1.

INTRODUCTION
Energy is a requirement that is endlessly and
exhaustingly utilized the world over. With the increase in the rate of various
developmental activities around the world the energy being consumed is also
increasing with the result that conventional energy resources are fast getting
depleted and even hydel reserves are proving less than sufficient to satisfy the
growing energy demand. As a result consumers around the world have to bear the
brunt of increasing power cuts and power costs. Hence for the future power
independence is fast becoming a vital requirement. The concept design therefore
formulates a system which provides internally generated energy for homes and also
integrates a sub system into the household such that the dependence on the
electricity board is eliminated.

HYBRID GENERATING UNIT

The generating unit for the proposed design utilizes a hybrid power
source as a means of powering the household loads. The hybrid power source
combines wind and solar energy to service the household requirements.
Hybrid system for home is a combined system of wind and solar
power generation system. Aero turbines convert wind energy into rotary
mechanical energy. A mechanical interface, consisting of a step-up gear and a
suitable coupling transmits the energy to an electrical generator. The output of this
generator is connected to the Battery or system grid. The battery is connected to
1

the inverter. The inverter is used to convert DC voltages to AC voltages. The load
draws current from the inverter.
The apparatus involved for the windmill section are:

Generator

Main shaft with Leafs

Gear Wheel Arrangement

Wind power ratings can be divided into three convenient grouping, small to
1kW, medium to 50 kW and large 200 kW to megawatt frame size.
Solar energy implies the energy that reaches the earth from the sun. It
provides daylight makes the earth hot and is the source of energy for plants to
grow. Solar energy is also put to two types of use to help our lives directly solar
heating and solar electricity
Solar electricity is the technology of converting sunlight directly in to
electricity. It is based on photo-voltaic or solar modules, which are very reliable
and do not require any fuel or servicing. Solar electric systems are suitable for
plenty of sun and are ideal when there is no main electricity

1.1

HYBRID SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

MULTI-BLADE (LEAF)

GENERATOR
SHAFT

INVERTER

LIGHTING LOAD
(OR) GRID

BATTERY

SOLAR
PANEL

1.2 CONTROL CENTRE

The control centre has been designed integrated within the household. The
entire system shall be wireless based. However against contemporary systems
already in the market, the proposed design shall be based on an Wi-Fi network
which shall be circulated by a laptop or system based transponder. Thus the
designed control centre shall have the advantages of being wire free as well as
based upon an easily available apparatus, that is a laptop or a system which can be
found in most households.
The design is aimed at replicating all functions performed by a
normal energy control centre:
Each room supply control
Shutdown, start ,restart control
Dimmer control
Breaking control
All the above systems shall be integrated to develop a power
efficient system for the future.

2. HYBRID GENERATING STATION

Hybrid system for home is a combined system of wind and solar power
generation system. Aero turbines convert wind energy into rotary mechanical
energy.

A mechanical interface, consisting of a step-up gear and a suitable

4

coupling transmits the energy to an electrical generator.

The output of this

generator is connected to the Battery or system grid. The battery is connected to

the inverter. The inverter is used to convert DC voltages to AC voltages. The load
is drawn current from the inverter.

Generator, Main shaft with Leafs, Gear Wheel Arrangement

Wind power ratings can be divided into three convenient grouping, small to
1kW, medium to 50 kW and large 200 kW to megawatt frame size.
Solar energy means all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun. It
provides daylight makes the earth hot and is the source of energy for plants to
grow. Solar energy is also put to two types of use to help our lives directly solar
heating and solar electricity.
Solar electricity is the technology of converting sunlight directly in to
electricity. It is based on photo-voltaic or solar modules, which are very reliable
and do not require any fuel or servicing. Solar electric systems are suitable for
plenty of sun and are ideal when there is no main electricity.

2.1 WIND ENERGY INTRODUCTION

Wind result from air in motion. Air in motion arises from a pressure
gradient. On a global basis one primary forcing function causing surface winds
5

from the poles toward the equator is convective circulation. Solar radiation heats
the air near the equator, and this low density heated air is buoyed up. At the
surface it is displaced by cooler more dense higher pressure air flowing from the
poles. In the upper atmosphere near the equator the air thus tend to flow back
toward the poles and away from the equator. The net result is a global convective
circulation with surface wins from north to south in the northern hemisphere.
It is clear from the above over simplified model that the wind is basically
caused by the solar energy irradiating the earth. This is why wind utilization is
considered a part of solar technology.
It actuality the wind is much more complex. The above model ignores the
earths rotation which causes a coriolis force resulting in an easterly wind velocity
component in the northern hemisphere.
There is the further complication of boundary layer frictional effects
between the moving air and the earths rough surface. Mountains, trees, buildings,
and similar obstructions impair stream line air flow. Turbulence results and the
wind velocity in a horizontal direction markedly increase with altitude near the
surface.
Local winds are caused by two mechanisms. The first is differential hating
of land and water. Solar isolation during the day is readily converted to sensible
energy of the land surface but is partly absorbed in layers below the water surface
and partly consume in evaporating some of that water. The land mass becomes

hotter than the water, which causes the air above the land to heat up and become
warmer than the air above water. The warmer lighter air above the land rises and
the cooler heavier air above the water moves into replace it. This is the mechanism
6

of shore breezes. At night, the direction of the breezes is reversed because the land
mass cools to the sky more rapidly than the water, assuming a sky. The second
mechanism of local winds is caused by hills and
mountain sides. The air above the slopes heats up during the day and cools down at
night, more rapidly than the air above the low lands. This causes heated air the day
to rise along the slopes and relatively cool heavy air to flow down at night.
Wind turbines produce rotational motion; wind energy is readily converted
into electrical energy by connecting the turbine to an electric generator. The
combination of wind turbine and generator is some times referred as an aero
generator. A step-up transmission is usually required to match the relatively slow
speed of the wind rotor to the higher speed of an electric generator.
In India the interest in the windmills was shown in the last fifties and early
sixties.

A part from importing a few from outside, new designs was also

developed, but it was not sustained. It is only in the last few years that
development work is going on in many institutions. An important reason for this
lack of interest in wind energy must be that wind, in India area relatively low and
vary appreciably with the seasons. Data quoted by some scientists that for India
wind speed value lies between 5 km/hr to 15-20 km/hr. These low and seasonal
winds imply a high cost of exploitation of wind energy. Calculations based on the
performance of a typical windmill have indicated that a unit of energy derived
from a windmill will be at least several times more expensive than energy

derivable from electric distribution lines at the standard rates, provided such
electrical energy is at all available at the windmill site.
7

The above argument is not fully applicable in rural areas for several reasons.
First electric power is not and will not be available in many such areas due to the
high cost of generation and distribution to small dispersed users. Secondly there is
possibility of reducing the cost of the windmills by suitable design. Lastly, on
small scales, the total first cost for serving a felt need and low maintenance costs
are more important than the unit cost of energy. The last point is illustrated easily:
dry cells provide energy at the astronomical cost of about Rs.300 per kWh and yet
they are in common use in both rural and urban areas.Wind energy offers another
source for pumping as well as electric power generation. India has potential of
over 20,000 MW for power generation and ranks as one of the promising countries
for tapping this source. The cost of power generation from wind farms has now
become lower than diesel power and comparable to thermal power in several areas
of our country especially near the coasts. Wind power projects of aggregate
capacity of 8 MW including 7 wind farms projects of capacity 6.85 MW have been
established in different parts of the country of which 3 MW capacity has been
completed in 1989 by DNES. Wind farms are operating successfully and have
already fed over 150 lakes units of electricity to the respective state grids. Over 25
MW of additional power capacity from wind is under implementation. Under
demonstration programmer 271 wind pumps have been installed up to February
1989. Sixty small wind battery charges of capacities 300 watts to 4 kW are under
installation. Likewise to stand-alone wind electric generators of 10 to 25 kW are
under installation.

2.2 CONVERSION PRINCIPLES BLOCK DIAGRAM

8

2.3 The Nature of the Wind

The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non-uniform

heating of the earths surface by the sun. The air immediately above a warm area
expands; it is forced upwards by cool, denser air which flows in from surrounding
areas causing a wind. The nature of the terrain, the degree of cloud cover and the
angle of the sun in the sky are all factors which influence this process. In general,
during the day the air above the land mass tends to heat up more rapidly than the
air over water. In coastal regions this manifests itself in a strong onshore wind. At
night the process is reversed because the air cools down more rapidly over the land
and the breeze therefore blows off shore.

