GRADE OF CONCRETE

The quality or grade of concrete is designated in terms of a number, which denotes its
characteristic compressive strength (of 150 mm cubes at 28-days), expressed in MPa (or,
equivalently, N/mm2). The number is usually preceded by the letter M, which refers to
mix. Thus, for example, M 20 grade concrete denotes a concrete whose mix is so designed
as to generate a characteristic strength of 20 MPa
Characteristic Strength
In view of the significant variability in the compressive strength, it is necessary to ensure
that the designer has a reasonable assurance of a certain minimum strength of concrete.
This is provided by the Code by defining a characteristic strength, which is applicable to any
material (concrete or steel):
Characteristic strength is defined as the strength of material below which not more than 5 percent
of the test results are expected to fall

CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

The design of a concrete mix for a specified grade involves the economical selection of the relative proportions (and
type) of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water (and admixtures, if any). Although compliance with
respect to characteristic strength is the main criterion for acceptance, it is implicit that the concrete must also have
the desired workability in the fresh state, and impermeability and durability in the hardened state.

Nominal Mix Concrete

Concrete mix design is an involved process that calls for some expertise from the construction engineer/contractor.
This is not often available. Traditionally, mixes were specified in terms of fixed ratios of cement : sand : coarse
aggregate (by mass preferably, or by volume) such as 1 : 2 : 4, 1 : 1.5 : 3, etc. which are rather crude and
incorrect translations of concrete grades M 15, M 20, etc.
The Code (Table 9) attempts to provide more realistic nominal mix proportions for M 5, M 7.5, M 10, M 15 and
M 20 grades of concrete, in terms of the total mass of aggregate, proportion of fine aggregate to coarse aggregate
and volume of water to be used per 50 kg mass of cement (i.e., one bag of cement). Such nominal mix concrete is
permitted in ordinary concrete construction, which does not call for concrete grades higher than M 20.
However, the Code clearly highlights (Cl. 9.1.1) that design mix concrete, based on the principles of mix design, is
definitely preferred to nominal mix concrete. In practice, it is found that design mix concrete not only yields
concrete of the desired quality,
Modulus of Elasticity
The initial tangent modulus [Fig 2.8] is, therefore, sometimes considered to be a measure of the dynamic
modulus of elasticity of concrete [Ref. 2.3]; it finds application in some cases of cyclic loading (wind- or
earthquake-induced), where long-term effects are negligible. However, even in such cases, the non-elastic behaviour
of concrete manifests, particularly if high intensity cyclic loads are involved; in such cases, a pronounced hysterisis
effect is observed, with each cycle of loading producing incremental permanent deformation [Ref. 2.18].
In the usual problems of structural analysis, based on linear static analysis, it is the static modulus of elasticity that
needs to be considered. It may be noted that when the loads on a structure (such as dead loads) are of long duration,

the long-term effects of creep reduce the effective modulus of elasticity significantly. Although it is difficult to
separate the long-term strains induced by creep (and shrinkage) from the short-term elastic strains, this is usually
done at a conceptual level, for convenience. Accordingly, while estimating the deflection of a reinforced concrete
beam, the total deflection is assumed to be a sum of an instantaneous elastic deflection (caused by the loads) and
the long-term deflections induced by creep and shrinkage [refer Chapter 10]. The short-term static modulus of
elasticity (Ec) is used in computing the instantaneous elastic deflection.

Failure strain of concrete

The Code also limits the failure strain of concrete to 0.002 under direct compression and
0.0035 under flexure.

Modulus of Rupture
In the flexure test most commonly employed [refer IS 516 : 1959], a standard plain
concrete beam of a square or rectangular cross-section is simply supported and subjected to
third-points loading until failure. Assuming a linear stress distribution across the crosssection, the theoretical maximum tensile stress reached in the extreme fibre is termed the
modulus of rupture ().
The Code (Cl. 6.2.2) suggests the following empirical formula for estimating: fcr
where and are in MPa units.

