AN ESSAY WRITING METHOD

(Can Also Be Used For Writing A Report)

CONTENTS:
Introduction
Step 1: ANALYSE THE ESSAY QUESTION
Step 2: COLLECT THE INFORMATION NEEDED FOR ANSWERING THE ESSAY
QUESTION
2.1 Break the essay question down into a list of questions
2.2 Sort and order the list of questions into a logical sequence
2.3 Write a provisional thesis
2.4 Collect the information necessary to answer the ordered list of questions
Step 3: PUT TOGETHER THE ESSAY PLAN
3.1 Check you are clear about the instructions in the essay question
3.2 Finalise the thesis
3.3 Put together the essay argument
3.4 Select the appropriate support for the essay argument
3.5 Slice the essay plan into sections and write the thesis statement
Step 4: WRITE A STATEMENT OF INTENT
Step 5: WRITE THE ESSAY
5.1 Check what you are about to write makes sense
5.2 Write the essay
Step 6: CORRECT AND EDIT THE ESSAY

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INTRODUCTION
Have you ever sat at your desk, had a clear idea of what you wanted to say, picked up your
pen and found that the actual writing came effortlessly? This is the result of being clear in
your own mind about your intentions before you start writing. And this being clear, comes,
whether you are aware of it or not, from following a method or strategy.
The method presented below takes you from analysing an essay question through to writing,
checking and editing the essay. The analysing of the essay question, if done properly, is a
guarantee that your ideas are sorted and clear before you start writing. The steps of the
method make explicit many of the processes we go through unconsciously when we come up
with our clearest and most lucid ideas. You get marks for answering the essay question, and
analysing it properly is an important step in making sure you do this.
Certain academic skills are necessary for writing well. If you already have the academic skills
necessary for coming up with clear ideas for the essay, you should be able to just work
through the steps below. If you do not have these academic skills, take steps to find out
what they are and then learn and master them.
To write an essay, start with the essay question that has been set. At this point, you dont
need to know much or read anything about the topic; just work through the following steps.
(You can also use the 6 Steps below to write a report.)

STEP 1: ANALYSE THE ESSAY QUESTION

The first step is to analyse the essay question and make sure you understand it. Analysis is an
important academic skill. To analyse means to first break something (an idea, situation,
object, question, problem, etc.) down into its components and then to identify the
interrelationships between them.
To analyse the essay question, check the meaning of each word and then each sentence of the
question. Use a dictionary if possible. Be careful of words that may have subject-specific
meanings; check these words in your textbooks, subject-specific dictionaries, encyclopaedia,
the internet, etc.
Once you are sure of the meanings of the words and the sentences in the question, ask the
following three questions to get the Specific Topic, the Instructions, and the Restrictions
(STIR):
STIR
ST = Specific Topic:
"What is the Specific Topic of the essay question?"
Make sure you clearly identify and define the Specific Topic. Underline, highlight or
write out the specific topic; as you proceed, you should occasionally check back to make
sure you haven't gotten off the topic.
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I = Instruction:
"What am I being Instructed to do?"
Circling the verbs in the question is the easiest way of identifying instructions. Its
important you clearly understand what the essay question (and the lecturer) is
instructing you to do. Each instruction involves one or more particular academic skills.
You should understand what each instruction is directing you to do and have methods
for carrying it out.
R = Restrictions:
"What are the Restrictions or limits to what I am being instructed to do?"
Check for word limits, due dates, instructions to cover certain areas and not to cover
other areas, etc. Some Restrictions are explicit and easy to identify, others are implicit
and more difficult to identify. If you are not sure about the restrictions, ask someone.
Finally: To check you have understood the question fully, restate (paraphrase) it in your
own words.
NOTE: As mentioned above, it is important that you know which academic skills the
instructions are referring to. If you dont know, find out.

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 1: Analyse the Essay Question)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
Make sure you write a balanced argument. Approximately 700 words (2xA4 pages). Times
New Roman or Ariel. 11 or 12 point font size. 1 or double spaced.
STIR:
ST = Specific Topic = the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned
I = Instruction = argue for or against, write a balanced argument
R = Restrictions = ~ 700 wds, Times New Roman or Ariel, 11 or 12 point font, 1 or
double spaced

STEP 2: COLLECT THE INFORMATION NEEDED

FOR ANSWERING THE ESSAY QUESTION
The aim of this step is to help you most efficiently collect the information you need to
answer the essay question. You could just start reading texts and hope to come across
enough information that is of the right sort to answer the essay question, but this way is
inefficient and doesnt always lead to you collecting what you need.

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2.1 Break the Essay Question Down into a List of Questions

This step continues the analysis of the essay question that you started in Step 1. To
further analyse the essay question, start by working through and writing questions for all
the parts. Use the 6Ws and 1H questions (who, what, why, where, when, which and how).
Make sure you ask questions about the general or big picture, the details or small pictures,
and facts and opinions.
Brainstorm and question everything! No question at this stage is too small, silly, or trivial.
You can always discard them later. Write questions about each of the words in the essay
question you think are important, then about each of the concepts. Finally, make sure
there are questions that use the specific instruction words from the essay question.
Once you have a list of questions about each component of the essay question, start going
deeper. Write questions about the interrelationships between the components. Ask how
and why questions.
By the end of this analysing you will have a (hopefully long) list of questions about all
aspects of the essay question. You have broken the essay question down into smaller
chunks, and this makes it easier to answer. When you have answered all the small chunks
on your list, you will have basically answered the main question.

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 2.1: Brainstorm a List of Questions)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
Brainstorm a list of questions around the essay question. E.g. whats an open wood fire,
whats wrong with them, why are people suggesting they be banned, whats the argument
for banning them, whats the argument against banning them, what's the support for
banning them, what's the support for not banning them, etc.?
Try to write at least 40-50 questions.

