PROGRAMME

of the International Conference

Interethnic Relations in Transylvania.
Militaria Mediaevalia in Central and South-Eastern Europe
Sibiu, October 16th - 19th , 2014

Organiser:
SECRETARIATUL GENERAL AL GUVERNULUI ROMNIEI
DEPARTAMENTUL PENTRU RELAII INTERETNICE
THE GENERAL SECRETARIAT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ROMANIA
DEPARTMENT FOR INTERETHNIC RELATIONS

Partners:
ACADEMIA ROMN INSTITUTUL DE CERCETRI SOCIO-UMANE DIN SIBIU
ROMANIAN ACADEMY THE INSTITUTE OF SOCIO-HUMAN RESEARCH SIBIU
UNIVERSITATEA LUCIAN BLAGA SIBIU DEPARTAMENTUL DE ISTORIE, PATRIMONIU I TEOLOGIE
PROTESTANT
LUCIAN BLAGA UNIVERSITY OF SIBIU DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, PATRIMONY AND PROTESTANT
TEOLOGY
MUZEUL NAIONAL BRUKENTHAL
BRUKENTHAL NATIONAL MUSEUM
ASOCIAIA PENTRU NFRUMUSEAREA ORAULUI SIBIU
THE ASSOCIATION FOR THE EMBELLISHMENT FOR THE CITY OF SIBIU
DIRECIA JUDEEAN PENTRU CULTUR SIBIU
SIBIU COUNTY OFFICE FOR HERITAGE
CONSILIUL JUDEEAN SIBIU - BIBLIOTECA JUDEEAN ASTRA
SIBIU COUNTY COUNCIL - ASTRA SIBIU COUNTY LIBRARY
MUZEUL RII FGRAULUI VALER LITERAT
THE FGRA COUNTRY MUSEUM VALER LITERAT

PROGRAM GENERAL / GENERAL PROGRAMME

JOI / THURSDAY 16 0ct. 2014

1900 Cina festiv de deschidere / Festive Opening Dinner Golden Tulip Hotel
2100 Clubul conferinei / Club of the conference Weltkultur Cafe

VINERI / FRIDAY 17 0ct. 2014

1000 1030 Deschiderea conferintei internationale / Opening of the International Conference
Biblioteca Astra, corp B / Astra Library, B

1030 - 1300 Comunicri / Lectures Biblioteca Astra / Astra Library

Section I: Archaeological Weapons and Collections
st

Biblioteca Astra, corp A, et. 1, sala 10 / Astra Library, A, 1 floor, room 10

Section II: Archaeology of Fortifications, Military History
st

Biblioteca Astra, corp B, et. 1, sala 119 / Astra Library, B, 1 floor, room 119

1300 - 1500 Prnz / Lunch Golden Tulip Hotel

1500 1645 Comunicri / Lectures Biblioteca Astra / Astra Library
1700 - 1900 Vernisaj expoziie/ Official opening of the exhibition
Radu Popa (1933-1993). Istoric, arheolog, profesor i lansare carte / and book presentation
Radu Popa. Studii i articole (Editura Mega, Cluj-Napoca, 2014)
Biblioteca Astra, corp A, et. 2, Sala Festiv / Astra Library, A, 2

nd

floor, Festive Room

1900 Cina / Dinner Golden Tulip Hotel

2100 Clubul conferinei / Club of the conference Weltkultur Cafe

Pe durata conferinei, toi participanii beneficiaz de 10% reducere / During the conference all the participants
will benefit of a 10% discount.

SMBT / SATURDAY 18 0ct. 2014

930 - 1900 Excursie de studiu Sibiu - Fgra / Research field trip Sibiu - Fgra:
930 Plecarea de la hotel / Departure from the hotel
1015 1100 Castelul Brukenthal din Avrig / The Brukenthal Castle from Avrig
1130 1215 Mnstirea cistercian Cra / The Cistercian Monastery in Cra
1300 1545 Cetatea Fgraului / Fgra Citadel
vizitare / visit, prnz / lunch, demonstraie tir cu arcul / archery demonstration
1615 1645 Biserica fortificat Cincu / The fortified church Cincu
1700 - 1730 Biserica fortificat Dealu Frumos / The fortified church Dealu Frumos
1800 1830 Biserica ortodox Fofeldea / The orthodox church Fofeldea
1900 Cina / Dinner Golden Tulip Hotel
2100 Clubul conferinei / Club of the conference Weltkultur Cafe

DUMINIC / SUNDAY 19 0ct. 2014

915 - 1200 Vizitare Muzeului n Aer Liber sau a Muzeului de Istorie Casa Altemberger / Visit of the Open
Air Astra Museum or of The History Museum Altemberger House
1200 - 1330 Prnz / Lunch Golden Tulip Hotel
1330 Plecarea participanilor / Departure of the participants

Pe durata conferinei, toi participanii beneficiaz de 10% reducere / During the conference all the participants
will benefit of a 10% discount.