10

The main planetary winds are caused in much the same way: Cool surface
air sweeps down from the poles forcing the warm air over the topics to rise. But
the direction of these massive air movements is affected by the rotation of the earth
and the net pressure areas in the countries-clockwise circulation of air around low
pressure areas in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise circulation in the
southern hemisphere. The strength and direction of these planetary winds change
with the seasons as the solar input varies.
Despite the winds intermittent nature, wind patterns at any particular site
remains remarkably constant year by year. Average wind speeds are greater in
hilly and coastal areas than they are well inland. The winds also tend to blow more
consistently and with greater strength over the surface of the water where there is
a less surface drag.
Wind speeds increase with height. They have traditionally been measured
at a standard height of ten meters where they are found to be 20-25% greater than
close to the surface. At a height of 60 m they may be 30-60% higher because of
the reduction in the drag effect of the earths surface.

2.4 WIND POWER

The power in the wind can be computed by using the concept of kinetics.
The wind will works on the principle of converting kinetic energy of the wind to
mechanical energy. We know that power is equal to energy per unit time. The
energy available is the kinetic energy of the wind. The kinetic energy of any

11

particle is equal to one half its mass times the square of its velocity, or 1/2m V 2.
The amount of air passing in unit time, through an area A, with velocity V, is AV,
and its mass m is equal to its volume multiplied by its density of air, or
m=AV
(m is the mass of air transverse the area A swept by the rotating blades of a
wind mill type generator).
Substituting this value of the mass in the expression for the kinetic energy,
we obtain, kinetic energy = 1./2 AV.V2 watts.
=1/2 AV3 watts
Equation tells us that the maximum wind available the actual amount will be
somewhat less because all the available energy is not extractable-is proportional to
the cube of the wind speed. It is thus evident that small increase in wind speed can
have a marked effect on the power in the wind.
Equation also tells us that the power available is proportional to air density
1.225 kg/m3 at sea level). It may vary 10-15 percent during the year because of
pressure and temperature change.

It changes negligibly with water content.

Equation also tells us that the wind power is proportional to the intercept area.
Thus an aero turbine with a large swept area has higher power than a smaller area
machine; but there are added implications. Since the area is normally circular of
diameter D in horizontal axis aero turbines, then A = /4 D2, (sq.m), which when
put in equation gives,
Available wind power P= /4 D2V3 watts
= 1/8 D2V3
12

2.5 PRESSURE AND VELOCITY GRAPH

13

14

The power extracted by the rotor is equal to the product of the wind speed as
it passes through the rotor (i.e. Vr) and the pressure drop p. in order to maximize
the rotor power it would therefore be desirable to have both wind sped and
pressure drop as large as possible. However, as V is increased for a given value of
the free wind speed (and air density), increases at first, passes through a maximum,
and the decreases. Hence for the specified free-wind speed, there is a maximum
value of the rotor power.
The faction of the free-flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is
called the power-coefficient; thus
Power of wind rotor
Power coefficient =
Power available in the wind

Where power available is calculated from the air density, rotor diameter, and
free wind speed as shown above. The maximum theoretical power coefficient is
equal to 16/27 or 0.593. This value cannot be exceeded by a rotor in a free-flow
wind-stream.

2.6 Maximum Power

The total power cannot be converted to mechanical power. Consider a
horizontal-axis, propeller-type windmill, henceforth to be called a wind turbine,
which is the most common type used today. Assume that the wheel of such a
turbine has thickness b. Let pi and Vi

15

are the wind pressure and velocity at the upstream of the turbine. V e is less than Vi
because the turbine extracts kinetic energy.
Considering the incoming air between I and a as a thermodynamic system,
and assuming that the air density remains constant (since changes in pressure and
temperature are very small compared to ambient), that the potential energy is zero,
and no heat or work are added or removed between i and a, the general energy
equation reduces to the kinetic and flow energy-terms only:

2.7 Wind Energy Conversion

Traditional windmills were used extensively in the Middle Ages to mill grain
and lift water for land drainage and watering cattle. Wind energy converters are
still used for these purposes today in some parts of the world, but the main focus of
attention now lies with their use to generate electricity. There is also growing
interest in generating heat from the wind for space and water heating and for glasshouses but the potential market is much smaller than for electricity generation.
The term wind mill is still widely used to describe wind energy conversion
systems, however it is hardly adopt. Description any more. Modern wind energy
conversion systems are more correctly referred to as WECS, aero generations,
wind turbine generators, or simply wind turbines.
The fact that the wind is variable and intermittent source of energy is
immaterial of some applications such as pumping water for land drainage
provided, of course, that there is a broad match between the
energy supplied over any critical period and the energy required. If the wind
blows, the job gets done; if it does not, the job waits.

16

However, for many of the uses to which electricity is put, the interruption of
supply may be highly inconvenient. Operators or users of wind turbines must
ensure that there is some form of back-up to cover periods when there is
insufficient (or too much) wind available. For small producers, back-up can take
the form of:
(i)

Battery storage,

(ii)

Connection with the local electricity distribution system; or

For utilities responsible for public supply, the integration of medium sized
and large wind turbines into their distribution net work could require some
additional plant which is capable of responding quickly to meet fluctuating
demand.

2.8 Turbine Tower System

As stated earlier, the horizontal axis wind turbines are mounted on towers,
and there are wind forces on the tower. Both upwind and downwind locations have
been used so that tower design is an essential aspect of the overall system design.

Vertical-Axis Machines
Vertical axis rotors can be either drag-or lift-based. The cup anemometer
is an example of a drag-based, vertical axis wind device. The drag on a cup is
greater when its concave side faces the wind which causes the device to rotate.
Lift also plays a small part: the cups crossing the wind experience a small lift
because their convex surfaces deflect the wind and causes a pressure reduction.
17

The main virtue of the cup anemometer is that it tends to rotate within a narrow
range of TSRS under all conditions, so its rotational speed is closely proportional
to wind speed. However, it can not carry a load with any efficiency; it has never
been constructed on a large scale for use as a wind turbine. The Savonius rotor
works on a principle similar to that of the cup anemometer but is adopted to
produce shaft power. It also takes advantage of the lift generated as the curved
outer surfaces of its scoops cross the air flow. There are also a variety of so-called
Panamones; there are pure drag devices, in which one side of the rotor carries
blades or sails square to the wind, while other side produces reducing drag by
shielding or furling the blades. Because drag devices tend to run at TSR below
unity (since their tips can not readily travel faster than the wind), they are
inevitably less efficient than lift-dependent devices. In addition, their high solidity
makes them more material-intensive in relation to the wind area seen by the rotor.
Hence following are the three distinct advantages of vertical axis wind
turbines over horizontal axis ones:
(1)

They will react to wind from any direction and therefore do not need
yawing equipment to turn the rotor into the wind.

(2)

They can require less structural support because heavy components

(like gear box and generator) can be located at ground level.

This

configuration also eases installation and maintenance.

(3)

Since the blades do not turn end over end, the rotor is not subjected to
continuous cyclic gravity loads. (Fatigue induced by such action is a major
consideration in the design of large horizontal axis machines).

18

Properly the single biggest disadvantage with vertical axis machines is that
far less is known about them than horizontal axis ones. This handicap is rapidly
being removed.

Advantages of such WEC system are:

1.

The major advantage of this design is that the rotor blades can accept
the wind from any compass.

2.

Another added advantage is that the machine can be mounted on the

ground eliminating tower structures and lifting of huge weight of machine
assembly, i.e. it can be operated close to the ground level.

3.

Since this machine has vertical axis symmetry, it eliminates yaw

control requirement for is rotor to capture wind energy. A dual purpose and
relatively simple shaft axis support is anticipated as well as ground level
power output delivery due to presence of vertical shaft. This may in turn,
allow easier access and serviceability.

4.

Airfoil rotor fabrication costs are expected to be reduced over

conventional rotor blade costs.

5.

The absence of pitch control requirements are synchronous operation

may yield additional cost savings.