2.2 Sort and Order the List of Questions into a Logical Sequence
You should be aware that academic writing requires you to present your ideas in a
particular order. In this step you sort and order the list of questions you came up with in
Step 2.1. To do this effectively, it is necessary to know (a) the order that is expected, and
(b) how to get the questions (and the essay) into this order.
(a) The order that is expected
Ideas in academic writing need to be presented in a logical sequence so your reader can
follow them easily. The main cultures that use English as their native language have a
very linear concept of how ideas should be presented. The ideas in your essay should
therefore be presented in a linear sequence. (There is more information about this in
the handout/section: Ideas in Order.)
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(b) How to get the questions into the order that is expected
First, sort the questions by discarding any silly or trivial questions that do not seem
relevant or important. Then, order the remaining questions on your list into a clear,
logical and linear sequence. Start by deciding which question on your list will be your
starting point and write the number 1 (one) next to it. This should be the question that
is most general and introduces the general topic of the essay. After you have done this,
number the rest of the questions in the order you believe is the clearest, the most
linear and the most logical (some possible orders are in the bulleted list below). When
you have all the questions either numbered or crossed out, rewrite the list in numerical
sequence, starting from 1.
You should spend some time on this step because it gives you the basic structure of
what you will be writing in the essay. At this point you can think of this ordered list of
questions as a rough essay outline. Later, you will put together an essay argument, and
this may mean some rearranging of the order.
A Rationale for Your Order
You can check whether you have ordered your questions into the clearest and most
logical sequence by coming up with a rationale. Ask yourself why you have put the
questions into the particular sequence. If you have a clear answer, your sequence is
probably OK.
The following are some orders you could be using:

Chronological order (events

happening in a particular time
sequence)
Spatial order (in terms of where maybe the nearest first and then
moving further away)
Cause and effect (stating causes
and then their consequences)
Big picture to small picture
Facts to opinions
Topical (different topics in the
order you think most appropriate)

Sequential (first, second, third,

etc.)
Classification
Comparative
Problem/solution
Advantage/disadvantage
Argument, counter-argument,
evaluation
Argument, counter-argument,
refutation, conclusion
Or, often a combination of the
above

NOTE: Other Methods

Like most things, there is more than one way to put together an essay plan. For example, you could
change your list of questions into statements or headings first, and then order them. Or, you could
change your questions into statements or headings after you have ordered them. Both of these
methods would give you the more traditional essay plan or outline with headings or statements
instead of questions. (Statements are complete sentences while headings are usually sentence
fragments/incomplete sentences.)
However, if you do change your questions into statements or headings, it will make the rest of the
steps below in this method for analysing an essay question and writing an essay more difficult.

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(a) Remove the questions and/or headings later

Be aware that the finished essay will not usually have the questions or statements/headings left in;
these are only to help you and need to be removed before you hand the essay in. In essays for some
departments or lecturers, however, you may be instructed to write an essay with headings. Always
check whether headings are expected or acceptable.

(b) Relationship between the question, the heading, the main idea of a paragraph and its
contents
If you are writing one paragraph to answer one question, there is a direct relationship between the
question and the main idea, the heading and the content of the paragraph. The question indicates
the main idea of the paragraph, the main idea is expressed in the heading, and the content of the
paragraph answers the question by expanding on the main idea. The headings both indicate the main
ideas and raise questions, and the contents answer them. The main ideas are indicated to the reader
in specific sentences that signal content, and in the topic sentence of each paragraph. Sometimes
paragraphs are answering more than one question; in this case the relationship is a little more
complex.

(c) In exams
In an exam, if you are short of time you can use the first three steps above to quickly come up with
a rough essay plan. You will not have an essay argument; but, make an ordered list of questions, write
an introductory paragraph, state your thesis, answer the questions in the order you have come up
with, write a concluding paragraph, and you have a fairly basic exam essay. However, it is better to
practice essay writing so you can write proper academic essays in exams. They will score more.

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 2.2: Sort and Order the List of Questions)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
You should have a brainstormed list of 40-50 questions from Step 2.1
Sort this list of questions by crossing out those that are not relevant or not appropriate.
Order the remaining questions into the sequence you feel is the clearest and most logical.

2.3 Write a Provisional Thesis

All academic essays need a thesis, which is your answer to the essay question. If you do
not have an answer, it is going to be very difficult to write the essay.
Once you decide on your answer to the essay question (your thesis), you then need to set
about convincing your reader it is correct - or at least feasible - and you need an argument
for this. And, for arguments to be accepted, they need support. For each step of your
argument (each statement or main point) you will need to use the appropriate evidence,
examples, facts, illustrations, research, etc.
In this step of the method you come up with a provisional thesis (1) based on what you
know at this point, (2) your analysis of the essay question, and (3) the ordered list of
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questions you have from Step 2.2. This thesis is "provisional" because you are not sure if
you are right or not at this stage.
To write a provisional thesis, look at your ordered list of questions and see if you can come
up with a statement that clearly indicates what you think is the answer to the essay
question. Write it down.
Important: As you continue with the steps, try to remain unbiased. If you come across
information that contradicts your provisional thesis, dont just automatically reject it.
Decide whether the new information makes it necessary for you to change your provisional
thesis or not.
Why is a provisional thesis important?
Your provisional thesis may not be 100% correct, but you should write one anyway
because it will guide and orient you as you are looking for information. It is better to
have a half right (or even completely wrong) answer at this stage to guide you than no
answer at all. This is because the thesis clearly indicates your opinion.
We all like to be right, so, having stated our provisional thesis, we then constantly
assess new information from lectures, readings and discussions to see if it agrees or
disagrees with our thesis and to see if our original ideas were right or whether we are
going to have to change them.
When you have a provisional thesis in the back of your mind, you become a more active
listener and reader. When you come across new information, you automatically evaluate
it to see whether it supports your ideas or not. If it does not support your ideas, you
know that you need to change them. This constant modifying of our ideas in light of new
knowledge is how we learn and develop.
This is the last step you can do based on what you already know. Now you will need to go
and find information. You should be able to see, however, that you can do quite a lot
based on following the method for analysing an essay question, using what you already
know about the topic and common sense.
NOTE: The provisional thesis is covered in this step. The finalised thesis is covered in
Step 3.2 and the thesis statement is covered in Step 3.5. They are slightly different;
the finalised thesis is more precise than the provisional thesis, and the thesis
statement contains more information than the finalised thesis. In this step you only
need to state what you think is the answer to the essay question.

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 2.3: Write a Provisional Thesis)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
The provisional thesis (based on what is known at the moment): There is an argument for
and an argument against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned. It seems to be a good idea to ban open wood fires, but first I need to critically
analyse the argument for the ban and check it is sound. Then, I need to critically analyse
the argument against the ban and try to refute it or find something wrong with it.