PROGRAMUL COMUNICRILOR / LECTURES PROGRAMME

Section I: Archaeological Weapons and Collections
(Biblioteca Astra, corp A, et. 1, sala 10 / Astra Library, A, 1st floor, room 10)
Chair: Valeri Yotov, Florin Mrginean
1030-1045 Warlords guarding the road of gold? Continuity versus discontinuity from the late antiquity to
the middle age,* Marius-Mihai Ciut (Lucian Blaga University, Sibiu, Romania), Ctlin
Borangic (Vasile Prvan Institute of Archaeology, Bucharest, Romania)
1045-1100 Mauri Equites. The Identity of the Moorish Light Cavalry from Trajan to Early Mediaeval Times,*
Cosmin Gabriel Onofrei (Romanian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and
History of Art Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
1100-1115 An Early-Byzantine Shield-Boss from Capidava,* Ioan C. Opri, Alexandru Raiu (University
of Bucharest, Romania / National Museum of Romanian History, Bucharest, Romania)
1115-1130 Funnel-shaped snaffle mobile horse bits of the 7th - 8th centuries discovered in Transylvania
and Slovakia,* Clin Cosma (Romanian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and
History of Art Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
1130-1145 Sickles Offerings in Avar Graves in the Carpathian Basin, George Tomegea (Astra National
Museum Complex, Sibiu, Romania)
1145-1200

Coffee break

1200-1215 Early Mediaeval Arrows Discovered in Sylvanian Basin,* Dan Bcue-Crian (The History and
Art County Museum, Zalu, Romania)
1215-1230 Thrusting pole arms in the early medieval graves from the Carpathian Basin,* Martin Husr
(Institute for Research of Constantine and Methodius' Cultural Heritage, Nitra, Slovakia)
1230-1245 Ranged weapons of eastern origin in the late 9th and 10th century,* Michal Holek (Slovak
Academy of Sciences, Nitra, Slovakia)
1245-1300 Four pieces of Military equipment. Prick spurs from the medieval settlement of Miercurea
Sibiului IV,* Adrian Luca (Brukenthal National Museum, Sibiu, Romania)
1300-1500

Lunch break

1500-1515 Worior graves in the cemetery no. 3 from Bratei, Alpr Dobos (Romanian Academy of
Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and History of Art, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
1515-1530 Weapons Found in Cladova Fortress (Arad County),* Silviu Oa (National Museum of History,
Bucharest, Romania)
1530-1545 Contributions to the Medieval Weaponry in the Superior Mure Valley (13th-15th Centuries),*
Keve Lszl, Zaln Gyrfi (Mure County Museum, Trgu Mure, Romania)
* Vezi rezumatul / See the abstract.

1545-1600 The tale behind the discovery of a sword in the Criul-Alb river Ineu, Arad County (New imput
to the repertoire of swords discovered on Romanian territory), * Florin Mrginean (Lucian
Blaga University, Sibiu, Romania)
1600-1615 A weaponry and equipment traces of the retreat after the battle nearby Varna in 1444, Valeri
Yotov (Museum of History, Departament of Archaeology, Varna, Bulgary)
1615-1630 The First and the Second Battle of Mohcs (AD 1526, 1687). Archaeological Researches and
Perspectives,* Balzs Polgr (Military History Institute and Museum, Budapest, Hungary)
1630-1645 Items from a Milanese armour in the collections of the Brukenthal Museum, Anca Nioi
(Brukenthal National Museum, Sibiu, Romania)

* Vezi rezumatul / See the abstract.