6.

The tip speed ratio and power coefficient are considerably better than
those of the S-rotor but are still below the values for a modern horizontalaxis, two-bladed propeller rotor.

19

Disadvantages

(1) Although a Darrieus machine has many directional symmetry for wind
energy capture, it require external mechanical aid for start up. Tests indicate that,
with small machines, the problem can be solved by attaching S-rotors at the top
and bottom of the vertical (rotational) axis. This approach does not appear to be
feasible with larger machines, but if the wind power system connected to a utility
grid, the generator can serve as a motor to start the turbine. The (alternatingcurrent) load can also provide a means for controlling the speed of the rotor
regardless of the wind speed, so that variable-pitch blades are not required. At
very high speeds, stalling occurs and the rotation stops automatically.
(2) Rotor power output efficiency of a Darrieus wind energy conversion
system is also somewhat lower than that of a conventional horizontal rotor.
(3) Because a Darrieus rotor is generally situated near ground proximity, it
may also experience lower velocity wind compared to a tower mounted
conventional wind energy conversion system of comparable projected rotor disc
area. This may yield less energy output.
(4) Because a Darrieus rotor encounters greatly varied local flow conditions
per revolution, greater vibratory stresses are encountered which will affect rotor
system life? High tension cable it down of tower-shaft may require large extensive
bearing for support.
(5) Finally since a Darrieus rotor cannot be yawed out of the wind or its
blades feathered, special high torque braking system must be incorporated.

20

TABLE 1:WINDMILL SPECIFICATION TABLE

2.9.SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION

2.9.1 DIRECT METHOD
2.9.1.1 Photo Voltaic Method
2.9.1.2 Thermal Method

2.9.1 DIRECT METHOD OF UTILIZATION OF SOLAR

ENERGY:

21

The most useful way of harnessing solar energy is by directly converting it

into electricity by means of solar photo-voltaic cells. Sunshine is incident on Solar
cells, in this system of energy Conversion that is direct conversion of solar
radiation into electricity. In the stage of conversion into thermodynamic from is
absent. The photo-voltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive
force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation.

Energy conversion

devices, which are used to convert sunlight to electricity by use of the photovoltaic effect, are called solar cells.
In recent years photo-voltaic power generation has been receiving
considerable attention as one of the more promising energy alternatives. The
reason for this rising interest lie in PVs direct conversion of sunlight to electricity,
the non polluting nature of the PV widespread are of PV generation has been
hampered by economic factors. Here to force, the low cost of conventional energy
sunlight has obviated the development of a broad-based PV technology. At the
present time, PV generation can be justified only for special situations mostly for
remote sites where utility lines on other conventional means of furnishing energy
may be prohibitively expensive and is one of the most attractive non-conventional
energy sources of proven reliability from the micro to the Mega-watt level.
Like other energy system this system also has some disadvantages
(1)

Distributed nature of solar energy,

(2)

Absence of energy storage,

(3)

Relatively high capital cost.

2.9.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC PRINCIPLES:

The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of materials
that have shown that the best performance in sunlight is the semiconductors as
22

stated above. When photons from the sun are absorbed in a semiconductor, that
create free electrons with higher energies than the created there must be an electric
field to induce these higher energy electrons to flow out of the semi-conductor to
do useful work. A junction of materials, which have different electrical properties,
provides the electric field in most solar cells.

23

FIG.1

24

FIG.2

FIG.3

25

26

FIG.4

To obtain a useful power output from photon interaction in a semiconductor,

three processes are required.
1)

The photon has to be absorbed in the active part of the material and
result in electrons being excited to a higher energy potential.

2)

The electron hole charge carriers created by the absorption must be

physically separated and moved to the edge of the cell.

27

3)

The charge carriers must be removed from the cell and delivered to
useful load before they loose extra potential.

For completing the above processes a solar cell consists of:(a)

Semi-conductor in which electron hole pairs are created by

absorption of incident solar radiation.

(b)

Region containing a drift field for charge separation

(c)

Charge collecting fronts and back electrodes.

The photo-voltaic effect can be described easily for p-n junction in a semiconductor. In an intrinsic semi-conductor such as silicon, each one of the four
valence electrons of the material atom is tied in a chemical bond, and there are no
free electrons at absolute zero. If a piece of such a material is doped on one side
by a five valance electron material, such as arsenic or phosphorus, there will be an
excess of electrons in that side, becoming an n-type semi-conductor.
The excess electrons will be practically free to move in the semi-conductor
lattice. When a three valence electron material, such as boron dopes the other side
of the same piece, there will be deficiency of electrons leading to a p-type semiconductor. This deficiency is expressed in terms of excess of holes free to move in
the lattice. Such a piece of semi-conductor with one side of the p-type and the
other, of the n-type is called p-n junction. In this junction after the protons are
absorbed, the free electrons of the n-side will tends to flow to the p-side, and the
holes of the p-side will tend to flow to the n-region to compensate for their
respective deficiencies. This diffusion will create an electric field from the nregion to the p-region. This field will increase until it reaches equilibrium for V,
the sum of the diffusion potentials for holes and electrons.
28

3. COMMISSIONING
The panel is mounted over the top the pole with a help of a clamp at an
angular distance 11 south of equator, so it is able to collect the solar energy at the
maximum level then the frame with light is mounted at a height of 125 from the
pole. Then a metal box with the LDR control and a charge controller and with the
24V battery is mounted over the pole, at a height of 2m from the ground level.

29

The connections are made as per, first the panel is connected to charge
controller and then to the battery and to an inverter, then the connection is given to
the light with LDR control.
3.1 POLE DATA:
Galvanized steel pole
Pole diameter =

10cm

Height

Thickness of the pole

5.5m
=

3mm

3.2 CONCRETE:
Cement
Sand
Aggregate (40mm size)
Cement, sand and aggregate ratio
Water cement ratio =

2:4:8

0.5

Then a trench of 1 = b = h = 1.5m is made and the cement mixture made is

filled upto 1.5m in the trench and the pole is mounted inside the trench upto 1.5m
from the ground level. The pole is mounted inside the trench and the trench is
filled with the cement mixture and made to set. And brickwork is done above the
ground level of 1.5m with 1:3 ratio and plastered with 1:4 ratio of cement and
sand.
30

3.3 SOLAR PANEL COMMISSIONING:

During the day time the battery gets charged and when the intensity of light
decreases, the LDR makes the light to gets ON and the light glows by using the
stored charge in the battery.
If electrical contacts are made with the two semiconductor materials and the
contacts the connected through an external electrical conductor, the free electrons
will flow from the n-type material through the conductor to the p-type material
(figure 2). Here the free electrons will enter the holes and holes and become bound
electrons thus both free electrons and hole will be removed. The flow of electrons
through the external conductor constitutes an electric current, which will continue
as long as move free electrons and holes are being formed by the solar radiation.
This is the basis of photo-voltaic conversion that is the conversion of solar energy
into electrical energy. The combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors thus
constitutes a photo-voltaic cell or solar cell. All such cells some rate direct current
that can be converted into alternating current it desired.
The photo-voltaic effect can be observed in almost any junction of material
that have different electrical characteristics, but the best performance to date has
been from cells using semiconductor materials especially all of the solar cells used
for both space and terrestrial applications have been made of the semiconductor
silicon. Future cells may use such materials as the Semiconductors like Gallium
arsenate, copper sulphate cadsulphide etc.

3.4 Safety Systems

Safety systems of the wind turbines comprise the following features:

31

(i) The computer. The wind turbine is controlled by a computer which

monitors the most important gauging instruments and compares the results. If
errors are found the wind turbine is stopped.
(ii) Emergency stop. If a situation arises which calls for the wind turbine to
be stopped immediately, the emergency stop is used. The wind turbine will stop in
few seconds by feathering the blades directly into the wind. It can not be stated
again before what caused the emergency stop has been rectified.
(iii) Revolution Counters. To prevent the rotor from racing, two revolution
counters have been mounted on the shaft. These operates quiet independently and
activate the emergency stop if the revolutions of the turbine exceed 24 rpm which
is maximum.
(iv) Wind Velocity. This is measured and controlled by the computer in two
ways. First gusts of wind are registered and if they are too strong the turbine is
stopped. Then average wind speeds are measured over periods of 10 minutes, and
the wind turbine is also stopped if there are too high.
(v) The Parachutes. Each blade tip has a parachute, which is activated if
the rpm exceeds 28. An iron plumb bob, otherwise held in place by a magnet, is
released from the blade trip, the centrifugal force exceeding the force of the
magnet pulling out the parachute. This decrease the speed of the wind turbine
considerable enough to stop it from racing. The parachute is an extra safety device
should other fail. Till now they never had been used.
(Vi) Lightning Rods. The tree blades and the mill or wind turbine cap are
protected from lighting by these rods going from the tip of each blade to the
ground.