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2.4 Collect the Information Necessary to Answer the Ordered List of Questions
You have an ordered list of questions and a provisional thesis. You now need to start
looking for the answers to the questions. This is directed reading, and this is more
efficient than reading around the topic and trying to put ideas together from scratch.
To answer the questions on your list, get out your lecture notes, lecture handouts,
textbooks and course readings. Skim through and look for the answers to your ordered list
of questions. Write the answers in note form; there is no need to spend time at this stage
writing the answers in full, just note down what you believe is important. Your aim is to get
enough information to answer the questions and to begin to build up an overall picture of
the topic.
For larger essays or research projects you may need to use the library. One way of doing
this is to check the Call Number of the subject you are interested in. For example, if your
topic is Western Philosophy, the Call Numbers are "B72 xxx". Go to the B72 shelves, which
are on Level 9 of the Central Library, on the northeast side, and have a wander along the
shelves. Look for book titles that relate to your essay topic. When you find one, check the
contents pages and the index. If it looks like the book is going to have the information
necessary to answer your questions, go to the page or pages and read them. If it looks like
the book is not going to have the information, put the book back on the shelf and move on
to the next book.
Sometimes just reading the page or two with the information needed to answer your
question is not enough for you to understand the topic. In this case, you may need to start
reading from the beginning of the section or chapter, or keep reading until the end of the
section of chapter. The aim is not just to find information, but also to understand it.
Directed reading can save you a lot of time and effort. If you don't have a list of
questions to guide you, you won't know which information in your lecture notes/lecture
handouts/course readings/text books is relevant. You may end up wasting time reading
texts and collecting information that you may never use or need. However, this doesn't
mean you have to stick rigidly to the questions on the list. You can sometimes find other
information that is useful in helping you understand more about the topic. You may not use
this information in the essay you are writing, but it does help inform you of the topic and
give you a broader knowledge. It may turn out to be helpful later, for example, in an exam.
Your list of questions will also make you a more active listener in lectures. When the
lecturer presents new information you will critically assess it to see whether it answers
any of the questions on the list, and whether it agrees or disagrees with your provisional
thesis. This is done naturally, so you dont have to focus on it, but it means that you are
doing more mental processing than if you were just sitting and listening, and more mental
processing usually means more understanding, and more understanding means you
remember more.

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EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 2.4: Collect Information)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
The provisional thesis (based on what is known at the moment): There is an argument for
and an argument against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned. It seems to be a good idea to ban open wood fires, but first I need to critically
analyse the argument for the ban and check it is sound. Then, I need to critically analyse
the argument against the ban and try to refute it.
Answers to the ordered list of questions from Step 2.2 need to be found. When you find
the information, remember to note where it came from for referencing in the final essay.
Also remember your provisional thesis is provisional and not final. Remain unbiased and
accept that some information you find may cause you to have to change your thesis.

STEP 3: PUT TOGETHER THE ESSAY PLAN

3.1 Check you are clear about the instructions in the essay question
The instructions in the essay question refer to the academic (or critical thinking) skills you
are expected to master at university. Make sure you have methods for all of the necessary
academic skills (especially the more difficult critical thinking tasks such as evaluating,
analysing, examining, discussing, etc.) and have mastered them because you will need them
in essays, reports, and especially exams.
The main essay question or one or some of your smaller questions either instruct you to do
certain things; or, you have set yourself the task of doing certain things. Check now that
you are clear about what the essay question is instructing you to do. You should have
included and carried out the essay instructions in Steps 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4, but it is a good
idea to check at this point before continuing.
This is the step that is often overlooked by students who find all the information relevant
to the question but fail to comply with the instructions. Finding the information is only
part of the task of essay writing; it is what you do with the information that is often more
important.
You now have a list of questions with your answers and a provisional thesis. You now have
all the information you need to write the essay. The next steps are about getting your
ideas into order and ready to write.

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EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 3.1: Check You are Clear About the Instructions)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
Instructions: argue for or against, write a balanced argument.
Since you are instructed to write a balanced argument you need to have an argument for
and an argument against (the counter-argument) the suggestion. You also need to include
the support that is used for each argument.
Then, in order to have the argument for (which you agree with) accepted, you first need to
show it is sound, and then you need to refute the counter-argument. To do this you will
need to find some fault with the structure of the counter-argument or with the evidence
used to support it.

3.2 Finalise the Thesis

More on the thesis
Every academic essay has a thesis. (The thesis is sometimes called the conclusion, the
hypothesis, the statement, the controlling idea or the main idea of the essay.)
The thesis should comply with the following guidelines:
1. It should be both contestable (arguable) and specific. Contestable or arguable
means that the idea can be discussed and debated; it should not be either
completely obvious or constitute common knowledge on the subject. Specific
means that it applies only to the essay question you have been asked.
2. It should be based on your views, which need to be clear, focused and interesting.
3. It should be substantive and do more than just introduce the topic or announce
what the paper will discuss.
4. It should attract audience interest by briefly stating the statement that the
paper will focus on.
5. It should be concise. If you cannot say what you want in one or two sentences
your thesis is probably unclear or too broad and your essay will reflect the lack
of precision.
Finalising the thesis
You came up with a provisional thesis in Step 2.3. Now that you have found information
and checked you have followed the instructions in the essay question, you need to
decide whether your provisional thesis was near the mark or not. If you are happy with
your original guess you can leave your thesis as it is. If you have a reason or reasons to
modify or change it, now is the time.

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 3.2: Finalise the Thesis)

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Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
The finalised thesis: Proponents of the suggestion have an argument for the banning of
open wood fires in Christchurch. Opponents of the suggestion have a counter-argument
against it. However, the counter-argument can be refuted. This means it is not sound, so it
cannot be accepted, and open wood fires in Christchurch should be banned.

3.3 Put Together the Essay Argument/Storyline

The only way you can convince your reader that your thesis is correct is with an argument
that is valid, that is sound, and that has evidence for the statements you put forward. In
order to write an academic essay you will need to at least have some idea of how to argue
for a thesis.
All academic essays (and the discussion sections of reports) should have an argument. In
fact, an academic essay is a supported argument. Your thesis is the main idea of your
writing, and once you finalise it, you need to set about convincing the reader it is correct.
A supported argument is used to do this.
The essay argument is important because it dictates what you will write in the essay, and
what information, examples, illustrations, etc. you will use as support. Because your
argument defines the structure of your paper, if you have a clear argument, a good essay
plan and a clear style should follow relatively easily.
Putting together a logical argument
An argument can be defined as a set of statements of which one - the one being argued
for - is taken to be established as true on the basis of all the others. The supporting
statements are called premises (statements you believe to be true), and the statement
they are being used to support is called the conclusion (which is the same as the thesis).
You are making an argument when you make a statement that you believe is true and
correct and then give your reasoning and evidence to convince others of this.
Example of a simple argument:
(Premise 1) All living animals breathe
(Premise 2) My dog is a living animal
(Conclusion) Therefore, my dog breathes
This argument is valid because Premise 1 and Premise 2 lead to the Conclusion. The
argument is also sound because it is valid AND because the two premises and the
conclusion are true. Once you have decided the argument is sound you then need to
decide which premises need support and what that support should be. For example, for
Premise 1: All living animals breathe - what evidence could you use to convince your
reader that this is a true statement? For Premise 2: does this statement need support,
and if so, what?
You need to know what a logical argument is and how to put one together because you
will often use them in your essays.
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(There is more information in the section/handout: The Logical Argument.)