Section II: Archaeology of Fortifications, Military History

st

(Biblioteca Astra, corp B, et. 1, sala 119 / Astra Library, B, 1 floor, room 119)

Chair: Daniela Marcu, Zsolt Csok

1030-1045 Researches on the formation and development of the medieval County of Crasna, Zsolt Csok
(Muzeul Naional de Istorie a Transilvaniei, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
1045-1100 Commentary on some Passages from John Cinnamus and Nicetas Choniates about the Early
History of the Vlachs, Ioto Valeriev (Museum of History, Varna, Bulgary)
1100-1115 Guards of the South-Eastern Border of the Arpadian Kingdom in Documentary and
Cartographical Evidences, Zeno Karl Pinter (The Institute of Socio-Human Research Sibiu /
Lucian Blaga University, Sibiu, Romania)
1115-1130 Guards of the South-Eastern Border of the Arpadian Kingdom in Archaeological Evidences,*
Claudia Urduzia (Brukenthal National Museum, Sibiu, Romania)
1130-1145 Defence Tactics of Transylvanian Saxons. About churches fortification,* Ioan-Cosmin Ignat
(Lucian Blaga University, Sibiu, Romania)
1145-1200
00

15

12 -12

Coffee break
Contributions to the history of the medieval fortifications of Alba Iulia, Daniela Marcu (SC
Damasus SRL, Brasov, Romania)

1215-1230 Guarding the frontier: the Hussars in medieval Banat,* Adrian Magina (The Museum of
Mountain Banat, Reia, Romania)
1230-1245 The Banate of Severin: Military Organization on the Lower Danube in the Later Middle Ages,*
Martyn Rady (University College London, Great Britain)
1245-1300 A Military Art Theorist: General Giorgio Basta (1544-1607),* Tudor Slgean (The
Ethnographical Museum of Transylvania, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
1300-1500

Lunch break

1500-1515 La terminologie militaire vernaculaire dans les documents medievaux de Transylvanie, Avram
Andea (Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
1515-1530 The Role of Saxon Towns in Military Strategies and Military Conflict of the Late Middle Ages,
Cosmin Rusu (Babe-Bolyai University, Cluj Napoca, Romania)
1530-1545 Urban recycling typology of the medieval fortifications in Southern Transylvania,* Rzvan C.
Pop (Sibiu County Office for Heritage, Sibiu, Romania)

* Vezi rezumatul / See the abstract.

This Work was supported by a Grant of the Ministry of National Education CNCS-UEFISCDI, project number PN IIID-PCE-2012-4-0579.

REZUMATE / ABSTRACTS
Section I: Archaeological Weapons and Collections

MAURI EQUITES. THE IDENTITY OF THE MOORISH LIGHT CAVALRY FROM TRAJAN TO EARLY
MEDIEVAL TIMES 1
Cosmin Onofrei
A moorish horsemen troop, led by their own princeps, Lucius Quietus, is mentioned during
Trajans campaigns. Even if these horsemen, attested both in the First Dacian War and in the Parthic
War, were not among the regular troops (ala, cohors equitata ), their equipment is not different from the
ones documented for later periods. The Moorish riders, as shown on the scenes of Trajan Columns
friese (plate 64), are on horseback, with short braided hair, wearing a short tunic and a small sized
leather shield; they are mainly represented as mounted lancers. Their depiction, even if in a simplified
version, is similar to the later funerary monuments from Caesarea/Cherchel and Neapolis/Palestina. They
are depicted with the same equipment when they are part of the Imperial Guard, as it can still be seen on
the Arch of Galerius from Tessalonike, in the Adventus Scene, (Plate 46). Even with the changing
battlefield tactics throughout the IInd to the VIth century AD, the Moors will be present in the Roman army
until later on, being mentioned even by Procopius (in his History of Wars), fighting alongside the huns, as
foederati. Their equipment shows that the Moorish Ranged horsemen were the lightest cavalry and,
therefore, the fastest.

