State Department of Education

Division of Special Education

October 2003
Guidelines Autism 2002

This manual is a compilation from various sources for

intervention and assessment and is to be considered as best
practices in the assessment and identification of students with
Visual Impairments. With the exception of the Visual Impairment
Definition and Evaluation Standards, Procedures and
Participants (State Board of Education Rule 0520-1-9-.01), the
information in these guidelines is not legally binding on the
schools of Tennessee.

TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements........................................................................4
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION...............................................................................6
SECTION 2: VISUAL IMPAIRMENT:
DEFINITION/ELIGIBILITY STANDARDS AND PROCEDURES....................11
SECTION 3: CHILD FIND/SCREENING AND REFERRAL.................................13
Community Awareness and Child Find............................................13
Flowchart: Sequence for Evaluation................................................15
SECTION 4: GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION..................................................16
Medical Evaluation and Report.........................................................16
Functional Vision and Media Assessment.......................................16
Review of School History and Education Records...16
Educational Performance Assessment......................17
Functional Vision Assessment....................................19
Learning Media Assessment.......................................21
Documentation of Adverse Affects.............................25
Educational Implications.............................................27
Expanded Core Curriculum Skills Assessment..............................30
Compensatory Skills Including Communication Modes
30
Orientation and Mobility..............................................30
Social Interaction Skills...............................................31
Independent Living Skills............................................31
Recreation and Leisure................................................32
Career Education..........................................................32
Assistive Technology...................................................32
Visual Efficiency...........................................................33
Questions to Ask When Developing an Educational Plan.............34
Functional Vision and Media Assessment Report..........................37
Low Vision Assessment.....................................................................38

TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

SECTION 5: ELIGIBILITY GUIDELINES.............................................................39

IEP Team Eligibility Determination...................................................39
Orientation and Mobility Needs........................................................39
Need for Braille...................................................................................41
SECTION 6: SERVICES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION............................................42
Service Delivery Considerations......................................................42
Statewide Assessment (TCAP).........................................................43
Allowable Accommodations........................................43
Special Accommodations............................................43
Alternate Assessment (TCAP-Alt)...............................44
SECTION 7: CONSIDERATION OF OTHER DISABILITIES...............................45
SECTION 8: APPENDICES..................................................................................47
Appendix A: Screening and Pre-Assessment......................48
Appendix B: Assessment and Documentation Forms........54
Appendix C: Resources..........................................................59
Appendix D: References.........................................................72

TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Tennessee Department of Education would like to thank the members of the
Visual Impairment Task Force for their diligent work and dedication to the
development of the standards for Visual Impairment. We would like to thank Mr.
Joseph Fisher, Assistant Commissioner of Special Education for his support of
this endeavor.

Visual Impairment Task Force

Sandy Baker
Special Education Supervisor
Dyersburg City Schools

Becky McBee
Vision Coordinator
Knox County Schools

Jennifer Bell
Coordinator Providing Access to the
Visual Environment (Project P.A.V.E.)
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University

Dr. LaRhea Sanford

Lead Teacher, Vision Program
Metro-Nashville Public Schools

Ralph Brewer (Task Force Chair)

Director
Tennessee School for the Blind
Elaine Brown
Teacher/Deaf-Blind Specialist
Tennessee School for the Blind
Jim Burton
Parent/Assistant Principal
Moore County Schools
Dr. Anne Corn
Professor-Department of
Special Education
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University
Pam Feldhaus
Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments
Bedford County Schools
Dr. Moniqueka Gold
Assistant Professor, Department of Special
Education, College of Education
Austin Peay State University
Dr. Randall Harley
Emeritus Professor of Special Education
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University

TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

Tom Sering
Special Education Supervisor
Milan City Schools
Dr. Joan Shagan
School Psychologist
Tennessee School for the Blind
Dr. Sheri Trent
Professor of Special Education
Middle Tennessee State University
Dr. Mila Truan
Reading Specialist
Tennessee School for the Blind
Caren Wayburn
Tennessee Technical Assistance and Resources
for Enhancing Deafblind Supports (Project
TREDS)
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University
Karen White
Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments
Metro-Nashville Public Schools
Vicki Wolczyk
Teacher of Students with Visual Impairments
Tennessee School for the Blind