32

3.5 Environmental Aspects

Wind turbines are not without environmental impact and their operation is
not entirely risk-free. Following are the main effects due to a wind turbine.
(i) Electromagnetic interference. Interference with TV and other electromagnetic
communication systems is a possibility with wind turbines as it is with other tall
structures. TV interference is most likely in areas where there is a weak signal
because of the distance from the transmitter, where existing reception is none too
good due to the surrounding hills and where the wind turbine is exposed in good
position to receive and scatter the signals. Dispensing with aerials and sending TV
signals by cable in areas that would otherwise be affected can overcome
interference.
(ii) Noise. The noise produced by wind farms falls into two categories. The first
type is a mechanical noise from the gearbox, generating equipment and linkages
and the second type of aerodynamic in nature produced by the movement of the
turbine blades. One component of the latter is the broad band noise which ranges
upto several kilo hertz and the other is a low frequency noise of 15-20 Hz.
Revolving blades generate noise which can be heard in the immediate vicinity of
the installation, but noise does not travel too far.

(iii) Visual Effects.

Megawatts power generating wind turbines are massive

structures which would be quite visible over a wide area in some locations. Variety
characteristics such as co lour pattern, shape, rotational speed and reflectance of
blade materials can be adjusted to modify the visual effects of wind turbines
including the land scape in which they are installed.

33

4. CONTROL CENTRE
The Energy Control Centre (ECC) is the constituent of the
electricity board which maintains and regulates all aspects of energy distribution to
a specified area of charge. To implement a household power system which is
completely independent of the electricity board a control scheme has been
34

designed which replicates the features of a regular control centre and implements it
as per the requirements of the household. For the operational programming of the
control centre a energy utilization analysis centred upon the household in question
is utilized. Corresponding to the requirements of power at various times in a day
and the general patterns of load variations observed the prime control system,
wireless control MODEM can be programmed for controls extending to the
following:
ON/OFF Control
Load Shedding Controls
Appliance Specific Control
Monitoring Controls
The system during implementation is in all likelihood to be
utilized by an average common person. Hence to make the system understandable
and easy to use, all controls have been conceptualized in the form of GUIs or
Graphical User Interfaces. As such by simple visual supervision with a few control
keysets the entire power system could be controlled.

FIG.5: IMPLEMENTATION OVERVIEW

35

HAN MODEM

4.1 DESIGNED CONTROL GUIs

36

MANUAL

4.2.1 MONITOR GUI

37

ROOM 1:

ROOM 2:

ROOM 3:

ROOM 4:

4.2.2 GENERATION MONITOR GUI

38

S H U T DOWN

4.3 CONTROL CENTRE PRINCIPLE

The control centre is based around a system or laptop for providing a
human machine interface and a wireless control MODEM to provide for the
39

control interface. Based on a Home Area Network the MODEM could be utilized
alongwith pre-fed programming modules to actuate the control and monitor
functions. The network is a home network which can be created with the laptop or
the system acting as the central transponder. The MODEM is plugged in via a USB
port. Interfacing with individual transponders it extracts the input data for actuating
control as per the pre written programs. The MODEM in use can be a GPS network
MODEM or a GSM MODEM, depending upon the controlling network being
used. Under the current implementation of the project since an internal network is
being utilized, a GSM MODEM suffices for the actuation of control.

4.4 G.S.M
4.4.1 GSM INTRODUCTION
(Global System for Mobile communications: originally from
Groupe Spcial Mobile) is the most popular standard for mobile phones in the
world. Its most explicit implementation is seen in mobile communication alone.
However the GSM network protocol can be applied to power systems too subject
to some modifications in its end usage. GSM is a cellular network, which means
that mobile phones connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity.
GSM networks operate in four different frequency ranges. Most GSM networks
operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands. There are five different cell sizes in a
GSM networkmacro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells. The coverage area
of each cell varies according to the implementation environment. Macro cells can
be regarded as cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast or a
building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is
under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are
small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used
40

indoors. Femtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business
environments and connect to the service providers network via a broadband
internet connection. Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller
cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells. Indoor coverage which is the
requirement of the particular control structure is supported by GSM and may be
achieved by using an indoor picocell base station, or an indoor repeater with
distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters, to deliver the radio signals
from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. The
modulation used in GSM is Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK), a kind of
continuous-phase frequency shift keying. In GMSK, the signal to be modulated
onto the carrier is first smoothed with a Gaussian low-pass filter prior to being fed
to a frequency modulator, which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring
channels (adjacent channel interference).

41

4.4.2 STRUCTURE OF GSM NETWORK

42

A common GSM network invariably consists of the following:

43

 the Base Station Subsystem (the base stations and their controllers).
the Network and Switching Subsystem (the part of the network most similar
to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
the GPRS Core Network (the optional part which allows packet based
Internet connections).
The above descriptions pertain to a general overview of GSM. However specific to
the project design at hand the same has been modified to replicate the features of
power system control centre. For the application of the GSM modem to the area of
power system control programming modules have been used along with
incorporation of power system equipments.

4.5 PROGRAMMING PLATFORM

The programming of the modem is performed relative to a energy utilization
datasheet which is drawn out by studying the energy usage pattern observed during
any normal operational day. Based on the timing ranges for which maximum
power is required, time of use of power in individual sections of the household an
operating schedule can be developed based on which the control centre can be
programmed.

4.5.1

INTERFACE

PROTOCOLS

:MAX

232

SERIAL

COMMUNICATIONS

Electrical signal characteristics such as voltage levels,

signaling rate, timing and slew-rate of signals, voltage withstand level, short-circuit
44

behavior, and maximum load capacitance. Interface mechanical characteristics,

pluggable connectors and pin identification. Functions of each circuit in the
interface connector. Standard subsets of interface circuits for selected telecom
applications. The standard does not define such elements as character encoding (for
example, ASCII, Baudot code or EBCDIC) the framing of characters in the data
stream (bits per character, start/stop bits, parity) protocols for error detection or
algorithms for data compression bit rates for transmission, although the standard
says it is intended for bit rates lower than 20,000 bits per second. Many modern
devices support speeds of 115,200 bit/s and above

power supply to external

devices.
Details of character format and transmission bit rate are controlled by the serial
port hardware, often a single integrated circuit called a UART that converts data
from parallel to asynchronous start-stop serial form. Details of voltage levels, slew
rate, and short-circuit behavior are typically controlled by a line-driver that
converts from the UART's logic levels to RS-232 compatible signal levels, and a
receiver that converts from RS-232 compatible signal levels to the UART's logic
levels. The original DTEs were electromechanical teletypewriters and the original
DCEs were (usually) modems. When electronic terminals (smart and dumb) began
to be used, they were often designed to be interchangeable with teletypes, and so
supported RS-232. The C revision of the standard was issued in 1969 in part to
accommodate the electrical characteristics of these devices.
Since application to devices such as computers, printers, test instruments, and so
on was not considered by the standard, designers implementing an RS-232
compatible interface on their equipment often interpreted the requirements
idiosyncratically. Common problems were non-standard pin assignment of circuits
on connectors, and incorrect or missing control signals. The lack of adherence to
45

the standards produced a thriving industry of breakout boxes, patch boxes, test
equipment, books, and other aids for the connection of disparate equipment. A
common deviation from the standard was to drive the signals at a reduced voltage:
the standard requires the transmitter to use +12V and -12V, but requires the
receiver to distinguish voltages as low as +3V and -3V. Some manufacturers
therefore built transmitters that supplied +5V and -5V and labeled them as "RS232 compatible."
Later personal computers (and other devices) started to make use of the standard so
that they could connect to existing equipment. For many years, an RS-232compatible port was a standard feature for serial communications, such as modem
connections, on many computers. It remained in widespread use into the late
1990s. While it has largely been supplanted by other interface standards, such as
USB, in computer products, it is still used to connect older designs of peripherals,
industrial equipment (such as based on PLCs), and console ports, and special
purpose equipment such as a cash drawer for a cash register.
Because the application of RS-232 has extended far beyond the original purpose of
interconnecting a terminal with a modem, successor standards have been
developed to address the limitations. Issues with the RS-232 standard include:
The large voltage swings and requirement for positive and negative supplies
increases power consumption of the interface and complicates power supply
design. The voltage swing requirement also limits the upper speed of a compatible
interface.Single-ended signaling referred to a common signal ground limits the
noise immunity and transmission distance. Multi-drop connection among more
than two devices is not defined. While multi-drop "work-arounds" have been
devised, they have limitations in speed and compatibility.
46

