Displacement Measurement

Translational displacement transducers are instruments that measure the

motion of a body in a straight line between two points. Apart from their use
as a primary transducer measuring the motion of a body, translational
displacement transducers are also widely used as a secondary component in
measurement systems, where some other physical quantity such as pressure,
force, acceleration or temperature is translated into a translational motion by
the primary measurement transducer.
Our main interest is motion; many of the sensors mentioned are used
for dimensional gauging or find their use in Mechatronics or CAM
applications.
We will look at certain electromechanical transducers which convert
motion quantities into electrical quantities.

Types of Displacement Transducers

Resistance Potentiometer
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Capacitive Transducer
Variable Inductance Transducer
Displacement Measurement using Strain Gauges.
Piezo-electric Transducers
Nozzle Flapper Transducers
Optical Encoders

Factors which are taken into consideration, while considering the

selection of motion transducers for a given application
a) Magnitude of motion whether the transducer is meant for measuring
small, medium or large motions
b) Type of input-output relation. i.e. whether the output is proportional to
displacement motion, its rate of change with time (velocity) or rate of
change of velocity (acceleration)
c) Static and dynamic characteristics Whether the transducer can measure
static or dynamic or both types of displacements.
d) Attachment or proximity type Whether the transducer has to be
attached to the moving object or just kept close to it.
e) Self generating or external power source type i.e. whether the
transducer needs to be energised or the energy due to input motion itself
is used by transducer and converted to appropriate form.

Resistive Potentiometers
The resistive potentiometer is perhaps the best-known displacementmeasuring device.It consists of a resistance element with a movable contact.
Voltage Vs is applied across the two ends A and B of the resistance element
and an output voltage V0 is measured between the point of contact C of the
sliding element and the end of the resistance element A. A linear
relationship exists between the output voltage V 0 and the distance AC,
which can be expressed by:

V0 AC

Vs
AB

The body whose motion is being measured is connected to the sliding element
of the potentiometer, so that translational motion of the body causes a motion
of equal magnitude of the slider along the resistance element and a
corresponding change in the output voltage Vo.
Three different types of potentiometer exist, wire-wound, carbon-lm and
plastic-lm, so named according to the material used to construct the resistance
element. Wire-wound potentiometers consist of a coil of resistance wire wound
on a non-conducting former. As the slider moves along the potentiometer track,
it makes contact with successive turns of the wire coil. This limits the
resolution of the instrument to the distance from one coil to the next. Much
better measurement resolution is obtained from potentiometers using either a
carbon lm or a conducting plastic lm for the resistance element.
Operational problems of potentiometers all occur at the point of contact
between the sliding element and the resistance track. The most common
problem is dirt under the slider, which increases the resistance and thereby
gives a false output voltage reading, or in the worst case causes a total loss of
output. High-speed motion of the slider can also cause the contact to bounce,
giving an intermittent output. Friction between the slider and the track can also
be a problem in some measurement systems where the body whose motion is
being measured is moved by only a small force of a similar magnitude to these
friction forces.
The life expectancy of potentiometers is normally quoted as a number of
reversals, i.e. as the number of times the slider can be moved backwards and

forwards along the track. The gures quoted for wire-wound, carbon-lm and
plastic-lm types are respectively 1 million, 5 million and 30 million.
A typical inaccuracy gure that is quoted for translational motion resistive
potentiometers is 1% of full-scale reading. Manufacturers produce
potentiometers to cover a large span of measurement ranges. At the bottom end
of this span, instruments with a range of 2 mm are available whilst at the top
end; instruments with a range of 1m are produced.