AN EARLY-BYZANTINE SHIELD-BOSS FROM CAPIDAVA

Ioan C. Opri, Alexandru Raiu
This presentation is part of a series of similar endeavours by which the authors intend to harness
scientifically the archaeological research undertaken between 2007 and 2011, in the Building C1from the
Roman castellum in Capidava (Constana County, Romania).
Located at an equal distance of 18 roman miles (27 km), from both Axiopolis (today Cernavod) to
the south and Carsium (Hrova) to the north, Capidava is one of the most important Roman forts raised
during the broad efforts to strengthen the Lower Danube Roman Frontier in the beginning of the 2nd
century AD. The fortification went through three phases of reconstruction, but without altering the original
plan and constructive dimensions, i.e. a rectangle measuring 105 m by 127 m oriented on a NW to SE
axis. The first reconstruction a fundamentis occurs after the Gothic attacks from 248-250 AD. The raid
was followed by two such events in mid 4th century AD, and again at the end of the 6th century -beginning
of the 7th century AD, when the fort concludes its existence at the falling of the Danube limes under the
pressure of the Slavs. The walls of the medieval fortress in the 9th century AD overlap the Late Roman
enclosure on three sides. In the middle of the 11th century the archaeological research records the last
occupational level of Capidava fortress, with the total destruction of the settlement after the attack of the
Pechenegs and Uzes tribes.

This paper is presented in the framework of the project MINERVA Cooperare pentru cariera de elita in cercetarea
doctorala si postdoctorala, cod contract: POSDRU 159/1.5/S/137832, financed by the European Social Fund through
the Sectorial Operational Program for Human Resources Development 2007-2013.

The shield-boss (umbo) was discovered under the tiles and burnt beams debris from the collapsed
roof of the C1/1994 building. The object underwent severe burning shown by its poor preservation state.
Although the boss was discovered intact, after air contact its state has begun to decline, ultimately it has
fissured. At present after undergoing a long process of restoration its state of preservation is stabilized.
The boss was discovered directly on the late 6th century floor, along with several significant dating
artefacts.
In the following presentation the authors will try to analyse the discovery of military equipment in the
archaeological context of a civil building, in connection with a civil-type of inventory.

FUNNEL-SHAPED SNAFFLE MOBILE HORSE BITS OF THE 7TH - 8TH CENTURIES DISCOVERED
IN TRANSYLVANIA AND SLOVAKIA
Clin Cosma
This paper aims at introducing a unique horse bit within the panoply of artifacts of the genre,
different from all the other horse bits dated to the 7th-8th centuries discovered in various sites of the
European environment.
Two specimens come from Transylvania, at Iernut/Sfntu Gheorghe (Mure county) and Scueni
(Bihor county). The Iernut (Mure county) horse bit was discovered in a house and is unpublished. The
specimen at Scueni is a chance find and was only mentioned in the specialty literature. The third horse
bit was found in a grave from within the cemetery at Devnska Nov Ves, in Slovakia, without yet being
granted special attention.
The bits discovered in Transylvania were made of iron, while the one from Slovakia was made of
bronze. All three were manufactured from bent metal plates. The mouthpiece is composed of two mobile
bars. The exterior ends of both bars were cut out and twisted in the shape of a hook, in order to allow the
attachment of the cheek pieces. The interior ends, shaped as hooks as well, linked the two bars. The
funnel-shaped bars of the mouthpiece are hollow inside and the maximum diameter is located at the
exterior ends. The bits display almost similar dimensions, ranging between 16.3 cm (Iernut/Sfntu
Gheorghe) and 19 cm (Scueni). The one discovered at Devnska Nov Ves is 0.2 cm longer than the bit
from Iernut/Sfntu Gheorghe and 2 cm shorter than the one from Scueni. The cheek piece, preserved
only in the case of the object from Scueni, can be considered a special feature of this bit type. It was
made of metal and it is ring-shaped, with a fan-like plate. The bits from Iernut/Sfntu Gheorghe and
Devnska Nov Ves must have been provided, probably, with similar cheek pieces.
The technological and functional characteristics, as well as the shape of the mouthpiece, in
particular, define the three bits from Iernut-Sfntu Gheorghe, Scueni, and Devnska Nov Ves as a
particular type among the group of similar artefacts discovered on the European sites dated during the
Early Middle Ages. This type can be named: Funnel-shaped snaffle mobile horse bits.
The bits belonging to the type characterized by a mouthpiece composed of two funnel-shaped
bars discovered at Iernut/Sfntu Gheorghe, Devnska Nov Ves, and Scueni can be dated during the 7th
century. Their usage during the second half of the same century and at the beginning of the 8th century
cannot be excluded.
All three mobile bits with a mouthpiece composed of two funnel-shaped bars were identified inside
the Slavic-Avar milieu.
EARLY MEDIAEVAL ARROWS DISCOVERED IN SYLVANIAN BASIN