Effect of confinement
The benefit derived from confinement of concrete is advantageously made use of in reinforced concrete columns, by
providing transverse reinforcement in the form of steel hoops and spirals [Fig. 1.6(c)]. It is found that continuous
circular spirals are particularly effective in substantially increasing the ductility, and to some extent, the compressive
strength of concrete; square or rectangular ties are less effective [Ref. 2.28]. The yielding of the confining steel
contributes to increased ductility (ability to undergo large deformations prior to failure). Provision of ductility is of
particular importance in the design and detailing of reinforced concrete structures subject to seismic loads
(especially at the beam-column junctions), since it enables the material to enter into a plastic phase, imparting
additional strength to the structure by means of redistribution of stresses [for details, refer Chapter 16].

excluding strains introduced by shrinkage and temperature variations.

CREEP OF CONCRETE
2.11.1 Time-Dependent Behaviour under Sustained Loading
As mentioned earlier, when concrete is subject to sustained compressive loading, its deformation keeps increasing
with time, even though the stress level is not altered. The time-dependent component of the total strain is termed
creep. The time-dependent behaviour of the total strain in concrete (considering both instantaneous strain and
creep strain) is depicted in Fig. 2.14.
The instantaneous strain is that which is assumed to occur instantaneously on application of the loading. This
may have both elastic and inelastic components, depending on the stress level [Fig. 2.6]. In practice, as the stress
level under service loads is relatively low, the inelastic component is negligible. If the stress is maintained at a

constant level, the strain will continue to increase with time (as indicated by the solid line in the curve in Fig. 2.14),
although at a progressively decreasing rate. The increase in strain at any time is termed the creep strain. This is
sometimes expressed in terms of the creep coefficient (Ct ), defined as the ratio of the creep strain at time t to the
instantaneous strain (initial elastic strain). The maximum value of Ct is called the ultimate creep coefficient
(designated as by the Code); its value is found to vary widely in the range 1.3 to 4.2 [Ref. 2.29].
If the sustained load is removed at any time, the strain follows the curve shown by the dashed line in Fig. 2.14.
There is an instantaneous recovery of strain by an amount equal to the elastic strain (to the extent permitted by the
prevailing modulus of elasticity) due to the load removed at this age. This is followed by a gradual decrease in
strain, which is termed as creep recovery. BASIC MATERIAL PROPERTIES 57
Factors Influencing Creep
There are a number of independent and interacting factors related to the material properties and composition, curing
and environmental conditions, and loading conditions that influence the magnitude of creep [Ref. 2.29]. In general,
creep increases when:
cement content is high;
water-cement ratio is high;
aggregate content is low;
air entrainment is high;
relative humidity is low;
temperature (causing moisture loss) is high;
size / thickness of the member is small;
loading occurs at an early age; and
loading is sustained over a long period.

In the absence of data related to the factors influencing creep, the Code (Cl. 6.2.5.1) recommends the use of the
ultimate creep coefficient () with values equal to 2.2, 1.6 and 1.1, for ages of loading equal to 7 days, 28 days
and one year respectively.
Within the range of service loads, creep may be assumed to be proportional to the applied stress. This assumption
facilitates the estimation of total deflection (initial plus creep deflection) of flexural members by the usual linear
elastic analysis with a reduced elastic modulus. The Code (Cl. C 4.1) terms this reduced modulus as effective
modulus of elasticity (Ece), which can be expressed in terms of the short-term elastic modulus (Ec) and the ultimate
creep coefficient () as follows:
Ece = Ec /(1+)

2.11.2 Effects of Creep

The exact mechanism of creep in concrete is still not fully understood. It is generally attributed to internal movement
of adsorbed water, viscous flow or sliding between the gel particles, moisture loss and the growth in micro-cracks.
Fig. 2.14 Typical strain-time curve for concrete in uniaxial compression

Creep of concrete results in the following detrimental results in reinforced concrete structures:
increased deflection of beams and slabs;
increased deflection of slender columns (possibly leading to buckling);
gradual transfer of load from concrete to reinforcing steel in compression members;
loss of prestress in prestressed concrete;
However, some effects of creep may even be beneficial such as reduction of stresses induced by non-uniform or
restrained shrinkage, resulting in a reduction of cracking [Ref. 2.3]. Also, in cases of stresses induced by imposed
deformations (as with settlement of supports), creep effects tend to reduce the stresses.