The Division of Special Education wishes to express a heartfelt thank you to the
professionals who have contributed many hours of expertise in the collaboration,
writing and editing of this manual:
Ralph Brewer, SuperintendentTennessee School for the Blind
Dr. Anne Corn, Professor in Department of Special EducationPeabody College,
Vanderbilt University
Dr. Randall Harley, Emeritus Professor of Special EducationPeabody College,
Vanderbilt University
Ann Sanders, Director of Assessment, Information and ResearchState Department of
Education
Dr. LaRhea Sanford, Lead Teacher-Vision ProgramMetro-Nashville Public Schools
Dr. Joan Shagan, School PsychologistTennessee School for the Blind
Dr. Sheri Trent, Professor of Special EducationMiddle Tennessee State University
Dr. Mila Truan, Reading SpecialistTennessee School for the Blind

TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

INTRODUCTION
Section 1

The reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1997 is
the third major statutory reauthorization since PL 94-142 was first enacted in 1975.
IDEA '97 and its accompanying regulations are integrated documents that expand on
and strengthen the requirements of earlier versions. Although many sections remain
unchanged, greater emphasis has been placed on the participation and progress of
children with disabilities in the general curriculum, disciplinary situations, state funding
mechanisms, new provisions for parent and general education teacher participation,
and Individual Education Program (IEP) team membership and content. The revised
law calls for a more educationally relevant IEP, an IEP that is more responsive to
educational context.
IDEA'97 provides language that impacts the assessment and eligibility determination
for all students who are suspected of having a disability. A child may not be determined
to be eligible for special education or a child with a disability [Determination of Eligibility:
300.534 (b) (1) (i, ii)]1 if the determinant factor for that eligibility determination is:
1. Lack of instruction in reading or math; or
2. Limited English proficiency ; and
3. The child does not otherwise meet the eligibility standards under 300.7(a) [Child
with a Disability].
IDEA'97 addresses the evaluation and assessment of all students [Determination of
Needed Evaluation Data 300.533(a)(a)(i-iii)] in requiring the assessment and
alignment of core curriculum using research-based instructional strategies that are
student focused. This would include review of existing evaluation data on the child,
including:

Evaluations and information provided by the parents of the child;

Current classroom-based assessments and observations; and
Observations by teachers and related services providers

Federal and state special education laws and regulations mandate that public school
systems evaluate and, when appropriate, provide special education services to children
whose educational performance is adversely affected by the identified disability(s). The
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act includes visual impairments that adversely
affect educational performance as types of disabilities requiring special education and

Throughout this document all references indicated within brackets [ ] refer to sections from the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA).
TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

related services. If the student 2 has difficulties that do not "adversely impact the child's
educational performance"; the student is not eligible for services under IDEA.
Regulations from IDEA'97 specifically require IEP teams to address and document
"adverse affects" of the identified disability in the child's general education curriculum.
These regulations have made a significant impact in many school districts with the
increased use and application of federal requirements of Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Section 504 is a civil rights statute which provides that: "No
otherwise qualified individual with handicaps in the United Statesshall, solely by
reason of his/her handicap, be excluded from the participation in, be denied the
benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving
federal financial assistance." (29 USC 794) The provisions of Title II of the American
Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) and Section 504 are similar in nature, although
interpreted consistently. When a child meets IDEA/state standards for identification as
visually impaired, and "adverse affects" cannot be demonstrated, accommodations in
the general education classroom should be developed through a Section 504 Service
Plan by the Section 504 Review Committee.
Major emphasis was placed on the inclusion of all students with disabilities in the
general education curriculum, including participation of all students in mandated
statewide or district-wide assessments. IDEA'97 addressed these requirements
[Participation in Assessments 300.138] in stating:
"The State must have on file with the Secretary information to demonstrate that
(a) Children with disabilities are included in general State and district-wide assessment
programs, with appropriate accommodations and modifications in administration, if
necessary;
(b) As appropriate, the State or LEA (1) Develops and implements guidelines for the participation of children with
disabilities in alternate assessments for those children who cannot participate in
State and district-wide assessment programs;
(2) Develops alternate assessments in accordance with paragraph (b)(1) of this
section; and
(3) Beginning not later than, July 1, 2000, conducts the alternate assessments
described in paragraph (b)(2) of this section."
Consequently, specific accommodations have been developed and, as research-based
information becomes available, continue to be revised that can address this need for
students with a visual impairment. Significant progress has been made since the
reauthorization of IDEA in 1997 for including students with visual impairments in largescale assessments mandated at both district and state levels. Although there continue
to be barriers and issues regarding statewide assessment that have not yet been
resolved for students with visual impairments, the inclusion of all students in statewide
2

