Mobile Communications

Chapter 9: Mobile Transport Layer

Motivation, TCP-mechanisms
Classical approaches (Indirect TCP, Snooping TCP, Mobile

TCP)
PEPs in general
Additional optimizations (Fast retransmit/recovery,
Transmission freezing, Selective retransmission, Transaction
oriented TCP)
TCP for 2.5G/3G wireless

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.1

Transport Layer
E.g. HTTP (used by web

services) typically uses TCP

Reliable transport between client
and server required

TCP
Steam oriented, not transaction
oriented
Network friendly: time-out
congestion
slow down transmission

Client

TCP SYN
TCP SYN/ACK

Connection
setup

TCP ACK
HTTP request
HTTP response

Well known TCP guesses quite

often wrong in wireless and
mobile networks

Packet loss due to transmission

errors
Packet loss due to change of
network

Server

Data
transmission
>15 s
no data

GPRS: 500ms!

Connection
release

Result
Severe performance degradation
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.2

Motivation I

Transport protocols typically designed for

Fixed end-systems
Fixed, wired networks

Research activities
Performance
Congestion control
Efficient retransmissions

TCP congestion control

packet loss in fixed networks typically due to (temporary)
overload situations
router have to discard packets as soon as the buffers are full
TCP recognizes congestion only indirect via missing
acknowledgements, retransmissions unwise, they would only
contribute to the congestion and make it even worse
slow-start algorithm as reaction
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.3

Motivation II
TCP slow-start algorithm
sender calculates a congestion window for a receiver
start with a congestion window size equal to one segment
exponential increase of the congestion window up to the congestion
threshold, then linear increase
missing acknowledgement causes the reduction of the congestion
threshold to one half of the current congestion window
congestion window starts again with one segment

TCP fast retransmit/fast recovery

TCP sends an acknowledgement only after receiving a packet
if a sender receives several acknowledgements for the same
packet, this is due to a gap in received packets at the receiver
however, the receiver got all packets up to the gap and is actually
receiving packets
therefore, packet loss is not due to congestion, continue with
current congestion window (do not use slow-start)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.4

Influences of mobility on TCPmechanisms

TCP assumes congestion if packets are dropped

typically wrong in wireless networks, here we often have
packet loss due to transmission errors
furthermore, mobility itself can cause packet loss, if e.g. a
mobile node roams from one access point (e.g. foreign agent
in Mobile IP) to another while there are still packets in transit
to the wrong access point and forwarding is not possible

The performance of an unchanged TCP degrades severely

however, TCP cannot be changed fundamentally due to the
large base of installation in the fixed network, TCP for
mobility has to remain compatible
the basic TCP mechanisms keep the whole Internet together

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.5

Early approach: Indirect TCP I

Indirect TCP or I-TCP segments the connection

no changes to the TCP protocol for hosts connected to the
wired Internet, millions of computers use (variants of) this
protocol
optimized TCP protocol for mobile hosts
splitting of the TCP connection at, e.g., the foreign agent
into 2 TCP connections, no real end-to-end connection any
longer
hosts in the fixed part of the net do not notice the
characteristics of the wireless part
mobile host
access point
(foreign agent)

wired Internet

standard TCP

wireless TCP
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.6

I-TCP socket and state migration

access point1

socket migration
and state transfer

Internet

access point2
mobile host

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.7

Indirect TCP II

Advantages
no changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for
the hosts (TCP protocol) necessary, all current optimizations
to TCP still work
transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate
into the fixed network
simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop
between, e.g., a foreign agent and mobile host
therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible,
the short delay on the mobile hop is known

Disadvantages

loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a

sender does now not any longer mean that a receiver really
got a packet, foreign agents might crash
higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the
foreign agent and forwarding to a new foreign agent
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.8

Early approach: Snooping TCP I

Transparent extension of TCP within the foreign agent

buffering of packets sent to the mobile host
lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be
retransmitted immediately by the mobile host or foreign
agent, respectively (so called local retransmission)
the foreign agent therefore snoops the packet flow and
recognizes acknowledgements in both directions, it also
filters ACKs
changes of TCP only within the foreign agent
local retransmission

correspondent
host

foreign
agent
wired Internet

mobile
host

snooping of ACKs

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

buffering of data

end-to-end TCP connection

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.9

Snooping TCP II
Data transfer to the mobile host
FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet
loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out
fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network

Data transfer from the mobile host

FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers,
FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH
MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay

Integration of the MAC layer

MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP
thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due to
retransmissions and discard them

Problems
snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP
snooping might be useless depending on encryption schemes