Shrinkage
Concrete shrinks in the hardened state due to loss of moisture by evaporation; the consequent reduction in
volume is termed drying shrinkage (often, simply shrinkage). Like creep, shrinkage introduces time-dependent
strains in concrete
Shrinkage and creep are not independent phenomena. However, for convenience, it is normal practice to treat
their effects as separate, independent and additive. All the factors related to constituent material properties,
composition of mix, curing and environmental conditions, member size and age that affect creep also affect
shrinkage.
However, unlike creep, shrinkage strains are independent of the stress conditions in the concrete. Also, shrinkage
is reversible to a great extent, i.e., alternating dry and wet conditions will cause alternating volume changes in
concrete.
When shrinkage is restrained, as it often is in concrete structures, tensile stresses develop, and, if excessive, may
lead to cracking. Similarly, a differential shrinkage, due to a moisture or thermal gradient, or due to a differential
restraint to shrinkage (caused, for example, by unsymmetrically placed reinforcement in a beam) will result in
internal stresses, curvature and deflections. Shrinkage, like creep, also leads to a loss of prestress in prestressed
concrete structures.
Since the primary cause of shrinkage is moisture loss from the cement paste phase of the concrete, it can be
minimised by keeping the unit water content in the mix as low as possible and the total aggregate content as high as
possible.

In the absence of reliable data, the Code (Cl. 6.2.4.1) recommends the use of an ultimate shrinkage
strain value of 0.0003

Temperature Effects
Concrete expands with a temperature rise and contracts as the temperature drops; thermal contraction, in fact,
produces effects similar to shrinkage
As a consequence of seasonal variations in temperature, internal stresses are induced in structures (which are
statically indeterminate), owing to restrictions in free movements. In order to limit the development of temperature
stresses in reinforced concrete buildings with large plan dimensions, it is desirable to provide suitable expansion
joints at appropriate locations particularly where there are marked changes in plan dimensions [refer Cl. 27 of the
Code].

Temperature stresses also develop on account of differential temperature (thermal gradient), as in roof slabs
(particularly of air-conditioned rooms) exposed to the sun, or in chimneys which release hot gases. In the design of
many structures (such as reinforced concrete chimneys and cooling towers), temperature loads need to be specially
considered in the design.
In general, it is good design practice to provide some nominal reinforcement (close to the
surface) in concrete at locations where cracks can potentially develop, due to the effects of
temperature and shrinkage. This is particularly desirable in the case of large exposed
surfaces of concrete (such as web faces of large-size beams) which are otherwise
unreinforced

DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
If concrete is to serve the purpose for which it is designed during its intended lifetime, it has to be durable
Primary among the internal factors is the relative permeability of the concrete, as chemical
attack can occur only if harmful chemicals can ingress into the concrete. Chemical attack is
caused by the ingress of water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorides, sulphates, and other
harmful chemicals (borne by surrounding ground or sea water, soil or humid atmosphere). It
can also occur due to the presence of deleterious constituents (such as chlorides, sulphates
and alkali-reactive aggregate) in the original concrete mix. Concrete members that are
relatively thin or have inadequate cover to reinforcement are particularly vulnerable. Lack of
good drainage of water to avoid standing pools and rundown of water along exposed
surfaces, and cracks in concrete also lead to ingress of water and deterioration of concrete.
Impermeability is governed by the constituents and workmanship used in making concrete.

