Section 7.

6The Cross Product of Two

Vectors

a3b

b3a
The Cross Product
(Vector Product)

EXAMPLE 1

In the previous three sections, the dot product along with some of its applications
was discussed.
In this section, a second product called the cross product, denoted
!
!
as a  b , is introduced. The cross product is sometimes referred to as a vector
product because, when it is calculated, the result is a vector and not a scalar. As
we shall see, the cross product can be used in physical applications but also in the
understanding of the geometry of R3.
!
!
a If we are given two vectors, a and b , and wish to calculate their cross product,
what we are trying to find is a particular vector that is perpendicular to each
of the two given vectors. As will be observed, if we consider two nonzero,
noncollinear vectors, there is an infinite number of vectors perpendicular to the
two vectors. If we want to determine the cross product of these two vectors, we
choose just one of these perpendicular vectors as our answer. Finding the cross
product of two vectors is shown in the following example.

Calculating the cross product of two vectors

!
!
!
!
Given the vectors a
11, 1, 02 and b
11, 3, 12 , determine a  b .
Solution
!
!
When calculating
a  b , we are determining a vector that is perpendicular to
!
!
!
both a and b . We start by letting this vector be v
1x, y, z 2.
! !
Since a # v
0, 11, 1, 0 2 # 1x, y, z2
0 and x  y
0.
! !
In the same way, since b # v
0, 11, 3, 12 # 1x, y, z 2
0 and x  3y  z
0.
!
!
Finding of the cross product of a and b requires solving a system of two
equations in three variables which, under normal circumstances, has an infinite
number of solutions. We will eliminate a variable and use substitution to find a
solution to this system.
1

xy
0

x  3y  z
0

Subtracting eliminates x, 2y  z
0, or z
2y. If we substitute z
2y in

equation 2 , it will be possible to express x in terms of y. Doing so gives
x  3y  12y2
0 or x
y. Since x and z can both be expressed in terms of y,
we write the solution as 1y, y, 2y2
y11, 1, 2 2. The solution to this system

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a 3 b, k = 1
b
O

is any vector of the form y11, 1, 22 . It can be left in this form, but is
usually written as k11, 1, 2 2 , kR, where k is a parameter
representing any real value. The parameter k indicates that there is an
infinite number of solutions and that each of them is a scalar multiple of
11, 1, 2 2. In this case, the cross product is defined to be the vector
where k
1that is, 11, 1, 22 . The choosing of k
1 simplifies
computation and makes sense mathematically, as we will see in the
next section. It should also be noted that the cross product is a vector
and, as stated previously, is sometimes called a vector product.

b 3 a, k = 1

Deriving a Formula for the Cross Product

!
!
What is necessary, to be more efficient in calculating a  b , is a formula.
!
!
!
!
The vector a  b is a vector that is perpendicular to each of the vectors a and b .
An infinite number of vectors satisfy this condition, all of which are scalar
multiples of each other, but the cross product is one that is chosen in the simplest
possible way, as will be seen when the formula is derived below. Another
important point to understand about the cross product is that it exists only in R3.
It is not possible to take two noncollinear vectors in R2 and construct a third
vector perpendicular to the two vectors, because this vector would be outside the
given plane.
!
!
!
!
It is also difficult, at times, to tell whether we are calculating a  b or b  a .
The formula, properly applied, will do the job without difficulty. There are times
when it is helpful to be able to identify
the cross product without using a formula.
!
!
From the diagram !below, a  b is pictured as a vector perpendicular to! the plane
!
!
!
formed by a and b , and, when looking down the axis from P on a!  b , a would
have to be rotated
counterclockwise
in order to be collinear with b . In other
!
! !
!
words, a , b , and a  b form a right-handed system.
!
!
!
!
The vector b  a , !the opposite to a  b , is again perpendicular to the plane
!
!
!
formed by a and b , but, when looking from Q down the axis formed! by b  a ,
!
a would have to be rotated clockwise in order to be collinear with b .
P
b
O

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Definition of a Cross Product

!
!
The cross product of two vectors a and b in R3 (3-space)
is the vector
! that is
! !
!
perpendicular to these vectors such that the vectors a , b , and a  b form a
right-handed! system.
!
!
!
The vector b  a is the opposite of a  b and points in the opposite direction.
P
a3b
b
a

!
!
To develop a formula for a  b , we follow
a procedure similar to that followed in
!
!
!
Example 1. Let a
1a1, a2, a3 2 and b!
1b1, b2, b3 2 , and let v
1x, y, z2 be the
!
vector that is perpendicular to a and b .
! !
So, 1 a # v
1a1, a2, a3 2 # 1x, y, z2
a1x  a2 y  a3 z
0
! !
and 2 b # v
1b1, b2, b3 2 # 1x, y, z2
b1x  b2 y  b3 z
0
As before, we have a system of two equations in three unknowns, which we know
from before has an infinite number of solutions. To solve this system of equations,
we will multiply the first equation by b1 and the second equation by a1 and then
subtract.
1

3 b1 S

b1a1x  b1a2 y  b1a3 z
0

3 a1 S

a1b1x  a1b2 y  a1b3 z
0

Subtracting

and

eliminates x. Move the z-terms to the right.

