Real Analysis Flashcards
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LukeThorburnReal Analysis Flashcards
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LukeThorburnTriangle Inequality
Definition of Convergence of
Sequences
Bolzano Weierstrass Theorem
Cauchy Sequences
Contractive Sequences
Order Hierarchy
Surjection
Injection
The sequence converges to L
as if, given any > 0, there
exists N such that
+ +
< >
If there is no such number the
series diverges.
The sequence is called a
Cauchy sequence if, given any >
0, there exists N such that
Every bounded real sequence
contains a convergent
subsequence.
< , >
A sequence converges iff it is a
Cauchy sequence.
1 log !
, > 1
, > 0
A sequence is contractive if
+2 +1 < +1
where is a positive constant
strictly less than 1. Such sequences
converge.
If every element of B which is the
image of something in the set A is
the image of precisely one element
of A.
If every element of B is the image of
something in the set A. The range
equals the codomain.
Definition of Convergence of
Functions at a point
=?
=
=?
=
=?
+
=?
Continuity
Uniform Convergence of Functions
Intermediate Value Theorem
Differentiability
Rolles Theorem
Mean Value Theorem
lim = 1
sin
tan
lim
= lim
=1
0
0
1
log
lim log = lim
=0
0
lim 1 +
=
is said to converge
uniformly on an interval to a
continuous function () if, given
any > 0 there exists such that
We say that as if,
given any > 0, there exists > 0
such that
() <
whenever 0 < < .
A function () is continuous at
= if () () as .
() () <
whenever > and .
A function is differentiable at the
point = if
() = () + ( ) +
If is continuous on the closed
finite interval [, ], then for every
real number between () and
(), there exists at least one point
[, ] for which () = .
where L is independent of x and
/( ) 0 as
If is continuous on the closed
interval [, ] and differentiable on
the open interval (, ), then there
exists at least one point (, )
such that
= ()( )
If a function is defined on [, ],
continuous on [, ], is
differentiable on (, ), and () =
(), then there exists (, )
such that = 0.
LHpitals Rule
Taylor Polynomial
sin(y)
Lagranges Remainder
cos(y)
sinh(y), cosh(y)
and their derivatives
Other useful
Hyperbolic Function Identities
arctanh(t)
and its derivative
If () has at least n derivatives at
= , the th order Taylor
polynomial for () about = is
=0
()( )
!
sin =
1
2
cos =
1
+
2
cosh2 sinh2 = 1
sech2 = 1 tanh2
tanh = 1 tanh2
sinh(2) = 2 sinh cosh
2
If and are differentiable in an
open interval containing ,
() = () = 0, & () 0 in
except possibly at = , then
()
()
lim
= lim
()
()
if the limit on the right exists.
cosh 2 = cosh + sinh
sinh =
cosh =
+1
()( )+1
+1 !
They are derivatives
of each other.
1
1+
arctanh = log
2
1
1
arcsinh =
2 + 1
1
arctanh =
1 2
1
arccosh =
2 1
Riemann Integrability
Conditions
Riemann Sum
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Liebnizs Rule
Odd & Even Functions
Integration by Parts
Ordinary Differential Equations
of order
Separable ODEs
=1
where are the boundaries of the
subintervals, = 1 and
, 1 . Labelled regular if
all subintervals are equal length.
()
is Riemann integrable if upper
bound of lower sums and lower
bound of upper sums are equal. If:
a. continuous on [, ]
b. monotonic on [, ]
c. bounded on [, ] and removable
discontinuities only
If () is continuous for
then
()
=
(for differentiating integrals with
respect to a terminal variable)
is differentiable for < < ,
() = () has right derivative
() at = and left derivative
() at = .
Odd:
= ()
=
=
Those of the form
= ()
(Mentally go through procedure for
solving.)
Even:
=
Those of the form
, , , , = 0
General first-order linear ODEs
and their integrating factors
First-order ODEs of homogeneous type
First-order ODEs of Bernoulli type
Stability
Second-order linear ODEs
with constant coefficients
Complementary Functions
of second-order linear ODEs
with constant coefficients
Strategies for
finding particular integrals
of second-order linear ODEs
with constant coefficients
Comparison Test
for Improper Integrals
Those of the form
Those of the form
+ =
(Mentally go through procedure for
solving.)
with = exp () .