reducing permeability by
- providing high grade of concrete
- using adequate cement content
- using well-graded, dense aggregate
- using low water-cement ratio
- using appropriate admixtures (including silica fume)
- achieving maximum compaction
- achieving effective curing
- using appropriate surface coatings and impermeable membranes
- avoiding sharp corners and locations where compaction is difficult
- taking care while designing to minimise possible cracks
providing direct protection to embedded steel against corrosion by
- providing adequate clear cover
- using appropriate corrosion-resistant or coated steel
- using sophisticated techniques such as cathodic protection

providing appropriate type of cement having the desired chemical resistance to sulphates and/or chlorides
controlling the chloride and sulphate contents in the concrete mix constituents (within the limits specified in Cl.
8.2.5 of the Code)
avoiding the use of alkali-reactive aggregate
providing air-entraining admixtures when resistance against freezing and thawing is required

 providing adequate thickness of members

providing adequate reinforcement designed to contain crack-widths within acceptable limits
providing adequate drainage on concrete surfaces to avoid water retention (e.g., ponding in roof slabs)
REINFORCING STEEL
concrete is reinforced with steel primarily to make up for concretes incapacity for tensile resistance. Steel
embedded in concrete, called reinforcing steel, can effectively take up the tension that is induced due to flexural
tension, direct tension, diagonal tension or environmental effects. Reinforcing steel also imparts ductility to a
material that is otherwise brittle. Furthermore, steel is
stronger than concrete in compression also; hence, concrete can be advantageously reinforced with steel for bearing
compressive stresses as well, as is commonly done in columns.

Low strength steel is also preferred in special situations where deflections and crackwidths
need to be controlled [refer Chapter 10], or where high ductility is required, as in
earthquake-resistant design
For the purpose of reinforced concrete design, the Code grades reinforcing steel in terms of
the specified yield strength. Three grades have been specified, viz. Fe 250, Fe 415, and Fe
500, conforming to specified yield strengths of 250 MPa, 415 MPa and 500 MPa respectively.
The specified yield strength normally refers to a guaranteed minimum. The actual yield
strength of the steel is usually somewhat higher than the specified value. The Code (Cl.
36.1) specifies that the specified yield strength may be treated as the characteristic
strength of reinforcing steel.

For all grades, there is an initial linear elastic portion with constant slope, which gives a
modulus of elasticity (Es) that is practically the same for all grades. The Code (Cl. 5.6.3)
specifies that the value of Es to be considered in design is 2105 MPa (N/mm2).
The process of cold-working involves stretching and twisting of mild steel, beyond the yield
plateau, and subsequently releasing the load, It should be noted that although the process
of cold-working effectively increases the yield strength of the steel, it also reduces the
ductility in the material.
In the absence of a definite yield point, the 0.2 percent proof stress is generally taken as
the yield strength. However, in cold-worked and high strength steels whose yielding is more
gradual and the yield point is not well-defined, the drop-of-pointer method should not be
used to determine the yield load and yield strength. In such cases, yield strength should be
determined from the measured stress-strain diagram as the 0.2 percent proof stress .
Design Considerations
The aim of structural design is to design a structure so that it fulfils its intended purpose during its intended lifetime
with adequate safety (in terms of strength, stability and structural integrity), adequate serviceability (in terms of
stiffness, durability, etc.) and economy.
Safety implies that the likelihood of (partial or total) collapse of the structure is acceptably low not only under
the normal expected loads (service loads), but also under abnormal but probable overloads (such as due to
earthquake or extreme wind). Collapse may occur due to various possibilities such as exceeding the loadbearing

capacity, overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue fracture, etc. Another related aspect of safety is structural integrity
(see Section 15.1.3). The objective here is to minimise the likelihood of progressive collapse.
Serviceability implies satisfactory performance of the structure under service loads, without discomfort to the
user due to excessive deflection, cracking, vibration, etc. Other considerations that come under the purview of
serviceability are durability, impermeability, acoustic and thermal insulation, etc. A design that adequately satisfies
the safety requirement need not necessarily satisfy the serviceability requirement. For example, a thin reinforced
concrete slab can be made safe against collapse (by suitable reinforcement); but if it is too thin, it is likely to result
in excessive deflections, crack-widths and permeability (leakage), and the exposed steel becomes vulnerable to
corrosion (thereby affecting durability).
Increasing the design margins of safety can enhance safety and serviceability; but this increases the cost of the
structure. In considering overall economy, the increased cost associated with increased safety margins should be
weighed against the potential losses that could result from any damage.