Dan Bcue-Crian

a. The geographical frame. The area under discussion is called Sylvanian Basin or Central
Sylvanian Basin. The geographical boundaries are drawn in Northwest by Culmea Slajului, in the east,
by Mese Mountains and in the west, by Plopis Mountains and Sylvanian Hills.

b. Arrows discovered in the settlements dating from the second half of the VIIth - first half of Xth
centuries. All the arrows discovered are made of iron. They come from settlements in Popeni "Pe pogor",
Cuceu "Valea Bochii" and Aghire "Sub pune". On the basis of the shape and the dimensions, may be
classified into four types.
c. Arrows discovered in the settlements dating from the second half of the Xth - XIth centuries. All
the arrows discovered are made of iron. They come from settlement in Aghire "Sub pune". On the
basis of the shape and the dimensions, may be classified into three types.
d. Arrows discovered in the fortresses. All the arrows discovered are made of iron. They come
from the fortress in imleu Silvaniei Observator. On the basis of the shape and the dimensions, may be
classified into two types.

THRUSTING POLE ARMS IN THE EARLY MEDIEVAL GRAVES FROM THE CARPATHIAN BASIN
Mgr. Martin Husr
The early medieval thrusting pole arms from the Carpathian Basin were founded in six categories
of the finding complex. These complexes are the graves, sacrificial finds (or in German Opferfunde),
settlements finds, further the finds from rivers and brooks (fluvial finds) and stray finds. Over 80 per cent
of all spear- or lanceheads have been found in the graves. Among others for the unconventional way of
the thrusting pole arms placing in graves I have come to this knowledge: three heads from the time of the
Avar Khaganate (namely grave no. 10 from Cfer-Pc it is from the 8th century; grave no. A-405 from
Klked-Feketekapu A this is dated to the early Avar period and grave no. 1 from Bly-Sziebert puszta A
that is dated from 720 to 750, and one from the Conquest period, unknown grave from TiszajenKecskspart dated to the 10th century), were vertically stuck into a filling or bottom of the graves. This
custom we can track in some specific forms at the early medieval nomad ethnic groups of the Eastern
Europe and Asia (as the Kkturks, Volga Bulgars and Hungarians). Then a combination of the spike
(group A) and head with the flat blade (group B) in one grave may suggest that the first one was a part of
the lance and the second one a part of the spear. Two or three heads with a flat oval blade may be the
components of the Slavic javelins according to the Strategikon, Leo the Wise and John of Efez. We can
observe this case during the early Avar period in four graves - in the horseman grave no. B/1(555) in the
Cik cemetery and in the infantryman grave no. 76, 88 and 360 Pkaszepetk-Mesterfldek, Avar u.
cemetery. The spikes of the typological group A were often in combination with reflex bows, the so called
early Avar period swords and paloshes, and later with sabres. On the contrary, the winged heads were in
one grave with swords of the Western Europe origin. Then the so called bradatica (the Moravian beardaxe) was mostly combined with the heads of the unclear provenance.

RANGED WEAPONS OF EASTERN ORIGIN IN THE LATE 9TH AND 10TH CENTURY
Mgr. Michal Holek
Key words: Ranged weapons, bow, arrow, quiver, nomadic societies, early middle ages,
warfare in the 10th century
Abstract: In the archaeological material of the period during and after the demise of Great
Moravia, there are numerous finds of a ranged weapon typical for nomadic societies od eastern Europe
and Asia. Its recurve reflex bow, in archaeological sources represented by antlerplates that reinforced its
rigid parts. Even that this weapon was known in the earlier periods, we can trace their absence in
archaeological contexts from the 8th century, when they disappear from the material of Avar kaghanate,
until the beginning of the 10th century, put into context with the arrival of so-called old Hungarians. With
these bows comes hand in hand specific types of arrowheads, ending with thorn, with rhombic, deltoid or
forked shape, and their accessories, quiver and gorythos. Bearers of these weapons left in the area of
Slovakia numerous grave finds, but also indications of a battles, which compared with the written sources
and analogies from neighbouring areas like for example Moravia, Czech Republic and Germany can
provide evidence of the turbulent era of 10th century, that ended with creation of a new state formation.