Putting together an essay argument/storyline
What is commonly called an essay argument is not exactly the same as the logical
argument explained above. Although an essay argument follows the rules for a regular
logical argument, it does not lead to a conclusion. Instead, it is a number of connected
statements leading to a final statement, which is your thesis (your answer to the essay
question). So as not to get the ideas of a logical argument and an essay argument
confused, it is better to think of an essay argument as its plot or storyline.
Essay arguments/storylines are not very long - usually five to seven statements - but
they do take practice to write well. You cannot expect to come up with a good
argument/storyline the first time you try. Practise putting together simple essay
arguments/storylines until you master the process.
When writing an essay argument/storyline, you already know what you want your final
statement to be: your thesis. The question is where to start. Your argument/storyline
needs to start with an opening statement, which should be both general and readily
acceptable by the reader. From this first general statement, you move step-by-step,
adding new statement s that are (hopefully) true and are connected to the ones before.
These statements then end with the final statement (your thesis).
Example:
For the essay question, Which part of New Zealand is the best place to live?, you could
have the following essay argument/storyline of four statements:
Statement 1: There is a country called New Zealand.
Statement 2: It has three main islands.
Statement 3: Most of the people live on the second largest of the three main islands.
Statement 4: But, the best place to live is on the largest island.
Each statement is connected to the preceding statement by having a term in common.
In the example above, New Zealand is in the first statement and it (meaning New
Zealand) is in the second statement. The connection between the second and the third
statements is three main islands. The connection between the third and the fourth
statements is live.
An essay argument/storyline does not need to be long. What is important is that the
structure is valid (the statements are connected), that all the points that you think are
important are covered, and that the essay question is answered.
Notice also that, even though you have an argument/storyline, there is still a lot of
work to be done. Statement 4 states that the largest island is the best place to live,
but you still have to convince your reader that this is true. You will need a supported
logical argument to do this. How you do this will determine whether you write a good
essay or not. Essays often consist, therefore, of smaller arguments within larger ones.

Diagram showing how logical arguments exist within essay arguments/storylines:

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Statements from the

Argument/Storyline

Support for the

Statements

Essay
Argument/
Storyline

Logical
Argument
Premise 1
Premise 2
Conclusion

NOTE: From following the steps above, you now have an ordered list of questions along
with their answers, a finalised thesis, and an essay argument/storyline. You could write
the essay by just answering the list of questions which has been suggested above as
an exam essay writing strategy, but this will not guarantee you have an
argument/storyline. The thesis dictates the essay argument/storyline, and, once you
have this, it dictates the structure and content of the essay.
(In exams, you should get to this point before you start writing. This will give you a
more coherent and better-structured essay than by just answering the ordered list of
questions.)

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EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 3.3: Put Together the Essay Argument/Storyline)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
The finalised thesis: Proponents of the suggestion have an argument for the banning of
open wood fires in Christchurch. Opponents of the suggestion have a counter-argument
against it. However, the counter-argument can be refuted. This means it is not sound, so it
cannot be accepted, and open wood fires in Christchurch should be banned.
Essay Argument/Storyline
1. There are still a significant number of open wood fires in Christchurch.
2. These fires are causing a number of problems.
3. For this reason, it has been suggested that they be banned.
4. Proponents of the suggestion argue that the ban will lead to health and
environmental benefits.
5. Opponents of the suggestion counter-argue that the ban will lead to health and
economic problems.
6. But, the opponents counter-argument is not sound because it uses evidence that
has been shown to be false.
7. Since the argument for the ban is sound and since the counter-argument can be
refuted and be shown to be unsound, the Christchurch City Council should ban open
wood fires.

3.4 Select the Appropriate Support for the Essay Argument/Storyline

As stated above, logical arguments consist of premises that are connected and lead to the
conclusion. Essay arguments/storylines are slightly different in that they usually consist
of connected statements that lead to the final statement, which should be your thesis,
instead of leading to a conclusion. But, you cant just make these statements without
backing them up. You need to present the support on which you have based your
statements so your reader cannot quickly dismiss them as unfounded statements. Your
thesis and the statements in the essay argument/storyline determine the type of support
you will need: statistical data, graphs, empirical data, paraphrased textual evidence,
quotations, analogies, anecdotes, etc.
Make sure that you know the difference between the statements you make and the
support you use to back them up, and that it is evident in your essay. A compelling
discussion of your thesis without support is not going to convince your reader, no matter
how persuasive you think your essay is. Without strong support an essay turns into an
opinion piece.
Make sure you know the difference between good and poor support, and choose the best.
Also, support is much more effective when it is used to support the statements in your

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argument than when it is just "thrown" in without the proper connections to what you are
trying to prove.
All support must include source notes/references!
Choosing support:
Once you are happy with the essay argument/storyline in Step 3.3, you need to decide
which support to include. To do this, ask questions about each statement. The first
questions to ask are, Is it true that ?, How can I support/prove this statement?,
What evidence do I need to support this statement?, and How can I convince the
reader this statement is true?
Then, go on and ask other questions. Most of the questions you ask in this step will be
similar to those in the list of questions you came up with in Step 2.2 and found answers
for in Step 2.4, so you should already have most of the information you need for
support, and you might find that at this step all you need to do is rearrange the
answers. However, you may find that you need to put together some arguments.
The main point about this step is that you follow a method to make sure you add support
in the appropriate places; that is, you make sure the statements and their support
match. The support you use will be information, data, statistics, examples, illustrations,
or sub-arguments. For example, you will need an argument to support the statement
that the best place to live is on the largest island.
NOTE: By the end of this step you will have the final essay argument/storyline, the
questions for each statement in the argument/storyline, and the answers. After you
have gone through the process of fitting the support to the argument/storyline you may
find that the sequence of the questions you sorted and ordered in Step 2.2 have
changed; this is as it should be. You should now discard this ordered list of questions. It
is no longer needed.
If you are using Microsoft Word, you can use the Outline view to make this step
simpler. This view allows you to use different levels of headings to maintain the
structure of the essay and the argument.