1b1a2  a1b2 2y
1a1b3  b1a3 2z

Multiplying each side by 1 and rearranging gives the desired result:
1a1b2  b1a2 2y
1b1a3  a1b3 2z

Now
y
z


a3b1  a1b3
a1b2  a2b1

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If we carry out an identical procedure and eliminate z from the system of

equations, we have the following:
y
x


a2b3  a3b2
a3b1  a1b3
If we combine the two statements and set them equal to a constant k, we have
y
x
z





k
a2b3  a3b2
a3b1  a1b3
a1b2  a2b1
Note that we can make these fractions equal to k because every proportion can be
5
made equal to a constant k. (For example, if 63
48
10

k, then k could be
1n
either 12 or 10
or any nonzero multiple of the form 2n.) This expression gives us a
20
!
!
general form for a vector that is perpendicular to a and b . The cross product,
!
!
!
!
a  b , is defined to occur when k
1, and b  a occurs when k
1.

Formula for Calculating the Cross Product of Algebraic Vectors

k1a2b3  a3b! 2, a3b1  a1b3, a1b2  a2b1 2 is a vector perpendicular to

!
both a and b , kR.
!
!
If k
1, then a  b
1a2b3  a3b2, a3b1  a1b3, a1b2  a2b1 2
!
!
If k
1, then b  a
1a3b2  a2b3, a1b3  a3b1, a2b1  a1b2 2

It is not easy to remember this formula for calculating the cross product of two
vectors, so we develop a procedure, or a way of writing them, so that the memory
work is removed from the calculation.
!
!
!
!
Method of Calculating a b , where a 1a1, a2, a3 2 and b 1b1, b2, b3 2
!
1. List the components of vector a in column form on the left side, starting with
a2 and then writing a3, a1, and a2 below each other as shown.
!
!
2. Write the components of vector b in a column to the right of a , starting with
b2 and then writing b3, b1, and b2 in exactly the same way as the components
!
of a .
3. The required formula is now a matter of following the arrows and doing the
calculation. To find the x component, for example, we take the down
product a2b3 and subtract the up product a3b2 from it to get a2b3  a3b2.
(continued)

404 7 . 6 T H E C R O S S P R O D U C T O F T W O V E C TO R S

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The other components are calculated in exactly the same way, and the
formula for each component is listed below.
a
a2
a3
a1
a2

x
y
z

b
b2

x = a2 b3 a3 b2

b3
y = a3 b1 a1 b3
b1
b2

z = a1 b2 a2 b1

a b = (a2 b3 a3 b2, a3 b1 a1 b3, a1 b2 a2b 1)

INVESTIGATION

!
!
!
!
A. Given two vectors a
12, 4, 62 and b
11, 2, 5 2 calculate a  b and
!
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b  a . What property does this demonstrate does hold not for the cross
product? Explain why the property does not hold.
!
!
!
!
B. How are
the vectors
a  b and b  a related? Write an expression that relates
!
!
!
!
a  b with b  a .
C. Will the expression you wrote in part B be true for any pair of vectors in R3?
Explain.
!
D. Using the two vectors given in part A and a third vector c
14, 3, 1 2
calculate:
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
i. a  1b  c 2
ii. a  b  a  c
E. Compare your results from i and ii in part D. What! property does this
!
!
demonstrate? Write an equivalent expression for b  1a  c 2 and confirm it
using the appropriate calculations.
F. Choose any 3 vectors in R3 and demonstrate that the property you identified in
part E holds for your vectors.
G. Using the three vectors given calculate:
!
!
!
!
!
!
i. 1a  b 2  c
ii. a  1b  c 2
H. Compare your results from i and ii in part G. What property does this demonstrate
does hold not for the cross product? Explain why the property does not hold.
!
I. Choose any vector that is collinear with a (that is, any vector of the form
!
!
!
k a kR2 . Calculate a  k a . Repeat using a different value for k.
What can you conclude?

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EXAMPLE 2

Calculating cross products

!
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!
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If p
11, 3, 22 and q
12, 5, 62, calculate p  q and q  p .
Solution
!
!
!
!
!
Let p  q
1x, y, z2. The vectors p and q are listed in column form, with p
!
on the left and q on the right, starting from the second component and
working down.
p
3
2
1
3

x
y
z

q
5
x = 3(6) (2)(5) = 28
6
y = 2(2) (1)(6) = 10
2
z = 1(5) 3(2) = 1
5

p q = (28, 10, 1)

!
!
!
!
As already mentioned, q  p is the opposite of p  q , so
!
!
q  p
1128, 10, 1 2
128, 10, 1 2 . It is not actually necessary
!
!
!
!
to calculate q  p . All that is required is to calculate p  q and take the
!
!
opposite vector to get q  p .
After completing the calculation of the cross product, the answer should be
verified to see if it is perpendicular to the given vectors using the dot product.
Check:
128, 10, 12 # 1  1, 3, 2 2
28  30  2
0 and
128, 10, 12 # 12, 5, 6 2
56  50  6
0

There are a number of important properties of cross products that are worth
noting. Some of these properties will be verified in the exercises.