The words, student and child, and the terms visual impairment and visual disability are used interchangeably
throughout this document, and should be read with the same intent or meaning.
TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

assessments will continue to be an evolving process, with focus on equitable and fair
assessment of all students.
Legislation specific to the assessment of students suspected of a visual impairment is
significant with this reauthorization. Under Development, Review, and Revision of IEP
[300.346 (a)(2)(i-v)--Consideration of Special Factors], there are factors for
consideration by all IEP Teams for any student with a disability, including:
(iii)

"In the case of a child who is blind or visually impaired, provide for
instruction in braille and the use of braille unless the IEP team determines,
after an evaluation of the child's reading and writing skills, needs, and
appropriate reading and writing media (including an evaluation of the child's
future needs for instruction in braille or the use of braille), that instruction in
braille or the use of braille is not appropriate for the child."

Other IDEA'97 language specifically pertaining to students with visual impairments may
be found in the section of IDEA'97 that describes Related Services [300.24 (b)(6)],
including:
(6) "Orientation and mobility services
(i) Means services provided to blind or visually impaired students by qualified
personnel to enable those students to attain systematic orientation to and
safe movement within their environments in school, home, and community;
and
(ii) Includes teaching students the following, as appropriate:
(A) Spatial and environmental concepts and use of information received by
the senses (such as sound, temperature and vibrations) to establish,
maintain, or regain orientation and line of travel (e.g., using sound at a
traffic light to cross the street);
(B) To use the long cane to supplement visual travel skills or as a tool for
safely negotiating the environment for students with no available travel
vision;
(C) To understand and use remaining vision and distance low vision aids;
and
(D) Other concepts, techniques, and tools."
The intent of this document is to help teachers of students with visual impairments and
administrators of programs serving students with visual impairments to operate within
the school improvement process therein, supporting the spirit and intent of the
reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act and regulations through
quality practices. This document will support teachers of students with visual
impairments as they "align curriculum and assessment and use research-based
instructional strategies that are student focused." Other audiences for this document
are special education administrators, school psychologists, parents, medical eye
TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