Page 16

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 3.4: Select the Appropriate Support)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
The finalised thesis: Proponents of the suggestion have an argument for the banning of
open wood fires in Christchurch while opponents have a counter-argument against it.
However, the counter-argument can be refuted, which means it is not sound, so it cannot
be accepted; therefore, open wood fires in Christchurch should be banned.
Ask questions about each of the essay argument/storyline statements on the left:

Essay argument/storyline statements

Questions for support

1. There are still a significant number of

open wood fires in Christchurch.

Whats an open wood fire?

Why are there a lot in Christchurch?

2. These fires are causing a number of

problems.

What are the problems?

How are they causing the problems?

3. For this reason, it has been suggested

that they be banned.

Who has suggested this?

When would they like the ban put in place?

4. Proponents of the suggestion argue

the ban will lead to health and
environmental benefits.

What
What
What
What

is the argument for the ban?

are the health benefits?
are the environmental benefits?
is the support for the argument?

5. Opponents of the suggestion counterargue the ban will lead to health and
economic problems.

What
What
What
What

is the counter-argument?
are the health problems?
are the economic problems?
is the support for the argument?

6. But, the opponents counter-argument

is not sound because it uses evidence
that has been shown to be false.

Why is the argument not sound?

What evidence have they used that has been
shown to be false?
Why is it false?

7. Since the argument for the ban is

sound and since the counter-argument
can be refuted and be shown to be
unsound, the Christchurch City Council
should ban open wood fires.

When should they do this?

How could they do it?
Will it be easy or difficult to ban the fires?
What problems may arise from the banning?

Page 17

3.5 Slice the Essay Plan into Sections and Write the Thesis Statement
Now you have your argument and support worked out, the next step is to start considering
the detailed structure of the actual essay. You need to decide how you are going to slice
your material into paragraphs or sections. If you have an essay argument with 5
statements, you might slice the essay into the following sections:

Introductory
paragraph

Statement 1

Support for Statement 1

Statement 2

Support for Statement 2

Thesis statement

Body section 1

Statement 3

Support for Statement 3

Body section 2

Statement 4

Support for Statement 4

Body section 3

Statement 5

Support for Statement 5

Concluding paragraph
Often the first couple of statements and their support can be placed in the introduction.
This is because they usually only need to be descriptive and provide background
information. If it is a short essay, then each subsequent section may be only one
paragraph. For longer essays, however, you might need several paragraphs for each
section; this will be determined by the number of questions and the amount of support you
have for each statement. It is up to you to decide how many paragraphs there will be in
each section.
The thesis statement
You now need to write a thesis statement to express your thesis to the reader. A thesis
statement is usually a clear statement of one or two sentences at the beginning of the
essay that says exactly what your answer to the essay question is, contains the reasons
for your answer, briefly mentions the sort of evidence you are going to offer to support
your argument, and indicates how your topic fits into a broader context. It should be
placed at the end of the introductory paragraph.
If your thesis statement is a clear statement, your reader is not left to wonder just
what your argument will be.

Page 18

The thesis statement is a sentence (or sentences) like: The answer is X because A, B
and C. This statement contains the finalised thesis (X) and the information you are
going to use to answer the essay question (A, B & C).
Example:
An essay question asking you to critically evaluate the idea of raising student fees may
have the following thesis statement:
"It is not a good idea to continually raise student fees because students will suffer, the
university will suffer, and ultimately New Zealand will suffer."
In this case, It is not a good idea to raise student fees is the thesis, and because ... are
the reasons.
A thesis statement is important
A clear thesis statement at the beginning of the essay is important for the following
reasons:
It clearly states your answer to the essay question that is being asked, or to the
question you have set yourself to answer.
It lets your reader know exactly what you are trying to do in the essay. If the
reader knows early in the essay what you are trying to do, he or she can then follow
your argument more easily.
It helps you write the essay. The thesis statement keeps you on track by giving you
something to aim at. You have stated your answer to the essay question and your
reasons for thinking it is correct; now you need to convince your reader.
Examples of thesis statements
1. There are three reasons why the money spent on the Y2K bug was not wasted: the
problem was real and needed to be fixed, there was a possibility of serious
consequences if the problem was ignored, and the fact that there were no real
problems after 1/1/2000 does not mean that there would not have been any if the
money had not been spent. (Thesis = the money was not wasted)
2. The developed countries with excess food should donate it to those developing
countries that do not have enough. This would help the farmers in the developed
countries, save the people in the developing countries from starving, and help the
developing countries develop further. (Thesis = developed countries should donate
food to those developing countries that do not have enough)
3. The suggestion that high school students should be made to take a year off before
entering university is a sound idea because students would then enter university
with a greater maturity and sense of responsibility, they would be clearer about
what they want to study, and they would be more able to deal with and adapt to the
different learning styles and expectations of university study. (Thesis = it is a sound
idea for students to have a year off after high school before entering university)
4. Capital punishment should be abolished not only because it deprives another person
of life but also because it does not stop crime. (Thesis = capital punishment should
be abolished)
Page 19

5. Women generally live longer than men for two main reasons: they tend to take
better care of their health, and they lead less stressful lives. (Thesis = there are
two reasons for women generally living longer than men)
6. Drug and alcohol abuse among teenagers can be traced to the following causes: lack
of parental supervision, lax enforcement of drug laws, and the social and
psychological problems of teenagers themselves. (Thesis = there are three main
causes of drug and alcohol abuse among teenagers)
7. In choosing a major subject, a student has to consider various factors such as
personal interest, job opportunities, and the availability of training institutions.
(Thesis = there are three things that should be considered when choosing a major
subject)
8. An architect should be both an artist and an engineer. (This thesis statement is
missing the because A, B and C part.) (Thesis = an architect should be both an artist
and an engineer)
Thesis Statement vs. Topic Sentence
The thesis statement of an essay is very similar to the topic sentence of a paragraph
(see the section/handout on The Academic Paragraph). The difference is that the
thesis statement is a topic sentence plus the answer to the question that is made from
it. The reason for this is that a thesis statement has a different function to a topic
sentence. A thesis statement is meant to indicate the thesis/main idea of the essay and
an outline of the argument. A topic sentence is meant to make the reader ask a question
(which indicates the main idea), and then be forced to read the paragraph to find the
answer.
For example, the topic sentence, I have three reasons for choosing to live in
Christchurch, immediately raises the question, What are your three reasons for
choosing to live in Christchurch? Your reader will then need to read the rest of the
paragraph to find the answer. This is what a topic sentence is meant to do.
For the thesis statement, the topic sentence and the answer to the question made from
it are put together to form the thesis statement: I have chosen to live in Christchurch
for the lifestyle, the environment, and the job opportunities. In the essay, each of
these will become the topic of a different section.
Thesis Statements vs Stated Aim
Sometimes, but not often in university essays, you may not be trying to convince the
reader of a specific idea (the thesis). In this case, you just state the aim of the essay.
A stated aim lets the reader know what you are going to do in the essay.
Stated aims are usually used for fairly straightforward writing, such as reviewing
research or literature, or describing or explaining something, or when you answer essay
questions such as Describe X, Explain X, or Review the research/literature on X.
(However, even for these types of questions it is a good idea to come up with a thesis
statement because it makes your work more compelling to read.)
Here are some examples of stated aims:

In this essay the situation existing in New Zealand politics today will be explained.
Page 20

The aim of this essay is to describe the kiwi and its habitat.

The results of several research reports will be presented.

The purpose of this essay is to analyse the influence of Chinese culture on Japanese
language and literature.

NOTE: Unless there is some good reason for stating the aim in this form, all these
examples would be better expressed as thesis statements.

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 3.5: Slice the Essay into Sections)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.
First, decide which points (essay argument/storyline statements) will go in the
introductory paragraph. The guideline is to include in the introductory paragraph the
information that provides background to the essay topic but is not directly related to
answering the essay question. Then, put the rest of the points into the body.
Essay sections

Essay argument/storyline statements

1.

Introductory
paragraph

There are still a significant number of open

wood fires in Christchurch.

2. These fires are causing a number of problems.

3. For this reason, it has been suggested that
they be banned.

Body paragraph 1
(Argument for
the ban)

4. Proponents of the suggestion argue the ban will

lead to health and environmental benefits.

Body paragraph 2
(Counterargument against
the ban)

5. Opponents of the suggestion counter-argue the

ban will lead to health and economic problems.

Body paragraph 3 6. But, the opponents counter-argument is not

(Refutation of
sound because it uses evidence that has been
the countershown to be false.
argument)
Conclusion

7. Since the argument for the ban is sound and

since the counter-argument can be refuted and
be shown to be unsound, the Christchurch City
Council should ban open wood fires.

Page 21

Support

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 3.5 (cont.): Write the Thesis Statement)
Next, write a thesis statement that includes your finalised thesis and summarises the
information in the body. Place the thesis statement after the points you are going to
include in the introductory paragraph.

Essay sections

Essay argument/storyline statements

1.

Support

There are still a significant number of open

wood fires in Christchurch.

3. These fires are causing a number of problems.

Introductory
paragraph

5. For this reason, it has been suggested that

they be banned.
Thesis statement: Proponents of the suggestion have an argument
for the banning of open wood fires in Christchurch while opponents
have a counter-argument against it. However, the counter-argument
can be refuted, which means it is not sound, so it cannot be accepted;
therefore, open wood fires in Christchurch should be banned.

Body paragraph 1
(Argument for
the ban)

7. Proponents of the suggestion argue the ban will

lead to health and environmental benefits.

Body paragraph 2 8. Opponents of the suggestion counter-argue the

(Counterban will lead to health and economic problems.
argument against
the ban)
Body paragraph 3 9. But, the opponents counter-argument is not
(Refutation of
sound because it uses evidence that has been
the countershown to be false.
argument)
Conclusion

10. Since the argument for the ban is sound and

since the counter-argument can be refuted and
be shown to be unsound, the Christchurch City
Council should ban open wood fires.

Page 22

STEP 4: WRITE A STATEMENT OF INTENT

You are now at the stage where you have a plan for your essay. However, before you start
writing, it is a good idea to be sure of exactly what you are going to do. To do this, you write
a statement of intent.
A statement of intent is a short written outline of what you are going to do in the essay. This
is not part of the final essay (nor is it the abstract or the executive summary); it is only a
way of stating what you intend to do in the essay and is to help you be clear before you start
writing the essay.
The clearer you are about your ideas, your intentions, and your message, the easier you will
find it is to write an essay. This step virtually forces you to become crystal clear about what
your answer to the essay question is, what your ideas are, and what you intend to do in the
essay. It is then only a matter of doing it. So, although it seems like extra work, for the sake
of a well-written essay it is a good idea not to skip this step.
The language you use when writing a statement of intent should be very specific. You should
use the phrases I am going to , or I will . For example, In the first paragraph I am going
to describe the situation, In the next paragraph I am going to evaluate the idea and show
that it is not a good one. This type of language means you are committing yourself to doing
certain things in each paragraph or section, which are indicated by the verbs you use.
To write the statement of intent, look at your argument/storyline, the questions for each
statement, the answers to the questions, and how you have decided to slice it, and then ask
yourself what you are going to do in each part of the essay. What are you going to do in the
introductory paragraph? How many body paragraphs are you going to have? What are you
going to do in each body paragraph? What are you going to do in the concluding paragraph?
The answers to these questions will give you your statement of intent. And, your statement
of intent indicates what you are committing yourself to doing in the essay.
Once you have committed yourself, you need to make sure you carry out your intentions. The
essay question instructs you to do certain things. You analyse the question and in your
statement of intent state that you are going to do certain things. You then need to do these
things.
If you do not have the necessary skills, this does not mean you can ignore the instructions or
what you have said you will do; it means you need to get the skills. It is easy enough to say
you are going to evaluate an idea; it is more difficult to actually do it. Some students intend,
before they start writing, to do one thing in a paragraph, and end up doing something else
because they do not have the skills necessary to carry out the intention.
If the essay question asks you to, for example, evaluate an idea, you may intend to do this in
the eighth paragraph. If you then find it is too difficult to evaluate an idea and so do
something else, you cannot expect to get the best marks for what you write.
NOTE: You could do this step verbally; you could just say aloud what you intend to do in the
essay. This is not as good as a written statement of intent, but at least you have committed
yourself to doing something (as long as you can remember what you have said you are going to

Page 23

do). However, because this step is so important in terms of a well structured and well written
essay, dont just ignore or skip this step altogether.