Limit States
A limit state is a state of impending failure, beyond which a structure ceases to perform its intended function
satisfactorily, in terms of either safety or serviceability; i.e., it either collapses or becomes unserviceable.
There are two types of limit states :
1. Ultimate limit states (or limit states of collapse), which deal with strength, overturning, sliding, buckling,
fatigue fracture, etc.
2. Serviceability limit states, which deal with discomfort to occupancy and/or malfunction, caused by excessive
deflection, crack-width, vibration, leakage, etc., and also loss of durability, etc.
Characteristic Strengths and Loads
The general definition of the characteristic strength of a material (concrete or steel) was given in Section 2.6.1. It
corresponds to the 5 percentile strength value. In the case of reinforcing steel, it refers to the specified yield stress
as mentioned in Section 2.14.1.
The characteristic load is defined as the load that has a 95 percent probability of not being exceeded during the
life of the structure (Cl. 36.2 of the Code). However, in the absence of statistical data regarding loads, the nominal
values specified for dead, live and wind loads are to be taken from IS 875 (Parts 13) : 1987 and the values for
seismic loads (earthquake loads) from IS 1893 : 2002.

Partial Safety Factors for Materials

The design strength of concrete or reinforcing steel is obtained by dividing the characteristic strength by the
appropriate partial safety factor. In the case of concrete, while fck is the characteristic cube strength, the
characteristic strength of concrete in the actual structure is taken as [refer Section 2.8.5], and hence the design
strength of concrete is 067.fck067.fckc.
For ultimate limit states, the Code specifiesc= 1.5 and s = 1.15. A higher partial safety factor has been assigned to
concrete, compared to reinforcing steel, evidently because of the higher variability associated with it.
For serviceability limit states, c=s= 1.0. A safety factor of unity is appropriate here, because the interest is in
estimating the actual deflections and crack-widths under the service loads, and not safe (conservative) values.
Partial Safety Factors for Loads
Three different load combinations have been specified (Cl. 36.4.1 of Code) involving the combined effects of dead
loads (DL), imposed or live loads (LL) and wind/earthquake loads (QL).
The code recommends the following weighted combinations for estimating the ultimate load effect (UL) and the
serviceability load effect (SL):

Ultimate limit states :

UL = 1.5 (DL + LL)
UL = 1.5 (DL + QL) or (0.9DL + 1.5 QL)
UL = 1.2 (DL + LL + QL)
The reduced load factor of 1.2 in the third combination above recognises the reduced probability of all the three
loads acting together at their possible peak values.
Serviceability limit states :
SL = 1.0 (DL + LL)
SL = 1.0 (DL + QL)
SL = (1.0 DL) + (0.8 LL) + (0.8 QL)
The use of a partial load factor of unity, in general, is appropriate, because it implies service load conditions
which is required for serviceability design.
Design Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete
The characteristic and design stressstrain curves specified by the Code for concrete in flexural compression are
depicted in Fig. 3.5. The maximum stress in the characteristic curve is restricted to 0.67 for reasons explained in
Section 2.8.5. The curve consists of a parabola in the initial region up to a strain of 0.002 (where the slope becomes
zero), and a straight line thereafter, at a constant stress level of 0.67 up to an ultimate strain of 0.0035. fckfck
For the purpose of limit states design, the appropriate partial safety factor c has to be applied, and c is equal to 1.5
for the consideration of ultimate limit states [refer Section 3.6.2]. Thus, the design curve is obtained by simply
scaling down the ordinates of the characteristic curve dividing by c [Fig. 3.5]. Accordingly, the maximum design
stress becomes equal to 0.447 ,
Design Stress-Strain Curve for Reinforcing Steel
The characteristic and design stressstrain curves specified by the Code for various grades of reinforcing steel (in
tension or compression) are shown in Figs. 3.6 and 3.7. The design yield strength is obtained by dividing the
specified yield strength by the partial safety factor fydfys = 1.15 (for ultimate limit states); accordingly, = 0.870. In
the case of mild steel (Fe 250), which has a welldefined yield point, the behaviour is assumed to be perfectly
linear-elastic up to a design stress level of 0.87 and a corresponding design yield strain fydfyfyy = 0.87/; for larger
strains, the design stress level remains constant at 0.87 [Fig. 3.6]. fyEsfy
Cracking Moment
Concrete in the extreme tension fibre of a beam section is expected to crack (for the first time) when the stress
reaches the value of the modulus of rupture fcr [refer Section 2.9.1]. At this stage, the maximum strains in
compression and tension are of a low order. Hence, assuming a linear stress-strain relation for concrete in both
tension and compression, with same elastic modulus, the following formula is obtained [applying Eq. 4.4] for the
moment at first crack or cracking moment Mcr:

MfIycrcrTt= (4.10)
where yt is the distance between the neutral axis and the extreme tension fibre, and IT is the second moment of area
of the transformed reinforced concrete section with reference to the NA.
If the contribution of the transformed area of reinforcing steel is not significant, an approximate value Mcr is
obtainable by considering the gross (concrete) section, i.e., treating the beam section as a plain concrete section.

Tbeams and Lbeams

Beams having effectively T-sections and L-sections (called T-beams and L-beams) are commonly encountered in
beam-supported slab floor systems [refer Figs. 1.10, 4.14]. In such situations, a portion of the slab acts integrally
with the beam and bends in the longitudinal direction of the beam. This slab portion is called the flange of the T- or
L-beam.
When the flange is relatively wide, the flexural compressive stress is not uniform over its
width. The stress varies from a maximum in the web region to progressively lower values at
points farther away from the web. In order to operate within the framework of the theory of
flexure, which assumes a uniform stress distribution across the width of the section, it is
necessary to define a reduced effective flange.

Substitute Frame
For determining the moments and shears at any floor
or roof level due to gravity loads, the beams at that
level together with columns above and below with their

far ends fixed may be considered to constitute the

frame.

Moment Coefficients for Continuous Beams Under Gravity Loads

It may be noted that the use of the moment coefficients, as well as the related shear coefficients, for continuous
beams and one-way slabs is subject to the following conditions (Cl. 22.5.1 of the Code):
the continuous spans should be at least three in number;
the supports should be fairly rigid and should not themselves deflect;
all the spans should have the same cross-sections;
the effective length of each span should be more-or-less the same, and at any rate should not differ by more
than 15 percent of the largest effective span;
the loading on all spans should be substantially uniformly distributed; and
no redistribution of moments is permitted.

A treatment
of the theory underlying the concept of
moment redistribution can be found in many
text books. (For example, Ref 22) (see also
comments on 36.1. I).
Redistribution of moments is applicable to
continuous beams and beams in monolithic
.52
frames. Usually columns are precluded from
the application of this principle, and
therefore, only beams are considered.
In continuous beams, the support
moments are critical and this fact, along
with the presence of bars in other members
framing into the support, may lead to
undesirable congestion of reinforcement in
the support region. The concession given

in 21.6. I to reduce the calculated support

moment to the value at the face of the support
somewhat mitigates the problem, but
further advantage can be gained from the
redistribution of moments that occur before
the complete collapse of a span in continuous
beams as a result of inelastic deformations.
In the section on working stress method
(see 43.2) a redistribution of 15 percent of
the maximum moment in the beam is permitted
as was done in 1964 version of the Code
with no special or additional requirements.
However, in the section on limit state design
(see 36.Z.Z) moment redistribution up to 30
percent is permitted, but restrictions are
placed on the requirements concerning
ductility and detailing.
In flat slabs, redistribution of moments is
indirectly taken into account through
30.4.3.4 (for direct design method) and
30.5.2.3 (for equivalent j frame method).
Therefore, 36.1.1 or 43.2 should not be
applied to flat slabs in view of the indirect
provisions.
In continuous beams with overhanging
spans, the moment at exterior support cannot
be ltered (for redistribution of
moments).