FOUR PIECES OF MILITARY EQUIPMENT. PRICK SPURS FROM THE MEDIEVAL SETTLEMENT OF
MIERCUREA SIBIULUI IV 2
Adrian Luca
Keywords: Miercurea Sibiului IV, archaeology, prick spurs, chronology, middle ages
Abstract: During the preventive archaeological research, determined by the construction of the
Ortie-Sibiu highway, the archaeologists have found and identified the remains of a medieval
settlement, in the proximity of the Miercurea Sibiului town. The subject of our study is to present some
special archaeological materials (four prick spurs), discovered in situ, at Miercurea Sibiului IV. The
contextualization of these objects and their analysis are arguments for a chronological framing of the
settlement.

THE FIRST AND THE SECOND BATTLE OF MOHCS (AD 1526, 1687), ARCHAEOLOGICAL
RESEARCH AND PERSPECTIVES
Balzs Polgr
Both the first and the second battle of Mohcs have an expansive historiography, as they are
rather important in Hungarian history. The first battle of Mohcs is the symbol of the end of the Age of the
Hungarian Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, and also represents a border in historical research, as the end
of the Middle Ages in Hungary is marked by that date. After the battle of 1526 the country sank in
anarchy, as two kings, Ferdinand I from the Habsburg family and John I from the Szapolyai family were
competing for full power above the country. In the end all this caused that the medieval Hungarian state
broke up to three parts (the part of Hungary under Ottoman Rule, the Habsburg Hungarian Kingdom
and the Principality of Transylvania) after the Turkish occupation of the capital city, Buda (1543). The
Hungarian Reoccupation War started after the failure of the Ottoman siege of Wien in 1683, although the
Christian allied army recaptured Buda only in 1686. Finally, the Christian army defeated the OttomanTurkish army in the second battle of Mohcs in 1687 and captured Beograd in 1688.
The MoD. Military History Institute and Museum (MHIM) has been conducting research on the two
battlefields (Baranya county) since 2010. This included the field walking and geophysical survey of
Fldvr village (accomplished together with the Janus Pannonius Museum of Pcs), which is an
important topographical point of the first battle of Mohcs, as the battle was finished there. The MHIM has
researched the battlefield of the second combat of Mohcs (fray of Harsny mountain) also. The two
battles have different source-base: the combat of 1526 has only a few authentic written or pictorial
sources, but the fight of 1687 has considerably more of such. The different amount of source material
resulted different battlefield or landscape archaeological perspectives.
A.) In case of the first battle of Mohcs, we were only able to localize some important
topographical points of the area of the combat (the parish church and house-plots of Fldvr).
B.) In case of the second battle of Mohcs, with the help of written sources (the diary of Charles of
Lotharingia and the marquis of Villars letters and memoirs), and the archive maps (I-II. Military survey),
supplemented with archive air photos and metal detector survey, we could do more, as it was possible to
localize the first phase of the spot of the battle of Harsny mountain.

This work was possible with the financial support of European Social Fund, Operational Programme Human
Resources Development 2007 - 2013, Priority no. 1 "Education and training in support for growth and development
of the knowledge society", Key Area of Intervention 1.5 "Doctoral and post-doctoral research support" Title:
"MINERVA - Cooperation for elite career in PhD and post doctoral research", ID POSDRU 159/1.5/S/137832.

WEAPONS FOUND IN CLADOVA FORTRESS (ARAD COUNTY)