(Mentally go through procedure for
solving.)
An equilibrium solution = of
an ODE is stable if, given >
0 > 0 such that for every other
solution () with 0 < ,
< (0 , ).
Asymptotically stable if
Those of the form
Solve characteristic equation.
Ones of the form
If 2 solutions: 1 + 2
If 1 solution: ( + ) 1
(Go through complex root case
mentally.)
If () is Riemann integrable on all
finite subintervals of [, ), 0
() () for , and the
improper integral ()
() exists and
()
() .
exists, then
0
+ =
(Mentally go through procedure for
solving.)
2+
+ =
(Mentally go through procedure for
solving.)
Split up using superposition
ideas.
Strategic guessing (go over
strategies mentally).
Limit Comparison Test
for Improper Integrals
The Gamma Function
Absolute Convergence
for improper integrals and series
Mean of a
Probability Density Function
Fourier Transform
The Harmonic Series
The Divergence Test
(a.k.a. The Dont waste my time Test)
The Geometric Series
(and its sum to infinity)
! = + 1 =
()
where () is the Probability
Density Function.
If () is Riemann integrable on all
finite subintervals of [, ); () >
0 for ; ()~() as
and the improper integral
()
exists,
then
()
exists.
If is Riemann integrable in all
finite intervals and () <
.
If
=1 is convergent (implies
convergence).
If not absolute then conditional.
=1
(it diverges)
1
=
(1,1)
1
=0
but diverges otherwise.
()
for any function , provided the
integral on the right exists. If is a
PDF, we call a characteristic
function for the PDF .
If the summand does not
converge to zero as , then the
series
=1 diverges.
Telescoping Series
(and their sums to infinity)
Comparison Test
for series of positive terms
Limit Comparison Test
for series of positive terms
Integral Test
for series of positive terms
The Riemann Zeta Function
Extended Limit Comparison Test
for series of positive terms
The Ratio Test
Alternating Series Test
If 0 then:
=1
converges
converges;
=1
diverges
diverges.
=1
()
1
+1 = 1
=1
where as .
decays monotonically to zero as
iff
=1
If > 0 1, and ()
, then
Those that can be written in the
form:
=1 () converges
< .
If > 0 and > 0 for all
and ~ as then
either
=1 and
converge;
or
=1 and
diverge.
=1
If > 0 and > 0 for all
and = ( ) as then
=1
=1
converges
converges;
=1
diverges
diverges.
=1
=1
both
both
Converges iff > 1.
=1
If 0 and decays
monotonically to zero as
then the alternating series
=0(1) converges.
If > 0 for all , then
lim
+1
lim
+1
<1
=1
converges;
>1
=1
diverges.
Multiplication of Series
Power Series
Uniform Convergence of Series
The Weierstrass M Test
The Taylor Series
Pochhammers Symbol
Theorem on the
Convergence of Power Series
Addition of Power Series
Those of the form:
=0
centred on 0 , being
independent of .
If () for all , where
is independent of and
=0 converges, then
=0 () converges uniformly on
the interval .
This sum is a continuous function if
() is continuous.
Defined for {0} by
()
=
1, = 0
+ 1 + 1 ,
If the power series
=0 and
=0 have radii of
convergence and
respectively, then
=0( + )
converges at least for <
min , and is equal in this
interval to
=0 + =0 .
If the series =
= and =
= are both absolutely
convergent, then their product is
given by the absolutely convergent
series
If the series
=0 () converges
for all where is an open or
closed interval, we say that it
converges uniformly on if the
sequence of partial sums =
=0 () converges uniformly on
.
=0
()
The special case = 0 is
sometimes called the Maclaurin
series.
If the power series
=0 (
Multiplication of Power Series
Differentiation of Power Series
Integration of Power Series
If =
=0
() =
=0
0 ,
0
+1
+1
within the radius of convergence.
For
=0 and =0 with
radii of convergence and
respectively, then at least for <
min , ,
=0
=0
If =
=0
=0
=0
0 ,
() =
=0