Linear Variable Differential Transducer

(LVDT)
It consists of a transformer with a single primary winding and two
secondary windings connected in the series opposing manner. The object
whose translational displacement is to be measured is physically attached to
the central iron core of the transformer, so that all motions of the body are
transferred to the core.
For an excitation voltage Vs given by V s=Vp (sin t), the e.m.f.s induced
in the secondary windings Va and Vb are given by:
Va = Ka sin (t-); Vb = Kb sin(t-)

With the core in the central position, Ka = Kb, and we have:

Va = Vb = Ka sin (t-)
Because of the series opposition mode of connection of the secondary
windings, V0=( Va Vb), and hence with the core in the central position,
V0 = 0. Suppose now that the core is displaced upwards(i.e.towards
windingA) by a distance x. If then Ka = K1 and Kb = K2, we have:
V0 = (K1- K2) sin (t-)
If, alternatively, the core were displaced downwards from the null
position (i.e. towards winding B) by a distance x, the values of K a and Kb
would then be Ka = K2 and Kb = K1, and we would have:
V0 = (K2 - K1) sin t = (K1- K2) sin (t + [-])
Thus for equal magnitude displacements +x and -x of the core away from
the central (null) position, the magnitude of the output voltage V 0 is the
same in both cases.
The only information about the direction of movement of the core is
contained in the phase of the output voltage, which differs between the two
cases by 180.
If, therefore, measurements of core position on both sides of the null
position are required, it is necessary to measure the phase as well as the
magnitude of the output voltage.
The mass of the moving body is small, and the moving body does not
make any contact with the static part, thus minimizing the frictional
resistance.
As the core is only moving in the air gap between the windings, there is
no friction or wear during operation. For this reason, the instrument is a
very popular one for measuring linear displacements and has a quoted life
expectancy of 200 years. The typical inaccuracy is 0.5% of fullscale
reading and measurement resolution is almost infinite. Instruments are
available to measure a wide span of measurements from 100 m to 100
mm.
The instrument can be made suitable for operation in corrosive
environments by enclosing the windings within a non-metallic barrier,
which leaves the magnetic flux paths between the core and windings
undisturbed.

Variable Capacitive Transducers

 There are three types of capacitance transducers as shown.

The first type consists of two hollow concentric pipes. The displacement to
be measured is applied to the inner cylinder, which alters the capacitance.
The second form, Figure (b), consists of two flat, parallel, metal plates, one
of which is fixed and one of which is movable. Displacements to be
measured are applied to the movable plate, and the capacitance changes as
this moves. Both of these first two forms use air as the dielectric medium
between the plates.
The final form, Figure (c), has two flat, parallel, metal plates with a sheet of
solid dielectric material between them. The displacement to be measured
causes a capacitance change by moving the dielectric sheet
When a capacitor is formed from a pair of parallel flat plates, its
capacitance is given by the following equation
C=OKA
d
where C= capacitance (pF)

O= Permittivity of the free space

K= Di-electric constant of medium between plates
A= area of one side of one plate(m2)
D= Seperation of plate surface(m)
Greater sensitivity can be obtained by using several capacitors in parallel.
This can be accomplished with a stack of n equally spaced plates in which
alternate plates are connected to one another. For example, if five plates
were stacked, plates 1,3 and 5 would be connected to one voltage while
plates 2 and 4 would be connected to the other.

 The capacitance of such a stack is

C=OKA(n-1)
d
Inaccuracies as low as 0.01% are possible with these instruments, with
measurement resolutions of 1 micron.
The fact that such instruments consist only of two simple conducting plates
means that it is possible to fabricate devices that are tolerant to a wide range
of environmental hazards such as extreme temperatures, radiation and
corrosive atmospheres. As there are no contacting moving parts, there is no
friction or wear in operation and the life expectancy quoted is 200 years.

Variable Inductance Transducer

This has a typical measurement range of 010 mm. An alternative form of
variable inductance transducer shown in Figure (a) has a very similar size
and physical appearance to the LVDT, but has a centre-tapped single
winding. The two halves of the winding are connected, as shown in Figure,
to form two arms of a bridge circuit that is excited with an alternating
voltage. With the core in the central position, the output from the bridge is
zero.
Displacements of the core either side of the null position cause a net output
voltage that is approximately proportional to the displacement for small
movements of the core. Instruments in this second form are available to
cover a wide span of displacement measurements.
At the lower end of this span, instruments with a range of 02mm are
available, whilst at the top end, instruments with a range of 05m can be
obtained.