Asymmetrical definitions of the two ends of the link make the assignment of the
role of a newly developed device problematic; the designer must decide on either a
DTE-like or DCE-like interface and which connector pin assignments to use.
The handshaking and control lines of the interface are intended for the setup and
takedown of a dial-up communication circuit; in particular, the use of handshake
lines for flow control is not reliably implemented in many devices.
No method is specified for sending power to a device. While a small amount of
current can be extracted from the DTR and RTS lines, this is only suitable for low
power devices such as mice. While the standard recommends a 25-way connector
and its pinout, the connector is large by current standards.

4.5.2 Role in modern personal computers

Today, RS-232 is gradually being superseded in personal computers by USB for
local communications. Compared with RS-232, USB is faster and uses lower
voltages, and has connectors that are simpler to connect and use. Both standards
have software support in popular operating systems. USB is designed to make it
easy for device drivers to communicate with hardware. However, there is no direct
analog to the terminal programs used to let users communicate directly with serial
ports. USB is more complex than the RS-232 standard because it includes a
protocol for transferring data to devices. This requires more software to support the
protocol used. RS-232 only standardizes the voltage of signals and the functions of
the physical interface pins. Serial ports of personal computers are also often used
to directly control various hardware devices, such as relays or lamps, since the
control lines of the interface could be easily manipulated by software. This isn't
feasible with USB which requires some form of receiver to decode the serial data.

47

As an alternative, USB docking ports are available which can provide connectors
for a keyboard, mouse, one or more serial ports, and one or more parallel ports.
Corresponding device drivers are required for each USB-connected device to allow
programs to access these USB-connected devices as if they were the original
directly-connected peripherals. Devices that convert USB to RS 232 may not work
with all software on all personal computers and may cause a reduction in bandwith
along with higher latency.
Personal computers may use the control pins of a serial port to interface to devices
such as uninterruptible power supplies. In this case, serial data is not sent, but the
control lines are used to signal conditions such as loss of power, or low battery
alarms.

4.5.3 Standard details

In RS-232, user data is sent as a time-series of bits. Both synchronous and
asynchronous transmissions are supported by the standard. In addition to the data
circuits, the standard defines a number of control circuits used to manage the
connection between the DTE and DCE. Each data or control circuit only operates
in one direction, that is, signaling from a DTE to the attached DCE or the reverse.
Since transmit data and receive data are separate circuits, the interface can operate
in a full duplex manner, supporting concurrent data flow in both directions. The
standard does not define character framing within the data stream, or character
encoding.Diagrammatic oscilloscope trace of voltage levels for an uppercase
ASCII "K" character (0x4b) with 1 start bit, 8 data bits, 1 stop bit.The RS-232
standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero
levels. Valid signals are plus or minus 3 to 15 volts. The range near zero volts is
not a valid RS-232 level; logic one is defined as a negative voltage, the signal
48

condition is called marking, and has the functional significance of OFF. Logic zero
is positive, the signal condition is spacing, and has the function ON. The standard
specifies a maximum open-circuit voltage of 25 volts; signal levels of 5 V,10 V,
12 V, and 15 V are all commonly seen depending on the power supplies
available within a device. RS-232 drivers and receivers must be able to withstand
indefinite short circuit to ground or to any voltage level up to 25 volts. The slew
rate, or how fast the signal changes between levels, is also controlled.
Because the voltage levels are higher than logic levels typically used by integrated
circuits, special intervening driver circuits are required to translate logic levels.
These also protect the device's internal circuitry from short circuits or transients
that may appear on the RS-232 interface, and provide sufficient current to comply
with the slew rate requirements for data transmission.
Because both ends of the RS-232 circuit depend on the ground pin being zero
volts, problems will occur when connecting machinery and computers where the
voltage between the ground pin on one end, and the ground pin on the other is not
zero. This may also cause a hazardous ground loop.
Unused interface signals terminated to ground will have an undefined logic state.
Where it is necessary to permanently set a control signal to a defined state, it must
be connected to a voltage source that asserts the logic 1 or logic 0 level. Some
devices provide test voltages on their interface connectors for this purpose.
RS-232 devices may be classified as Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) or Data
Communications Equipment (DCE); this defines at each device which wires will
be sending and receiving each signal. The standard recommended but did not make
mandatory the D-subminiature 25 pin connector. In general and according to the
standard, terminals and computers have male connectors with DTE pin functions,
49

and modems have female connectors with DCE pin functions. Other devices may
have any combination of connector gender and pin definitions. Many terminals
were manufactured with female terminals but were sold with a cable with male
connectors at each end; the terminal with its cable satisfied the recommendations
in the standard.Presence of a 25 pin D-sub connector does not necessarily indicate
an RS-232-C compliant interface. For example, on the original IBM PC, a male Dsub was an RS-232-C DTE port (with a non-standard current loop interface on
reserved pins), but the female D-sub connector was used for a parallel Centronics
printer port. Some personal computers put non-standard voltages or signals on
some pins of their serial ports.The standard specifies 20 different signal
connections. Since most devices use only a few signals, smaller connectors can
often be used. For example, the 9 pin DE-9 connector was used by most IBMcompatible PCs since the IBM PC AT, and has been standardized as TIA-574.
More recently, modular connectors have been used. Most common are 8P8C
connectors. Standard EIA/TIA 561 specifies a pin assignment, but the "Yost Serial
Device Wiring Standard" invented by Dave Yost (and popularized by the Unix
System Administration Handbook) is common on Unix computers and newer
devices from Cisco Systems. Many devices don't use either of these standards.
10P10C connectors can be found on some devices as well. Digital Equipment
Corporation defined their own DECconnect connection system which was based
on the Modified Modular Jack connector. This is a 6 pin modular jack where the
key is offset from the center position. As with the Yost standard, DECconnect uses
a symmetrical pin layout which enables the direct connection between two DTEs.
Another common connector is the DH10 header connector common on
motherboards and add-in cards which is usually converted via a cable to the more
standard 9 pin DE-9 connector (and frequently mounted on a free slot plate or
other part of the housing).
50

The signals are named from the standpoint of the DTE. The ground signal is a
common return for the other connections; it appears on two pins in the Yost
standard but is the same signal. The DB-25 connector includes a second "protective
ground" on pin 1. Connecting this to pin 7 (signal reference ground) is a common
practice but not recommended.
Use of a common ground is one weakness of RS-232: if the two devices are far
enough apart or on separate power systems, the ground will degrade between them
and communications will fail, which is a difficult condition to trace.