Ph. D. Silviu Oa

Most of the excavations made during the 80' in the fortress of Cladova are still little known. Vasile
Boronean gave me the permission to publish some of the items found in Cladova. The items were
discovered during the excavations made in 1980 and 1983, in an workshop (workshop no. 3) or in other
parts of the fortress. The workshop was dated with a coin issued during the reign of Bernhard II (12021256).
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE MEDIEVAL WEAPONRY IN THE SUPERIOR MURE VALLEY (13TH-15TH
CENTURIES)
Keve Lszl, Zaln Gyrfi
Very few archaeological discoveries are known so far dating from the 13th -15th centuries in the
Superior Mure Valley. This time sequence is not very rich from the historical data perspective either.
Due to metal detecting activities led by non-professional collaborators, the ReghinGloaia section of
this valley gained several new points of discovery consisting of medieval military equipment. Along the
13th century, the royal counties from Transylvania followed the Hungarian Kingdom administrative pattern
and turned gradually into nobiliary counties. The researched area was mostly part of the former Turda
County, and in 1228 was comprised in the Suplac domain belonging to the Dnes family, from the Tomaj
lineage. In this presentation we aim to describe the weaponry pieces that were found lately in our county
and meanwhile were transferred into our museums custody.
THE TALE BEHIND THE DISCOVERY OF A SWORD IN THE CRIUL-ALB RIVER INEU, ARAD
COUNTY (NEW IMPUT TO THE REPERTOIRE OF SWORDS DISCOVERED ON ROMANIAN
TERRITORY)
Florin Mrginean
It is a well known fact that discovering pieces of weaponry in Medieval sites is a very seldom
occurrence. The causes behind this fact are well known and very well documented in scientific literature,
being attributed to the changes that have taken place in funerary rituals since the forceful introduction of
Christianity. However, the discovery of swords in or around river beds may be facilitated by their loss in
battle, their displacement and transportation from settlements and necropolis following floods, or by their
use in ceremonies!
A similar scenario might spring to mind in the case of a sword discovered by chance on the Criul
Alb river bank, approximately 700 m west of the medieval citadel of Ineu, which constitutes the subject of
my presentation. The entire story built around it by the locals and the way it was discovered were
revealed to me by its first possessor, who eventually sold it, now the sword being part of a private
collection.
The presentation of this unpublished piece, with a certain place of discovery, completes the
repertoire of swords found in present day Romania.

Section II: Archaeology of Fortifications, Military History

GUARDS OF THE SOUTH-EASTERN

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCES 3

BORDER

OF

THE

ARPADIAN

KINGDOM

IN

Claudia Urduzia
This paper is concerned with the phenomenon of fortification of the south-eastern border of the
Arpadian kingdom as it is revealed by recent archaeological researches. During 2011-2013 on route of
the future highway Ortie - Sibiu three unknown settlements of this period were revealed in the area of
Miercurea Sibiului (Sibiu County). They testify for the presence of a population which although has
obvious agrarian preoccupations, it also has military preoccupation. The dating of these settlements and
their archaeological inventory seems to link them with those custodes confiniorum qui vulgo ewrii [guards]
vocantur in king Ladislaus legislation (lex.II.17, i).
DEFENCE TACTICS OF TRANSYLVANIAN SAXONS. ABOUT CHURCHES FORTIFICATION 4
Ioan-Cosmin Ignat
Transylvania played, in the Middle Ages, an important role in determining the tactics of defense
against attacks came from the East or South regions. German colonization, in the south of Transylvania,
since the second half of the twelfth century, brought stability in this area. But these communities will need
a long time before they will be able to develop a unitary defense system to stop the destructive incursions
of the Tartars and Turks. Saxons choose to fortify their churches, but the defense effort was not exclusive
theirs in this area (Romanians and Hungarians also had a substantial contribution). In this report I will
bring into discussion the efforts and processes that led to a defensive tactics that has lasted for centuries
in this territory, and whose results are visible even today. We will also (re)consider the major conflicts that
have led to the fortification of the churches in southern Transylvania by the Saxons. In a short case study
I will present the most innovative and spectacular fortifications of the churches.

GUARDING THE FRONTIER: THE HUSSARS IN MEDIEVAL BANAT

Adrian Magina
In the first half of the fifteenth century a new type of soldier has appeared in the medieval
Hungarian Kingdom. Mentioned for the first time in 1432 in the southern part of the kingdom, hussars
became an essential component of the Hungarian border defence in front of the Ottoman advance. Light
cavalry, consisting mostly of Serbian people, hussars were quite useful in war of attrition at the southern
border of the kingdom, especially in the area of nowadays Banat. In the second half of the century they
3

This work was possible with the financial support of European Social Fund, Operational Programme Human
Resources Development 2007 - 2013, Priority no. 1 "Education and training in support for growth and development
of the knowledge society", Key Area of Intervention 1.5 "Doctoral and post-doctoral research support" Title:
"MINERVA - Cooperation for elite career in PhD and post doctoral research", ID POSDRU 159/1.5/S/137832.
4
This work was possible with the financial support of European Social Fund, Operational Programme Human
Resources Development 2007 - 2013, Priority no. 1 "Education and training in support for growth and development
of the knowledge society", Key Area of Intervention 1.5 "Doctoral and post-doctoral research support" Title:
"MINERVA - Cooperation for elite career in PhD and post doctoral research", ID POSDRU 159/1.5/S/137832.

represented about 60% of military units of the province. King Matthias use hussar units both in offensive
campaigns (Silesia, Austria) and in rejection of the Ottoman incursions. These elite troops were initially
led by voivods and Serbian nobles, but financially supported by the royal revenues. For almost half a
century, until the battle of Mohcs, hussars were the main mobile element of Hungarian army and one of
the most important units in the war against Turks.

