels of exposure, symptoms associated with odors
involve no pathology; (4) symptoms are reduced almost
immediately when the source of an odor is removed; and
(5) nonphysical variables, such as anxiety and stress, seem
to mediate symptoms from odors. William S. Cain and
J. Enrique Cometto-Muiz, Water Envt Research Found.,
Identifying and Controlling Odor in the Municipal Wastewater
Environment 6-1 (2004).

20 Studies demonstrate that workers at wastewater treatment

facilities, highly exposed to untreated sewage and
biosolids, do not have significantly higher rates of illness
than similar unexposed workers. California State Water
Resources Control Board, Statewide Program Environmental
Impact Review (EIR) covering General Waste Discharge
Requirements for Biosolids Land Application (2004),
(Studies of the incidence of disease among wastewater
personnel have indicated that they have no greater
incidence of disease than the population in general.).
Similarly, no differences have been found in the health of
farm families from farms using biosolids compared to the
health of families on farms not using biosolids. Id.
21 For example, Water Environment Research Foundation is
studying pathogen reactivation and regrowth.

26 http://www.werf.org/AM/CustomSource/Downloads/
uGetExecutiveSummary.cfm?FILE=06HHE5PP.
pdf&ContentFileID=4741

22 The extent to which biosolids affect groundwater or surface

water quality depends upon a wide range of factors,
including climate, topography, land use, soil characteristics,
and the chemical composition and application rate of the
biosolids and therefore requires case-by-case analysis.
Kathryn J. Draeger et al., Water Envt Research Found.,
Watershed Effects of Biosolids Land Application: Literature
Review 2-8 (1999). This is true of any fertilizer. Id.

27 Lynne H. Moss et al., Comparing the Characteristics, Risks

and Benefits of Soil Amendments and Fertilizers Used in
Agriculture, 16th Annual Water Environment Federation
Residuals and Biosolids Management Conference 14 (2002).
28 U.S. EPA Biosolids Technology Fact Sheet: Use of
Composting for Biosolids Management

23 See, e.g. Draeger et al., supra, at 3-13 (1999).

29 Ibid U.S. EPA Biosolids Technology Fact Sheet: Use of

Composting for Biosolids Management

24 Ibid. Sustainability in Land Application of Biosolids (2008)

30 Hay, J.C., 1996. Pathogen Destruction and Biosolids

Composting. BioCycle, Journal of Waste Recycling,
37(6):67-72.