4.5.4 Signals
Commonly-used signals are:
Transmitted Data (TxD)
Data sent from DTE to DCE.
Received Data (RxD)
Data sent from DCE to DTE.
Request To Send (RTS)
Asserted (set to logic 0, positive voltage) by DTE to prepare DCE to receive data.
This may require action on the part of the DCE, e.g. transmitting a carrier or
reversing the direction of a half-duplex channel.
Ready To Receive (RTR)
Asserted by DTE to indicate to DCE that DTE is ready to receive data. If in use,
this signal appears on the pin that would otherwise be used for Request To Send,
and the DCE assumes that RTS is always asserted.
51

Clear To Send (CTS)

Asserted by DCE to acknowledge RTS and allow DTE to transmit. This signaling
was originally used with half-duplex modems and by slave terminals on multidrop
lines: The DTE would raise RTS to indicate that it had data to send, and the
modem would raise CTS to indicate that transmission was possible. Data Terminal
Ready (DTR)
Asserted by DTE to indicate that it is ready to be connected. If the DCE is a
modem, this may "wake up" the modem, bringing it out of a power saving mode.
This behaviour is seen quite often in modern PSTN and GSM modems. When this
signal is de-asserted, the modem may return to its standby mode, immediately
hanging up any calls in progress.
Data Set Ready (DSR)
Asserted by DCE to indicate the DCE is powered on and is ready to receive
commands or data for transmission from the DTE. For example, if the DCE is a
modem, DSR is asserted as soon as the modem is ready to receive dialing or other
commands; DSR is not dependent on the connection to the remote DCE (see Data
Carrier Detect for that function). If the DCE is not a modem (e.g. a null modem
cable or other equipment), this signal should be permanently asserted (set to 0),
possibly by a jumper to another signal.
Data Carrier Detect (DCD)
Asserted by DCE when a connection has been established with remote equipment.
Ring Indicator (RI)
Asserted by DCE when it detects a ring signal from the telephone line.
52

The standard does not define a maximum cable length but instead defines the
maximum capacitance that a compliant drive circuit must tolerate. A widely-used
rule-of-thumb indicates that cables more than 50 feet (15 metres) long will have
too much capacitance, unless special cables are used. By using low-capacitance
cables, full speed communication can be maintained over larger distances up to
about 1,000 feet. For longer distances, other signal standards are better suited to
maintain high speed.
Since the standard definitions are not always correctly applied, it is often necessary
to consult documentation, test connections with a breakout box, or use trial and
error to find a cable that works when interconnecting two devices. Connecting a
fully-standard-compliant DCE device and DTE device would use a cable that
connects identical pin numbers in each connector (a so-called "straight cable").
"Gender changers" are available to solve gender mismatches between cables and
connectors. Connecting devices with different types of connectors requires a cable
that connects the corresponding pins according to the table above. Cables with 9
pins on one end and 25 on the other are common. Manufacturers of equipment with
8P8C connectors usually provide a cable with either a DB-25 or DE-9 connector
(or sometimes interchangeable connectors so they can work with multiple devices).
Poor-quality cables can cause false signals by crosstalk between data and control
lines (such as Ring Indicator).
For functional communication through a serial port interface, conventions of bit
rate, character framing, communications protocol, character encoding, data
compression, and error detection, not defined in RS 232, must be agreed to by both
sending and receiving equipment. For example, consider the serial ports of the
original IBM PC. This implementation used an 8250 UART using asynchronous
start-stop character formatting with 7 or 8 data bits per frame, usually ASCII
53

character coding, and data rates programmable between 75 bits per second and
115,200 bits per second. Data rates above 20,000 bits per second are out of the
scope of the standard, although higher data rates are sometimes used by
commercially manufactured equipment. In the particular case of the IBM PC, baud
rates were programmable with arbitrary values, so that a PC could be connected to,
for example, MIDI music controllers (31,250 bits per second) or other devices not
using the rates typically used with modems. Since most devices do not have
automatic baud rate detection, users must manually set the baud rate (and all other
parameters) at both ends of the RS-232 connection.

RTS/CTS handshaking
In older versions of the specification, RS-232's use of the RTS and CTS lines is
asymmetric: The DTE asserts RTS to indicate a desire to transmit to the DCE, and
the DCE asserts CTS in response to grant permission. This allows for half-duplex
modems that disable their transmitters when not required, and must transmit a
synchronization preamble to the receiver when they are re-enabled. This scheme is
also employed on present-day RS-232 to RS-485 converters, where the RS-232's
RTS signal is used to ask the converter to take control of the RS-485 bus - a
concept that doesn't otherwise exist in RS-232. There is no way for the DTE to
indicate that it is unable to accept data from the DCE.
A non-standard symmetric alternative, commonly called "RTS/CTS handshaking,"
was developed by various equipment manufacturers: CTS indicates permission
from the DCE for the DTE to send data to the DCE (and is controlled by the DCE
independent of RTS), and RTS indicates permission from the DTE for the DCE to
send data to the DTE. This was eventually codified in version RS-232-E (actually
TIA-232-E by that time) by defining a new signal, "RTR (Ready to Receive),"
54

which is CCITT V.24 circuit 133. TIA-232-E and the corresponding international
standards were updated to show that circuit 133, when implemented, shares the
same pin as RTS (Request to Send), and that when 133 is in use, RTS is assumed
by the DCE to be ON at all times.
Thus, with this alternative usage, one can think of RTS asserted (logic 0) meaning
that the DTE is indicating it is "ready to receive" from the DCE, rather than
requesting permission from the DCE to send characters to the DCE.
3-wire and 5-wire RS-232
A minimal "3-wire" RS-232 connection consisting only of transmit data, receive
data, and ground, is commonly used when the full facilities of RS-232 are not
required. Even a two-wire connection (data and ground) can be used if the data
flow is one way (for example, a digital postal scale that periodically sends a weight
reading, or a GPS receiver that periodically sends position, if no configuration via
RS-232 is necessary). When only hardware flow control is required in addition to
two-way data, the RTS and CTS lines are added in a 5-wire version.

Timing signals
Some synchronous devices provide a clock signal to synchronize data
transmission, especially at higher data rates. Two timing signals are provided by
the DCE on pins 15 and 17. Pin 15 is the transmitter clock, or send timing (ST); the
DTE puts the next bit on the data line (pin 2) when this clock transitions from OFF
to ON (so it is stable during the ON to OFF transition when the DCE registers the
bit). Pin 17 is the receiver clock, or receive timing (RT); the DTE reads the next bit
from the data line (pin 3) when this clock transitions from ON to
OFF.Alternatively, the DTE can provide a clock signal, called transmitter timing
55

(TT), on pin 24 for transmitted data. Again, data is changed when the clock
transitions from OFF to ON and read during the ON to OFF transition. TT can be
used to overcome the issue where ST must traverse a cable of unknown length and
delay, clock a bit out of the DTE after another unknown delay, and return it to the
DCE over the same unknown cable delay. Since the relation between the
transmitted bit and TT can be fixed in the DTE design, and since both signals
traverse the same cable length, using TT eliminates the issue. TT may be generated
by looping ST back with an appropriate phase change to align it with the
transmitted data. ST loop back to TT lets the DTE use the DCE as the frequency
reference, and correct the clock to data timing.

56

FIG.6: MAX 232 MODEM INTERFACE

57

FIG 7: POWER SUPPLY LAYOUT

58

4.5.5 POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTIONS

The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply

circuits built using filters, rectifiers, and then voltage regulators. Starting with
an ac voltage, a steady dc voltage is obtained by rectifying the ac voltage, then
filtering to a dc level, and finally, regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc
voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage regulator unit,
which takes a dc voltage and provides a somewhat lower dc voltage, which
remains the same even if the input dc voltage varies, or the output load
connected to the dc voltage changes.
A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply and the voltage
at various points in the unit is shown in fig 19.1. The ac voltage, typically 120
V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that ac voltage down to the
level for the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full-wave
rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a
dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage
variation. A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that
not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same dc value even if
the input dc voltage varies somewhat, or the load connected to the output dc
voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of a
number of popular voltage regulator IC units.

59

Transformer

Rectifier

Filter

IC regulator

Load

4.5.6 IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Voltage regulators comprise a class of widely used ICs. Regulator IC units
contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier, control device,
and overload protection all in a single IC. Although the internal construction of
the IC is somewhat different from that described for discrete voltage regulator
circuits, the external operation is much the same. IC units provide regulation of
either a fixed positive voltage, a fixed negative voltage, or an adjustably set
voltage.A power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the ac
supply line

to step the ac voltage to a desired amplitude, then rectifying that

ac voltage, filtering with a capacitor and RC filter, if desired, and finally

regulating the dc voltage using an IC regulator. The regulators can be selected

60

for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of
amperes, corresponding to power ratings from milliwatts to tens of watts.