EXAMPLE ESSAY QUESTION (Step 4: Write a Statement of Intent)

Argue for or against the suggestion that open wood fires in Christchurch should be
banned.

Statement of Intent
1. In this essay I am first going to present the argument for banning open wood fires in
Christchurch along with its support and show that it is a sound argument. I am then
going to present the counter-argument along with its support. I am then going to
refute the counter-argument by showing that some the evidence used as support has
been shown to be false. This will leave me with the original argument for banning open
wood fires, which is sound, and I will recommend the Christchurch City Council ban
open wood fires.
2. In the essay I am going to have an introductory paragraph, three body paragraphs
and a concluding paragraph.
3. In the introductory paragraph I am going explain what open wood fires are, why they
are still around in Christchurch, and the problems they are causing. I will then state
that there has been a suggestion that they should be banned.
4. At the end of the introductory paragraph I am going to place the thesis statement.
5. In the first body paragraph, I am going to present the proponents argument for the
ban, along with their support.
6. In the second body paragraph, I am going to present the opponents counter-argument
against the ban, along with their support.
7. In the third body paragraph I am going to refute the opponents counter-argument by
showing that some of the evidence they have used to support their counter-argument
has been shown to be false. And, if the evidence they use to support their counterargument is false, then the counter-argument is not sound.
8. In the concluding paragraph I am going to summarise the main points of the two
arguments. I will then point out that the opponents counter-argument is not sound.
Since this leaves the proponents argument for banning open wood fires, and since this
argument is sound, this is what should be done. So, I will recommend the Christchurch
City Council implement the ban as soon as possible along with my reasons for this
opinion.

Page 24

STEP 5: WRITE THE ESSAY

5.1 Check the Essay you are About to Write Makes Sense
You now have all you need to start writing. But before you do, it is a good idea to check
that what you are going to write makes sense. It is a lot easier to check at this point and
to make changes, before you have written anything, than after you have spent all the time
and effort writing the essay out in full.
There are several ways to check your essay before you start writing. It is best if you have
some way of verbally expressing your ideas - tell someone, talk to yourself or a tape
recorder, or give a seminar. Look at your statement of intent, which is based on your
argument and the support you are going to use, and present the essay in the form of a
short speech. You will find it quite easy to correct or change your ideas if you notice them
going off track or not making sense because, at this point, your essay is still in note form.
Besides checking your essay makes sense, you also need to check that you have done all you
can to get the best possible marks. To do this, it is handy to know how essays are marked.
In general there is a hierarchy of about seven levels that is followed by lecturers when
they mark your essay:
Hierarchy of criteria for marking essays (in general: different courses & different
lecturers will have different ideas
1. Does it appear that the student has understood the essay question and its
implications?
2. Has the student analysed the question correctly and followed the instructions?
3. Has the student organised the essay into a coherent overall structure?
4. Has the student used the appropriate academic skills, e.g. description, evaluation,
discussion, argument, etc.?
5. Has the student used a wide range of appropriate material?
6. Has the student communicated precisely?
7. Has the student used the accepted editorial conventions
You can change this hierarchy into specific questions to ask yourself. The answers to these
questions will determine whether you are ready to start writing yet, whether you need to
make changes, or whether you need to find more information. Ask yourself the following
questions:

Page 25

Checklist of questions to ask after writing the essay

1. Have I shown I have understood the essay question and its implications and have I
answered the essay question?
2. How have I done this?
3. Have I analysed the question correctly and have I followed the instructions?
4. Have I organised the essay into a coherent overall structure?
5. Do I have an essay argument that is clear and easy for the reader to recognise?
6. Have I used the academic skills that the essay question and the essay argument
dictate I use?
7. Have I used information from a range of sources to support my essay argument?
8. Have I referenced the material I have used from other sources correctly?
9. Have l written clearly and concisely?
10. Have I written academic paragraphs?
11. Have I used the expected structure for an academic essay?
12. Have I followed the rules for grammar, verb tenses, agreement, punctuation, etc.?
13. Have I followed the departments instructions in terms of cover page, page numbers,
font type and size, etc

5.2 Write the Essay

Before starting to write your essay there are a couple of questions you should ask. Do you
know the parts and structure of the academic essay? Do you know the parts and structure
of the basic academic paragraph? Are you able to write different kinds of paragraphs?
How do you make sure your argument comes through clearly in what you write? How are
the statements of the argument/storyline and the support presented? If you are not sure
about any of these questions, you should check before you start writing. In most cases it
is only a matter of finding out what is expected. However, in some cases, you may need to
practise and develop specific skills.
If you are confident about the points raised by the questions above, you are ready to
start writing your essay. Start with the section that you feel is easiest to write. This may
be the first section, but not always. Some people like to get the introductory paragraph
out of the way first. Others like to leave it to last. Write in the order that feels most
comfortable for you.
If you have followed the steps above you now have a statement of intent based on your
essay argument/storyline, the questions for each of the statements, the answers to the
questions, and your slicing of the material. You can now start writing from your statement
of intent. Write what you are going to do at the top of a page, and then do it.

Page 26

Make sure the statements are clear in what you write. Also, use words or phrases
(signposts) to indicate to the reader what you are doing. If you are giving support for a
statement, let your reader know this is what you are doing. If you are presenting the
other side of an argument, this is what you tell the reader. Clear transition signals/linking
words are important.
A final point: if you are not a fast typist, it may be an idea to write the essay by hand and
then type what you have written. This is because concentrating on where the letter keys
are on the keyboard means you are only half focusing on what you are writing. If you write
by hand, you will be able to concentrate more on what you want to say and less on how to
write it.