Properties of the Cross Product

! !
!
Let p , q , and r be three vectors in R3, and let kR.
!
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!
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Vector multiplication is not commutative: p  q
1q  p 2,
!
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!
!
!
!
Distributive law for vector multiplication: p  1q  r 2
p  q  p  r ,
!
!
!
!
!
!
Scalar law for vector multiplication: k1p  q 2
1kp 2  q
p  1kq 2,

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The first property is one that we have seen in this section and is the first instance
we have seen where the commutative property for multiplication has failed.
Normally, we expect that the order of multiplication does not affect the product.
In this case, changing the order of multiplication does change the result. The other
two listed results are results that produce exactly what would be expected, and
they will be used in this set of exercises and beyond.

IN SUMMARY
Key Idea
!
!
!
!
The cross product a  b , between two vectors a and b , results in a third
vector that is perpendicular to the plane in which the given vectors lie.

Need to Know

!
!
a  b
1a2b3  a3b2, a3b1  a1b3, a1b2  a2b1 2
!
!
!
!
a  b
b  a
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
a  1b  c 2
a  b  a  c
!
!
!
!
!
!
1ka 2  b
a  1kb 2
k1a  b 2

Exercise 7.6
PART A
!
!
!
!
1. The two vectors a and b are vectors in R3, and a  b is calculated.
!
! !
!
! !
a. Using a diagram, explain why a # 1a  b 2
0 and b # 1a  b 2
0.
!
!
b. Draw the parallelogram determined by a and b , and then draw the vector
!
!
!
!
!
!
a  b . Give a simple explanation of why 1a  b 2 # 1a  b 2
0.
!
!
!
!
c. Why is it true that 1a  b 2 # 1a  b 2
0? Explain.
!
! ! !
2. For vectors in R3, explain why the calculation 1a # b 2 1a  b 2
0 is meaningless.
(Consider whether or not it is possible for the left side to be a scalar.)
PART B
3. For each of the following calculations, say which are possible for vectors in
R3 and which are meaningless. Give a brief explanation for each.
!
!
!
!
! !
!
!
!
!
!
a. a # 1b  c 2
c. 1a  b 2 # 1c  d 2
e. 1a  b 2  1c  d 2
!
!
!
! !
!
! ! !
!
b. 1a # b 2  c
d. 1a # b 2 1c  d 2
f. a  b  c

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4. Calculate the cross product for each of the following pairs of vectors, and
verify your answer by using the dot product.
a. 12,  3, 52 and 10,  1, 42

d. 11, 2, 92 and 12, 3, 42

c. 15, 1, 12 and 12, 4, 7 2

f. 15, 1, 6 2 and 11, 2, 4 2

b. 12, 1, 32 and 13, 1, 2 2

e. 12, 3, 32 and 11, 1, 0 2

5. If 11, 3, 5 2  10, a, 12
12, 1, 1 2, determine a.

!
!
6. a. Calculate the vector product for a
10, 1, 1 2 and b
10, 5, 1 2 .
b. Explain geometrically why it makes sense for vectors of the form 10, b, c2
and 10, d, e2 to have a cross product of the form 1a, 0, 0 2 .
!
7. a. For the vectors 11, 2, 1 2 and 12, 4, 22, show that their vector product is 0 .
b. In general, show that the vector
product of two collinear vectors, 1a, b, c2
!
and 1ka, kb, kc 2 , is always 0 .
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
8. In the discussion, it was stated that p  1q  r 2
p  q  p  r
for vectors in R3. Verify that this rule is true for the following vectors.
!
!
!
a. p
11, 2, 42, q
11, 2, 7 2 , and r
11, 1, 0 2
!
!
!
b. p
14, 1, 22 , q
13, 1, 12 , and r
10, 1, 2 2
A

9. Verify each of the following:

!
!
!
!
!
a. i  j
k
j  i
!
!
!
!
!
b. j  k
i
k  j
!
!
!
!
!
c. k  i
j
i  k

!
10. Show algebraically that k1a2b3  a3b2, a3b1  a1b3, a1b2  a2b1 2 # a
0.
What is the meaning of this result?
!
!
!
11. You are
! given the vectors a
12, 0, 0 2 , b
10, 3, 0 2, c
12, 3, 0 2,
and d
14, 3, 02.
!
!
!
!
a. Calculate a  b and c  d .
!
!
!
!
b. Calculate 1a  b 2  1c  d 2.
c. Without doing any calculations (that is, by visualizing the four
vectors and using
properties
of cross products), say why
!
!
!
!
!
1a  c 2  1b  d 2
0 .

PART C
! !
!
12. Show that the cross product is not associative by finding vectors x , y , and z
!
!
!
!
!
!
such that 1x  y 2  z  x  1y  z 2 .
!
!
!
!
!
!
13. Prove that 1a  b 2  1a  b 2
2a  b is true.

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