THREE-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS:

Fig shows the basic connection of a three-terminal voltage regulator IC to a
load. The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage, Vi, applied
to one input terminal, a regulated output dc voltage, Vo, from a second terminal,
with the third terminal connected to ground. For a selected regulator, IC device
specifications list a voltage range over which the input voltage can vary to
maintain a regulated output voltage over a range of load current. The specifications
also list the amount of output voltage change resulting from a change in load
current (load regulation) or in input voltage (line
regulation).

FIG 8:Fixed Positive Voltage Regulators:

IN
OUT
UNREGULA
TED DC
VOLTAGE

7805

GND

The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 V.

Figure 19.26 shows how one such IC, a 7812, is connected to provide voltage
regulation with output from this unit of +12V dc. An unregulated input voltage Vi
61

is filtered by capacitor C1 and connected to the ICs IN terminal. The ICs OUT
terminal provides a regulated + 12V which is filtered by capacitor C2 (mostly for
any high-frequency noise). The third IC terminal is connected to ground (GND).
While the input voltage may vary over some permissible voltage range, and the
output load may vary over some acceptable range, the output voltage remains
constant within specified voltage variation limits. These limitations are spelled out
in the manufacturers specification sheets. A table of positive voltage regulated ICs
is provided in table

62

TABLE 2 Positive Voltage Regulators in 7800 series

IC

Output Voltage (V)

Minimum Vi (V)

Part
7805

+5

7.3

7806

+6

8.3

+8

10.5

+10

12.5

+12

14.6

+15

17.7

+18

21.0

7808

7810

7812

7815

7818

4.5.7GUI MODULES

63

Introduction
The most commonly used Character based LCDs are based on Hitachi's HD44780
controller or other which are compatible with HD44580. In this project document,
we will discuss about character based LCDs, their interfacing with various
microcontrollers, various interfaces (8-bit/4-bit), programming, special stuff and
tricks you can do with these simple looking LCDs which can give a new look to
your application.

TABLE 3
64

65

TABLE 4:CHARACTER LCD PINS WITH 2 CONTROLLER

Usually these days single controller LCD modules are used more in the market. So
in the project document we will discuss more about the single controller LCD, the
operation and everything else is same for the double controller too.

66

DDRAM

Display

Data

RAM

Display data RAM (DDRAM) stores display data represented in 8-bit character
codes. Its extended capacity is 80 X 8 bits, or 80 characters. The area in display
data RAM (DDRAM) that is not used for display can be used as general data
RAM. So whatever you send on the DDRAM is actually displayed on the LCD.
For LCDs like 1x16, only 16 characters are visible, so whatever you write after 16
chars

is

written

in

DDRAM

but

is

not

visible

to

the

user.

Figures below will show the DDRAM addresses of 1 Line, 2 Line and 4 Line
LCDs.

CGROM

Character

Generator

ROM

Now you might be thinking that when you send an ascii value to DDRAM, how
the character is displayed on LCD? so the answer is CGROM. The character
67

generator ROM generates 5 x 8 dot or 5 x 10 dot character patterns from 8-bit

character codes (see Figure 5 and Figure 6 for more details). It can generate 208 5
x 8 dot character patterns and 32 5 x 10 dot character patterns. User defined
character patterns are also available by mask-programmed ROM.

Figure 9: LCD characters code map for 5x8 dots

68

As can be seen in both the code maps, the character code from 0x00 to 0x07 is
occupied by the CGRAM characters or the user defined characters. If user want to
display the fourth custom character then the code to display it is 0x03 i.e. when
user send 0x03 code to the LCD DDRAM then the fourth user created charater or
patteren will be displayed on the LCD.
CGRAM

Character

Generator

RAM

As clear from the name, CGRAM area is used to create custom characters in LCD.
69

In the character generator RAM, the user can rewrite character patterns by
program. For 5 x 8 dots, eight character patterns can be written, and for 5 x 10
dots, four character patterns can be written. Later in this project document i will
explain how to use CGRAM area to make custom character and also making
animations to give nice effects to your application.
BF

Busy

Flag

Busy Flag is an status indicator flag for LCD. When we send a command or data to
the LCD for processing, this flag is set (i.e BF =1) and as soon as the instruction is
executed successfully this flag is cleared (BF = 0). This is helpful in producing and
exact

ammount

of

delay.

for

the

LCD

processing.

To read Busy Flag, the condition RS = 0 and R/W = 1 must be met and The MSB
of the LCD data bus (D7) act as busy flag. When BF = 1 means LCD is busy and
will not accept next command or data and BF = 0 means LCD is ready for the next
command or data to process.
Instruction

Register

(IR)

and

Data

Register

(DR)

There are two 8-bit registers in HD44780 controller Instruction and Data register.
Instruction register corresponds to the register where you send commands to LCD
e.g LCD shift command, LCD clear, LCD address etc. and Data register is used for
storing data which is to be displayed on LCD. when send the enable signal of the
LCD is asserted, the data on the pins is latched in to the data register and data is
then moved automatically to the DDRAM and hence is displayed on the LCD.
Data Register is not only used for sending data to DDRAM but also for CGRAM,
the address where you want to send the data, is decided by the instruction you send

70

to LCD. We will discuss more on LCD instuction set further in this project
document.
Commands

and

Instruction

set

Only the instruction register (IR) and the data register (DR) of the LCD can be
controlled by the MCU. Before starting the internal operation of the LCD, control
information is temporarily stored into these registers to allow interfacing with
various MCUs, which operate at different speeds, or various peripheral control
devices. The internal operation of the LCD is determined by signals sent from the
MCU. These signals, which include register selection signal (RS), read/write signal
(R/W), and the data bus (DB0 to DB7), make up the LCD instructions (Table 3).
There are four categories of instructions that:
Designate LCD functions, such as display format, data length, etc.
Set internal RAM addresses
Perform data transfer with internal RAM
Perform miscellaneous functions

71

TABLE 5: Command and Instruction set for LCD type HD44780

72

4.5.8SOFTWARE PLATFORM AND PROGRAM

73

The programming platform used for the project design specific

functions are MPLAB and ICPROG. For the purpose of system based interfacing
hyperterminal or telnet may be used.
#include<pic.h>
#include <math.h>
void mcu_init();
void lcd_init();
void command(char);
void write(char);
void lcd_dis(const unsigned char *word,unsigned int n);
void del();
void delay(unsigned int del);
void forward();
//void reverse();
//void right();
//void left();
//void stop();
void mob_init();

74

void ser_init();
void ser_out(unsigned char);
void ser_dis(const unsigned char*da,unsigned char no);
unsigned char v[25],b;
unsigned int s1;
unsigned char dac,time,i,j,x,k;
bit a;
adc(char dat);
unsigned char mv,adc_s,adc_t,ch;
unsigned int temp;
unsigned char aa;
void msg_rx();
void msg_send();
void forward();
//void reverse();
//void right();
//void left();
//void stop();
static bit rig_rev @((unsigned) &PORTD*8+0);
75

static bit rig_for @((unsigned) &PORTD*8+1);

static bit lef_for @((unsigned) &PORTD*8+2);
static bit lef_rev @((unsigned) &PORTD*8+3);

void main()
{

TRISC=0xC1;

// 1100 0001

lcd_init();

//

lef_for=0;

//

lef_rev=0;

//

rig_for=0;

//

rig_rev=0;

// STOP

command(0x01);//clear display
command(0x80);
lcd_dis("GSM BASED T/F

",16);

command(0xC0);
lcd_dis("MONITOR&CONTROL

",16);
76

del();del();del();
mcu_init();
ser_init();
mob_init();
del();
command(0x01);//clear display
//

command(0x80);

//

lcd_dis("Temp:000

",16);

// // stop();
/*
stop();
del();del();del();

forward();
del();del();del();
reverse();
del();del();del();
right();
del();del();del();
77

left();
del();del();del();
stop();
*/
while(1)
{
s1++;
adc_s=adc(0x81);
adc_t=adc(0x89);
//adc_t=adc(0x89);
command(0x85);
write(adc_s/100+0x30);
write(adc_s%100/10+0x30);
write(adc_s%10+0x30);
command(0xc5);
write(adc_t/100+0x30);
write(adc_t%100/10+0x30);
write(adc_t%10+0x30);
//

if(s1==1000)
78

//{
//command(0x80);
//

lcd_dis("SMS RECEIVING...