STEP 6: CORRECT AND EDIT THE ESSAY

Once you have written the first draft of the essay, go through the usual procedure of
correcting, editing, and writing the final draft.
Be an active editor. Do not just read through and hope the mistakes will jump out at you.
Remember, you thought what you have written was correct when you wrote it. Unless you
actively look for particular editing points you will probably still think what you have written is
correct when you read it again. Reading the essay aloud is a good idea. You will be surprised
at how often what you thought you had written and what you had actually written are
different.
The specific points you need to look for when correcting and editing include agreement,
parallelism, unity, coherence, punctuation, grammar, articles, referencing and bibliography.
You need to find out what these are, and then look for them. One way to make sure you are
noticing all the points is to make a checklist of the mistakes you have made in the past. This
will guide you in what to look for. Also, make sure you check the Writing Style Guide for the
particular subject. You can usually get these from the secretaries of the academic
departments at the university.
Some things that you need to consider when correcting and editing an essay:
Grammar

Prepositions

Style

Sentence structure

Active/passive

Clarity, flow and interest

Relative clauses

Agreement

Punctuation

Unity

Conventions of academic
writing and layout

Articles

Coherence

Marking checklist (in Step

5 above)

Greg Armfield
English Language Support Programme
Academic Skills Centre
University of Canterbury

Page 27

A Literary technique or literary device may be used by works of literature in order to produce a specific effect
on the reader. Literary technique is distinguished from literary genre as military tactics are from military
strategy. Thus, though David Copperfield employs satire at certain moments, it belongs to the genre of comic
novel, not that of satire. By contrast, Bleak House employs satire so consistently as to belong to the genre of
satirical novel. In this way, use of a technique can lead to the development of a new genre, as was the case with
one of the first modern novels, Pamela by Samuel Richardson, which by using the epistolary technique gave birth
to the epistolary novel.
Many of the techniques listed below can also be used in other forms of fiction, for example film.

[edit]
Annotated list of literary techniques

Page 28

Author surrogate, a character

who acts as the author's
spokesman.
Autobiographical novel, tales
of the author's life as seen by
the author in fictional form;
sometimes significant changes
are made. An example is James
Joyce's A Portrait of the Artist
as a Young Man.
Back-story, the story "behind"
or "before" the events being
portrayed in the story being
told. Past events or background
for a character, than can serve
to color or add additional
meaning to current
circumstances. Provides extra
depth to the story by anchoring
it to external events, real or
imagined.
Breaking the fourth wall, the
author or a character
addressing the audience
directly (also known as direct
address). May acknowledge to
the reader or audience that
what is being presented is
fiction, or may seek to extend
the world of the story to
provide the illusion that they
are included in it.
Christ Figure is an extended
metaphor where a character is
strongly associated with the
mythical or religious figure of
Jesus Christ in either an

Page 29

explicit or an implicit fashion

that authors use to draw
allusions between their
characters and historical or
mythical figures. Most
commonly, by being much
more moral than the other
characters, and sacrificing
themselves to save the planet.
Also, they are sometimes
revived by a Deus Ex Machina.
Conceit is an extended
metaphor, associated with
metaphysical poetry, designed
to push the limits of the
imagination in order to portray
something indescribable.
Constrained writing, in which
artificial constraints, such as
"no words containing the letter
'e'", are imposed.
Deus ex machina, a plot device
dating back to ancient Greek
theater, where the primary
conflict is resolved through a
means that seems unrelated to
the story (i.e. a God comes
down out of nowhere and
solves everything, saving the
character from peril). In
modern times, the Deus ex
machina is often considered a
clumsy method, to be avoided
in order not to frustrate readers
or viewers.
Epistolary novel, novel in the
form of letters exchanged
between the characters. Classic
examples include Pamela by
Samuel Richardson (1740),
Humphry Clinker by Tobias
Smollett (1771), Les Liaisons
dangereuses by Pierre
Choderlos de Laclos (1782)
and Dracula by Bram Stoker
(1897).
False documents, fiction
written in the form of, or about,
apparently real, but actually
fake documents. Examples
include Robert Graves' I,
Claudius, a fictional
autobiography of the Roman

Page 30

emperor Claudius; and H. P.

Lovecraft's Necronomicon, a
fictional book of evil that
appeared frequently in horror
fiction and film, written by
both Lovecraft and his
admirers.
First-person narrative, the
narrator tells his own tale
Flashback, general term for
altering time sequences, taking
characters back to the
beginning of the tale, for
instance.
Foreshadowing, hinting at
events to occur later.
Frame tale, or a story within a
story, where a main story is
used to organise a series of
shorter stories.
Historical novel, story set
amidst historical events,
pioneered by Sir Walter Scott
in his novels of Scottish
history. Protagonists may be
fictional or historical
personages, or a combination.
Hysterical realism, is a literary
genre characterized by chronic
length, manic characters,
madding action, and frequent
digressions on topics secondary
to the story.
Incluing, describing a different
world, such as "Brave New
World"
In medias res, when the story
begins in the middle of an
intense action sequence.
Magic realism, a form
particularly popular in Latin
American but not limited to
that region, in which events are
described realistically, but in a
magical haze of strange local
customs and beliefs. Gabriel
Garca Mrquez is a notable
author in the style.
Metaphor, a comparison not
using the words "like" or "as"
Narrative, fiction written as if it
were related to the reader by a
single participant or observer.

Page 31

Omniscient narrator, particular

form of narrative in which the
narrator sees and knows all
Overstatement, exaggeration of
something, often for the
purpose of emphasis
Oxymoron, a contradicting
statement, for example "jumbo
shrimp"
Parody, ridicule by imitation,
usually humorous, such as
MAD Magazine
Pastiche, using forms and
styles of another author,
generally as an affectionate
tribute, such as the many
stories featuring Sherlock
Holmes not written by Arthur
Conan Doyle, or much of the
Cthulhu Mythos.
Picaresque novel, episodic
recounting of the adventures of
a rogue (Spanish picaro) on the
road, such as Tom Jones or
Huckleberry Finn.
Personification, the use of
comparative metaphors and
similies to give human-like
characteristcs to non-human
objects.
Plot twist is a change ("twist")
in the direction or expected
outcome of the plot of a film or
novel.
Poetic justice is a literary
device in which virtue is
ultimately rewarded or vice
punished, often in modern
literature by an ironic twist of
fate intimately related to the
character's own conduct.
Roman a clef, a "novel with a
key", that is, whose characters
and plot are related to real-life
happenings
Satire, "an attack on
wickedness and folly", as
Samuel Johnson called it, such
as A Modest Proposal or
Candide. Satires are not
necessarily humorous; for
example, dystopian novels such

as 1984 and Brave New World

have satiric elements.
Shared universe is a shared
back-story.
Simile, a comparison using the
words "like" or "as"
Story within a story
Stream of consciousness, an
attempt to portray all the
thoughts and feelings of a
character, as in parts of James
Joyce, William Faulkner, and
Virginia Woolf.
Tone, or the overall attitude
that an author appears to hold
toward the worka novel such
as Candide makes fun of the
sufferings of its characters,
while The Sorrows of Young
Werther takes its protagonist's
suffering very seriously
Word play, in which the nature
of the words used themselves
become part of the work

Authors also manipulate the language of their works to create a desired response from the reader. This is the
realm of the rhetorical devices.

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