Deflection Due to Differential Shrinkage

In an unrestrained reinforced concrete member, drying shrinkage of concrete results in shortening of the member.
However, the reinforcing steel embedded in the concrete resists this shortening to some extent, with the result that
compressive stress is developed in the steel, and tensile stress is developed in the concrete. When the reinforcement
is placed symmetrically in the cross section, shrinkage does not result in any curvature of the member except in
statically indeterminate frame elements, where shrinkage results in an overall change in geometry of the entire
frame, and has an effect similar to temperature [Fig. 10.9].
When the reinforcement is unsymmetrically placed in the cross-section (as is usually the case in flexural
members), differential strains are induced across the cross section with the locations with less (or no)
reinforcement shrinking more than the location with relatively high reinforcement. This is depicted in Fig.
10.10(a) for a simply supported beam (where the main bars are located at the bottom), and in Fig. 10.10(b)
for a cantilever beam (where the main bars are on top). For convenience, it is assumed that the strain gradient
is linear. The differential shrinkage causes a curvature ( sh) in the member, which is in the same direction as
that due to flexure under loading. Thus the shrinkage deflection enhances the deflection due to loads.
Control of Deflection - Reinforced
concrete members subject to bending shall
be designed to have adequate stiffness to
limit deflections at service loads.
The allowable limits of deflection are set
with respect to:

4
b)
The final deflection (including the
effects of temperature, creep and

shrinkage) measured below the as-cast

level of floors, roofs and other
horizontal members > -_?!?%. This
250
limitation is based on crack limitation
with which the Code is very much concerned
and to avoid psychological
upsetting of the occupants or affect
the appearance of the structure.
Part of the deflection (including the
effects of temperature, creep and
shrinkage) that take place after the
construction of partitions or application
of finishes should not normally
Span/350 or 20 mm whichever is less.

This limit is intended to avoid damage

to partitions and finishes.

Definition of Effective Length

The effective length of a column in a given plane may be defined as the distance between the points of inflection
in the buckled configuration of the column in that plane.
The Code (Cl. 25.1.3) defines the unsupported length l of a column explicitly for various
types of constructions. In conventional framed construction, l is to be taken as the
clear distance between the floor and the shallower beam framing into the columns in
each direction at the next higher floor level.
Minimum Eccentricity
moment due to
eccentricity of loading which may be due to
the following:
a) Inaccuracies in construction;
b) Lateral deflection of column; and
c) Inaccuracies in loading, etc.
Therefore, the Code requires all columns
to be designed for a minimum eccentricity of
load even if the computed moment is less.

All columns shall be designed for mmrmum

eccentricity, equalto theunsupported length ofcolumn!
500 plus lateraldimensions/30, subject to a minimum
of 20 rom. Wherebi-axialbendingis considered,it is
sufficient to ensure that eccentricity exceeds the
minimum about one axis at a time.

CRITICAL SECTIONS FOR SHEAR DESIGN

In designing for flexural shear, the critical sections to be investigated first (for calculating the nominal shear stress
v) are the ones where the shear force is maximum and/or the cross-sectional area is minimal.
The maximum shear force usually occurs in a flexural member at the face of the support, and progressively
reduces with increasing distance from the support. When concentrated loads are involved, the shear force remains
high in the span between the support and the first concentrated load.
When a support reaction introduces transverse compression in the end region of the member, the shear strength
of this region is enhanced, and inclined cracks do not develop near the face of the support (which is usually
the location of maximum shear). In such a case, the Code (Cl. 22.6.2.1) allows a section located at a distance

d (effective depth) from the face of the support to be treated as the critical section [Fig. 6.6(a)]. The beam
segment between this critical section and the face of the support need be designed only for the shear force at
the critical section. As the shear force at this critical section will be less than (or equal to) the value at the face
of the support, the Code recommendation will usually result in a more favourable (less) value of v than
otherwise. This is of particular significance in base slabs of footing where flexural (one-way) shear is a major
design consideration [refer Chapter 14].
Pedestal is a compreuion member. the effective
lenlthofwhich does notexceed three time.theleast lateral
dimension.

In case of pedeStall in which the IORlitudinal

reinforcement is Dot takeD in account instrenath
calculations, nominaIlonptudinai reinforcement
notless. than0.15percentof thecross-sectional
area' shallbe provided.