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.10

Early approach: Mobile TCP

Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent disconnections
M-TCP splits as I-TCP does
unmodified TCP fixed network to supervisory host (SH)
optimized TCP SH to MH

Supervisory host
no caching, no retransmission
monitors all packets, if disconnection detected
set sender window size to 0
sender automatically goes into persistent mode

old or new SH reopen the window

Advantages
maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer forwarding

Disadvantages
loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network
adapted TCP on wireless link
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.11

Fast retransmit/fast recovery

Change of foreign agent often results in packet loss

TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion

Forced fast retransmit

as soon as the mobile host has registered with a new foreign
agent, the MH sends duplicated acknowledgements on
purpose
this forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication
partners
additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue sending
with the actual window size and not to go into slow-start
after registration

Advantage
simple changes result in significant higher performance

Disadvantage
further mix of IP and TCP, no transparent approach
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.12

Transmission/time-out freezing

Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time

no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection
due to overloaded cells or mux. with higher priority traffic
TCP disconnects after time-out completely

TCP freezing

MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance

MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection
TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested
link
MAC layer signals again if reconnected

Advantage

scheme is independent of data

Disadvantage

TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends

on MAC layer
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.13

Selective retransmission

TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative

ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of
packets up to n
if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet
sequence beginning at the gap has to be retransmitted (goback-n), thus wasting bandwidth

Selective retransmission as one solution

RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not

only acknowledgements of in-sequence packet streams
without gaps
sender can now retransmit only the missing packets

Advantage

much higher efficiency

Disadvantage

more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at

the receiver
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.14

Historical: Transaction oriented TCP

TCP phases
connection setup, data transmission, connection release
using 3-way-handshake needs 3 packets for setup and
release, respectively
thus, even short messages need a minimum of 7 packets!

Transaction oriented TCP

RFC1644, T-TCP, describes a TCP version to avoid this

overhead
connection setup, data transfer and connection release can
be combined
thus, only 2 or 3 packets are needed

Advantage

efficiency

Disadvantage
requires changed TCP
mobility not longer transparent
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.15

Comparison of different approaches

for a mobile TCP
Approach

Mechanism

Advantages

Indirect TCP

splits TCP connection

into two connections

isolation of wireless
link, simple

Disadvantages

loss of TCP semantics,

higher latency at
handover
Snooping TCP
snoops data and
transparent for end-to- problematic with
acknowledgements, local end connection, MAC
encryption, bad isolation
retransmission
integration possible
of wireless link
M-TCP
splits TCP connection,
Maintains end-to-end
Bad isolation of wireless
chokes sender via
semantics, handles
link, processing
window size
long term and frequent overhead due to
disconnections
bandwidth management
Fast retransmit/ avoids slow-start after
simple and efficient
mixed layers, not
fast recovery
roaming
transparent
Transmission/
freezes TCP state at
independent of content changes in TCP
time-out freezing disconnect, resumes
or encryption, works for required, MAC
after reconnection
longer interrupts
dependant
Selective
retransmit only lost data very efficient
slightly more complex
retransmission
receiver software, more
buffer needed
Transaction
combine connection
Efficient for certain
changes in TCP
oriented TCP
setup/release and data
applications
required, not transparent
transmission
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.16

TCP Improvements I

Initial research work

Indirect TCP, Snoop TCP, M-TCP, T/TCP,
SACK, Transmission/time-out freezing,

TCP over 2.5/3G wireless networks

Fine tuning todays TCP, RFC3481
Learn to live with

0.93 * MSS
BW
RTT * p
max. TCP BandWidth
Max. Segment Size
Round Trip Time
loss probability

Data rates: 64 kbit/s up, 115-384 kbit/s down; asymmetry: 36, but also up to 1000 (broadcast systems), periodic
allocation/release of channels
High latency, high jitter, packet loss

Suggestions
Large (initial) sending windows, large maximum transfer unit,
selective acknowledgement, explicit congestion notification,
time stamp, no header compression

Widespread use
i-mode running over FOMA
WAP 2.0 (TCP with wireless profile)
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.17

TCP Improvements II

Performance enhancing proxies (PEP, RFC 3135)

Mobile system

Transport layer
Local retransmissions and acknowledgements

wireless

Additionally on the application layer

Content filtering, compression, picture downscaling
E.g., Internet/WAP gateways
Web service gateways?

PEP

Big problem: breaks end-to-end semantics

Disables use of IP security
Choose between PEP and security!

Internet

More open issues

RFC 3150 (slow links)

Recommends header compression, no timestamp
Comm. partner

RFC 3155 (links with errors)

States that explicit congestion notification cannot be used

In contrast to 2.5G/3G recommendations!

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller

www.jochenschiller.de

MC - 2013

9.18