",16);

//del();del();del();
//s1=0;
//

msg_rx();

//}
if(s1==500)
{
command(0x80);
lcd_dis("SMS SENDING...

",16);

del();del();del();
//s1=0;
msg_send();}

}
}

79

adc(char dat)
{
temp=0;
for(aa=0;aa<6;aa++)
{
ADCON0=dat;
for(j=0;j<200;j++);
ADGO=1;
while(ADGO);
ADIF=0;
mv=((ADRESH*255)+ADRESL)/4;
temp=temp+mv;
}
//

mv=temp/6;
return(mv);
80

void mcu_init()
{
TRISA=0XFF;
TRISB=0X00;
TRISD=0X00;
TRISE=0X00;
ADCON1=0X82;
}

void mob_init()
{
ser_out('A');ser_out('T');ser_out(0x0d);
del();
//

ser_out('A');ser_out('T');ser_out(0x0d);

//

del();
81

//

ser_out('A');ser_out('T');ser_out(0x0d);

//

del();

//

ser_out('A');ser_out('T');ser_out(0x0d);

//

del();

//

ser_out('A');ser_out('T');ser_out(0x0d);

//

del();

//

ser_dis("AT+CPMS=",8);

//

ser_out('"');
//

ser_out('S');

//

ser_out('M');

//

ser_out('"');
//

//

ser_out(0x0d);
del();
ser_dis("AT+CMGF=1",9);
ser_out(0x0d);
del(); del();

82

/*void msg_rx()
{
i=j=1;CREN = 1;
ser_dis("AT+CMGR=1",9);
ser_out(0x0d);
del();del();
CREN = 0;
if(i>25)
{
if(v[4]=='F')

forward();

//

else if(v[4]=='B') reverse();

//

else if(v[4]=='L') left();

//

else if(v[4]=='R') right();

//

else if(v[4]=='S') stop();

//

else ;
ser_dis("AT+CMGD=1",9);
ser_out(0x0d);
del();

}
83

} */

void msg_send()
{
ser_dis("AT+CMGS=",8);
ser_out('"');
ser_dis("9677740412",10);
ser_out('"');
ser_out(0x0d);
del();del();
ser_dis("VOLT:",5);
ser_out(adc_s/100+0x30);
ser_out(adc_s%100/10+0x30);
ser_out(adc_s%10+0x30);
ser_dis("CURRENT:",8);
ser_out(adc_t/100+0x30);
ser_out(adc_t%100/10+0x30);
84

ser_out(adc_t%10+0x30);
ser_out(0x1a);
del(); del(); del();
}

/*void interrupt funct(void)

{
if(RCIF==1)

// chk the rx flag

{
RCIF=0;
x=RCREG;
if(i>25)
{
v[j]=RCREG;
j++;
}
else i++;
85

}
}*/

86

void ser_init()
{
SPBRG= 129;

// for 9600 baud rate 4MHz crystal

BRGH = 1;

// baud rate high

SYNC = 0;

// asynchronous mode

SPEN = 1;

// serial port enable

RCIE = 1;
CREN = 0;

// interrupt set
// Rx enable

TXEN = 1;

// Tx enable

GIE=1;PEIE=1;
}

void ser_out(unsigned char ss)

{
87

TXREG = ss;
while(!TXIF);
TXIF = 0;
delay(1000);
}

void ser_dis(const unsigned char*da,unsigned char no)

{
unsigned char ss;
for(ss=0;ss<no;ss++) ser_out(da[ss]);
}

void forward()
{
command(0xc0);
lcd_dis("
lef_for=1;

FORWARD

",16);

//on

lef_rev=0;
delay(20);
88

rig_for=1;
rig_rev=0;
}

/*void reverse()
{
command(0xc0);
lcd_dis("

REVERSE

",16);

lef_for=0;
lef_rev=1;
rig_for=0;
delay(20);
rig_rev=1;
}*/

/*void right()
{
89

command(0xc0);
lcd_dis("

RIGHT

",16);

lef_for=1;
lef_rev=0;
rig_for=0;

//right

delay(20);
rig_rev=1;
delay(55000);
stop();
}

void left()
{
command(0xc0);
lcd_dis("

LEFT

",16);

lef_rev=1;
lef_for=0;
delay(20);
90

rig_for=1;

//left

rig_rev=0;
delay(55000);
stop();
}

void stop()
{
command(0xc0);
lcd_dis("

STOP

",16);

lef_for=0;
lef_rev=0;

// STOP

rig_for=0;
rig_rev=0;
}*/

void delay(unsigned int del)

91

{
while(del--);
}

void lcd_init()
{
TRISB=0X00;
TRISE=0X00;
command(0x38);
command(0x06);
command(0x0C);
command(0x01); // lcd clr
}

void command(char s)
{
PORTB=s;
PORTE=0x04;

// 0000 0100
92

for(k=0;k<125;k++);
PORTE=0x00;

// 0000 0000

for(k=0;k<200;k++);
}

void write(char s)
{
PORTB=s;
PORTE=0x05;
for(k=0;k<125;k++);
PORTE=0x01;

// 0000 0001

for(k=0;k<200;k++);
}

void lcd_dis(const unsigned char *word,unsigned int n)

{
unsigned char i;
93

for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
write(word[i]);
}
}

void del()
{
delay(65000);
delay(15000);
}

94

5 . ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

5.1 ADVANTAGES

PROVIDES INDEPENDENCE FROM ENERGY CRISIS

EFFICIENCY BASED ON THE GENERATING SOURCE HIGHER
CONTROL CENTRE DESIGN COMPARATIVELY MORE INTEGRATED
THAN EXISTING SYSTEMS

95

5.2 DISADVANTAGES
LAPTOP/SYSTEMS CANNOT BE USED CONTINUOUSLY
LAPTOP

BASED

NETWORK

COULD

INVOLVE

GREATER

APPARATUS USAGE
APPLICATION ON LARGE SCALE CANNOT BE PREDICTED

6. CONCLUSION

The design of the project envisages a household power system which could
have its own generation and replication of all functions performed by the
electricity board towards energy control within the household itself including load
shedding, per room power switching control etc. However on analyzing the
completed project based on current status only some main functions of a control
centre were possible to replicate in the working system. The following controls
have been successfully implemented:
Power on/off control
96

 Monitoring control

However control functions like load shedding and each room switching control
couldnot be actuated because of the programming conditional complexity
involved. The actuation of these controls require an actual household as only then
the conditional instances can be encapsulated in program modules. Since for
principle display such an arrangement is not possible, hence under current
implementation the controls have been limited. The actuation of the system in
future on actual households would allow for greater programming flexibility and as
such all designed controls could be conceptualized and tested to display a
completely independent household power system with integrated generation,
transmission, distribution and control.
7.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Xiaofan Jiang, Computer Science Department, University Of Berkeley, Wireless
Building Energy Monitoring And Local : An Intelligent Power Network
2. ZW Windmill Series :Operations Manual
3. J.R Bumby, N.Stannard and R.Martin ,A Permanent Magnet Generator For
Small Scale Wimdmills,
4. M. Muthukumar,N. Sureshkumar,MA. Bhadri Narayan, A Wireless Sensor
Network Communication Model for Automation of Electric PowerDistribution
5. Reza Ehsani ,Introduction to GPS Guidance Systems
97

6. Geoffrey Blewitt, Department of Geomatics, University of Newcastle

,Basics of the GPS Technique: Observation Equations
7. Altera,Altia and Echelon Whitepaper,The "Energy Aware" Appliance Platform:
A New Approach to Energy Control

98

99

APPENDIX-1
COST ANALYSIS

COST ANALYSIS

Overall Project Cost: Rs.60000/-

Software Cost:
1.MPLAB : Rs.10000
2.ICPROG: Rs.8000
Hardware Requirements Cost:
100

S.NO. NAME

QUANTITY

1.

BLADES

2.

SOLAR PANELS

3.

STAND

4.

PANEL HOLDER

5.

BATTERY

6.

INVERTER

7.

GSM MODEM

8.

PCB DESIGN

9.

CONNECTING WIRE

2 COILSPANS

10.

LAMP

PRICE

101

APPENDIX-2

102

PHOTOS

103

104

105

106