Pitch anddiameter of laura;tits

J) Pitch-The pitch of transverse reinforcementshallbe
notmorethan the least of the
following distances:
i) The least lateral dimension of the
compression members;
ii) Sixteen times the smallest diameterof
thelongitudinal reinforcement bar tobe
tied: and
iii) 300mm.
2) Diameter-The diameter of the polygonal
links or lateral tiesshallbe notlessthanonefourth
of the diameter of the largest
longitudinal bar. and in no case less than
16mm.

4.7.6 Balanced Doubly Reinforced Sections of pillai, menon

Members with Varying Depth

In the case of members with varying depth [Fig. 6.5], the nominal shear stress, defined by Eq. 6.7, needs to be
modified, to account for the contribution of the vertical component of the flexural tensile force Tu which is
inclined at an angle to the longitudinal direction.
Assuming the horizontal component of Tu as Mu/z Mu/d, it can be seen from Fig. 6.5 that the net shear force
Vu,net for which the section should be designed is:
tan,dMVVuunetu= (6.8) 236 REINFORCED CONCRETE DESIGN

Accordingly, the nominal shear stress (Cl. 40.1.1 of the Code), defined with respect to Vu,net, is obtained as
bddMVuuvtan= (6.9)
where Vu and Mu are the applied factored shear force and bending moment at the section under consideration. The
negative sign in Eq. 6.8, 6.9 applies where Mu increases in the same direction as the depth increases and the
positive sign applies where Mu decreases in this direction, as shown clearly in Fig. 6.5.
A similar adjustment to the shear Vu and the nominal shear stress v is called for when the flexural compression

Cu is inclined to the longitudinal axis of the beam, i.e., the compression face is sloping. Such a situation is
encountered in tapered base slabs of footings [refer Chapter 14]. It can be shown that Eq. 6.9 holds good in this case
also.
It may be noted that when the depth increases in the same direction as the bending moment (as is usually the case
in cantilever beams), there is an advantage to be gained, in terms of reduced shear stress, by the application of
Eq. 6.9 rather than Eq. 6.7. In such a case, the use of the simpler Eq. 6.7 for nominal shear stress v
(sometimes adopted in practice, for convenience) will give conservative results. However, the use of Eq. 6.9
becomes mandatory when the effect of the vertical component of Tu is unfavourable, i.e., when the depth
decreases with increasing moment.

Creep
When concrete is loaded, the structure undergoes elastic and inelastic deformations.
Elastic deformations occur immediately after the concrete is subjected to a given load,
according to Hookes Law. Inelastic deformations increase with time as the concrete
experiences a sustained load. This inelastic deformation, also known as creep,
increases at a decreasing rate during the loading period. During the first month of
sustained loading, approximately one-fourth to one-third of the ultimate creep takes
place. As time proceeds, usually one-half to three-fourths of the ultimate creep occurs
during the first half year.
The amount of creep that the concrete undergoes is dependent upon 1) the magnitude
of the sustained loading, 2) the age and strength of the concrete when the stress is
applied, and 3) the total amount of time that the concrete is stressed. When the
concrete is loaded, the specimen undergoes internal properties such as closure of voids
in the concrete, viscous flow of the cement-water paste, crystalline flow in aggregates,
and water flowing out of the cement "gel" due to drying and loading. Aggregates play
an important role in both creep and shrinkage. A well graded, coarser aggregate with a
low voids content decreases the effects of creep and shrinkage. Also, hard, dense
aggregates that are not absorptive and have a high modulus of elasticity are desirable
for low shrinkage and creep rates. Another important aspect to reducing creep is the
type of curing procedure performed prior to loading. Very little creep occurs when a
high-pressure steamed curing procedure is used. Atmospheric and high-pressure steam
curing produces little creep when compared to the seven-day moist curing method.
These two types of curing reduce the drying shrinkage by half as much as they reduce
creep. Other factors affecting creep include type of cement, amount of cement paste,

size and shape of concrete, amount of reinforcement (rebar), volume-to-surface ratio,

temperature, and humidity.