THE BANATE OF SEVERIN: MILITARY ORGANIZATION ON THE LOWER DANUBE IN THE LATER
MIDDLE AGES
Martyn Rady
How was power distributed in late medieval Hungary and, more particularly, on its south-eastern
frontier? One of the ways has been investigated by Pl Engel, who has looked at how offices were
apportioned within structures of allegiance. Another might be through institutions of vassalage. The two
often converged. It is, however, clear that power was seldom territorialized, in the sense of comprising
subinfeudated blocks of land, but that it consisted instead of sources of income and manpower, which
were distributed down through a hierarchy of lordship and office-holding. The present paper looks at the
organization of the banate of Severin, which was established in the thirteenth century as part of the
kingdoms defensive shield and propugnaculum on the Lower Danube. Historians have often attempted
to plot the banate two-dimensionally, imagining it to occupy a concrete space, with fixed boundaries. The
banate was instead a medley of territorially disconnected provisioning and recruiting districts, tributes and
tolls, which were intended to support its military activity and network of castles. Sometimes the castles
and their associated revenues and appurtenances were assigned to office-holders, drawn from the
kingdoms baronage; on others, their resources were allocated to foreign, mostly Romanian and Serbian,
vassals. The two arrangements occasionally converged, with vassals also acting as office-holders.
Nonetheless, some of the subordinate parts of the structure obtained a jurisdictional self-sufficiency,
becoming autonomous units of Landschafthence the so-called Romanian districts. It is one of the
features of frontier zones that they often replicate in exaggerated fashion conditions in the hinterland.
Study of the banate of Severin tells us much about some of the assumptions that guided parts of Central
Europes institutional and military development. It also explains why we should not think of the banate as
a territory at all, but instead as a congeries of revenues, recruiting districts and other resources. The
paper looks in particular at the fortification of the Lower Danube in the 13thto 15th centuries, with special
reference to the banate of Severin and its associated castles.

A MILITARY ART THEORIST: GENERAL GIORGIO BASTA (1544-1607)

Tudor Slgean
Giorgio Basta (1544-1607) has earned, during his lifetime, a solid reputation of an excellent
commanding general and of a valuable military theorist. Some of the great generals of the seventeenth
century (Albrecht von Wallenstein, Ernesto Montecuccoli, Franois of Bassompierre, Jean de
Montmorency) boasted the influence that Basta has had on their military careers. Two of the Basta
books, Il mastro di campo generale (1606) and Il governo della cavalleria leggera (1612) have made a
career at the time, being reprinted and translated until the middle of the seventeenth century. In addition,
Il mastro di campo generale is a book all the more important as it was written by Basta, according of the
testimony of Ciro Spontoni, during his presence in Transylvania in 1600-1601.

URBAN RECYCLING TYPOLOGY OF THE MEDIEVAL FORTIFICATIONS FROM SOUTHERN

TRANSYLVANIA. STUDY CASE: SIBIU
Rzvan C. POP
The urban recycling is an aspect less studied by the specialists in the evolution of the Romanian
cities. Until now we can discuss more of punctual analysis than proper researches in the sense of the
terms mentioned above.
Of this motive, we think that is important to follow this aspect as part of the evolution of a city or a
present monument. Because of the lack of such studies in the Romanian field of urban history, we are
trying to put down a series of typologies of urban recycling.
The fortifications from Southern Transylvania are a good example for all the types of fortifications
techniques used along the centuries in this area. From all the existing municipalities and rural sites in this
geographical area, the fortified structures of Sibiu are ones of the most complexes. They are realized
through different historical periods, from wooden fortifications to Vauban elements.
Today, a significant percentage of the old fortifications still exist, not in the original purpose but in
different forms of urban usage. This study tries to lighten up the transformations through which the old
fortifications resisted until the present days.