Displacement Measurement using Strain

Gauges
Because of their very small range of
measurement (typically 050 m), strain
gauges are normally only used to measure
displacements
within
devices
like
diaphragm-based pressure sensors rather
than as a primary sensor in their own right
for direct displacement measurement.
However, strain gauges can be used to
measure larger displacements if the range
of displacement measurement is extended.
In this, the displacement to be measured is
applied to a wedge fixed between two
beams carrying strain gauges. As the
wedge is displaced downwards, the beams
are forced apart and strained, causing an
output reading on the strain gauges. Using
this method, displacements up to about
50mm can be measured.

Piezo-electric Transducer

The piezoelectric transducer is effectively a force-measuring device

that is used in many instruments measuring force, or the force-related
quantities of pressure and acceleration.
Its mode of operation is to generate an e.m.f. that is proportional to the
distance by which it is compressed. The device is manufactured from
a crystal, which can be either a natural material such as quartz or a
synthetic material such as lithium sulphate.
The crystal is mechanically stiff (i.e. a large force is required to
compress it), and consequently piezoelectric transducers can only be
used to measure the displacement of mechanical systems that are stiff
enough themselves to be unaffected by the stiffness of the crystal.

 When the crystal is compressed, a charge is generated on the surface

that is measured as the output voltage. As is normal with any induced
charge, the charge leaks away over a period of time.
As a displacement-measuring device, the piezoelectric transducer has
a very high sensitivity, about one thousand times better than the strain
gauge. Its typical inaccuracy is 1% of full-scale reading and its life
expectancy is three million reversals.
Fig.1 shows the output voltage time characteristic.
Because of this characteristic, piezoelectric transducers
are not suitable for measuring static or slowly varying
displacements, even though the time constant of the
chargedecay process can be lengthened by adding a
shunt capacitor across the device.

Nozzle Flapper Transducer

The nozzle flapper is a displacement transducer that translates
displacements into a pressure change.
A secondary pressure-measuring device is therefore required within
the instrument. The general form of a nozzle flapper.
Fluid at a known supply pressure, Ps, flows through a fixed restriction
and then through a variable restriction formed by the gap, x, between
the end of the main vessel and the flapper plate. The body whose
displacement is being measured is connected physically to the flapper
plate.

 The output measurement of the instrument is the pressure Po in the

chamber, and this is almost proportional to x over a limited range of
movement of the flapper plate.
The instrument typically has a first order response characteristic. Air
is very commonly used as the working fluid and this gives the
instrument a time constant of about 0.1 seconds.
The instrument has extremely high sensitivity but its range of
measurement is quite small. A typical measurement range is 0.05mm
with a measurement resolution of 0.01 m.
One very common application of nozzle flappers is measuring the
displacements within a load cell, which are typically very small.

Optical Encoders
Its a type of binary displacement encoder based on a 5-Bit
binary code. The card shown consists of 5 active tracks plus a
reference track which may or may not be needed.
Pickups sense the relative displacement of the card.
One sensor is used per track
Optical sensor are most commonly used to detect the On/Off
status of each track at a given position. The cards may be
transparent or opaque for use with transmitted or reflected
light.

 The output from the sensor is easily processed by onboard or

remote digital circuitry.
A direct binary encoding has its inherent disadvantage. When
several bits are different between adjacent layers, the position
sensors may not all change at the same time, leading to an error.

Eg.: While going from the 8th to 9th position , the binary
encoder would change from 001112 to 010002 (i.e from 710
to 810). If just one bit were to change too soon or too late,

the position could be sensed as 000002 or 011112,

corresponding to either the 1st or 7th level.

Gray Code
Gray code is a binary code that eliminates the above mentioned
type of error and it is preferred for use in position encoders.
Its not a numerical code but instead the digits of the code are
sequenced so that only one bit changes in going from one level
in the sequence to the next.
If one tracks sensor changes to early or too late, the error is
limited to just one level. The drastic error with direct binary are
avoided.
The gray code is designed so that only one track changes state
for each count transition, unlike the binary code where multiple
tracks can change during count transitions.
For gray code, the uncertainty during a transition is only one
count unlike with the binary code, where the uncertainty could
be multiple counts.
The Gray Code provides the data with the least uncertainty but
the natural Binary code is the preferred choice for direct
interface to computers.
A circuit to convert from gray code to Binary code is needed.