specialists, and other school staff. This document is written to guide professionals in
education through a problem solving process, which begins with general education
interventions and continues through initial evaluations, services, and transition into the
community.
Registration 3, referral for rehabilitation services, Supplemental Security Income, and
income tax exemption. A person determined to be "legally blind" may have functional
vision and may be a print reader or a braille and print reader. Students who are legally
blind and not able to use print as a reading medium may require braille, recorded
materials, and/or tactile and auditory materials as components of their educational
program.
The student with low vision may be able to use print as the primary educational
medium, even though adaptations may be necessary. The student with low vision has
a visual acuity ranging from 20/50 or less in the better eye with best correction or a
remaining field of vision of 60 degrees or less. In the case of a student with a vision
problem and one or more additional disabling conditions, the vision problem may be
considered the primary or the secondary disability.
The teacher of students with visual impairments must determine if learning problems
are caused by visual disabilities as defined in Tennessees eligibility standards and can
be remediated using methods and adaptations for students with visual impairments, or
if the learning problems are caused by visual perceptual problems. If visual acuity has
been ruled out as the problem, the assessment team should refer the student for a
psychological evaluation and/or to a teacher who specializes in learning disabilities.
These specialists can make recommendations for methods and adaptations for
students with visual perceptual problems. At this time, best practices involve
remediation of specific skills, teaching compensatory strategies, and providing
appropriate accommodations (Silver, 2001).
The American Academy of Pediatrics and the American Academy of Ophthalmology,
issued the following statement in 1998 as a rebuttal for the claims of some optometrists
and ophthalmologists: There is no peripheral eye defect that produces dyslexia and
associated learning disabilities. Eye defects do not cause reversal of letters, words or
numbersno known scientific evidence supports the claims for improving the
academic abilities of dyslexic or learning disabled children with treatment based on
visual training, including muscle exercises, ocular pursuit, or tracking exercises, or
glasses (with or without bifocals or prism) pp. 197-198 Ingersoll & Goldstein, 1993.
There are many controversial therapies (e.g., scotopic sensitivity and optometric visual
training) or diagnoses such as convergent insufficiency, currently being used in the
3

Congress enacted the Federal Act to Promote the Education of the Blind in 1879. This act is a means for providing adapted
educational materials to eligible students who meet the definition of legal blindness. An annual registration of eligible students
determines a per capita amount of money designated for the purchase of educational materials produced by the American
Printing House for the Blind (APH). These funds are credited to Federal Quota accounts that are maintained and administered
by APH and its Ex Officio Trustees throughout the country.
TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

United States. Teachers of students with visual impairments must be knowledgeable of

documented research and publications of peer-reviewed journals that support a
particular therapy before they endorse and support the therapy (Silver, 2001).
Documented position papers, supported by empirical, research-based evidence, should
be the hallmark in the determination of appropriate educational interventions for a
student with visual impairments.

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TENNESSEES DEFINITION/STANDARDS
Section 2

1. Definition
State Board of Education Rule 0520-1-9-.01 (15) (p) Disabilities

Visual Impairment Including Blindness means impairment in vision that,

even with correction, adversely affects a childs educational performance.
The term includes both partial sight and blindness.
2. Eligibility Standards
a. The child shall meet the definition of visual impairment and at least one of the
following:
(1) visual acuity in the better eye or both eyes with best possible correction:
(a) Legal Blindness 20/200 or less at distance and/or near;
(b) Low Vision 20/50 or less at distance and/or near;
(2) visual field restriction with both eyes:
(a)

Legal Blindness remaining visual field of 20 degrees or less;

(b)

Low Vision remaining visual field of 60 degrees or less;

(3) medical and educational documentation of progressive loss of vision, which

may in the future, affect the student's ability to learn visually, or
(4) other visual impairment, not perceptual in nature, resulting from a medically
documented condition.
b. The characteristics as defined above are present and cause an adverse effect
on educational performance in the classroom or learning environment.

3. Evaluation Procedures
a. Evaluation shall include the following:
(1) evaluation by an ophthalmologist or optometrist, which documents the eye
condition with the best possible correction;
(2) a written functional vision and media assessment, completed or compiled by
a licensed teacher of students with visual impairments, which includes:
(a) observation of visual behaviors at school, home, or other environments;
(b) educational implications of eye condition based upon information
received from eye report;
(c) assessment and/or screening of expanded core curriculum skills
(orientation and mobility, social interaction, visual efficiency, independent
living, recreation and leisure, career education, assistive technology, and
compensatory skills) as well as an evaluation of the childs reading and

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writing skills, needs, appropriate reading and writing media, and current
and future needs for braille;
(d) school history and levels of educational performance; and
(e) documentation and assessment of how visual impairment adversely
affects educational performance in the classroom or learning
environment.

4. Evaluation Participants
a. Information shall be gathered from the following persons in the evaluation of
visual impairment:
(1) the parent/guardian of the child;
(2) an ophthalmologist or optometrist;
(3) licensed teacher of students with visual impairments;
(4) a general education classroom teacher; and
(5) other professional personnel, as needed: (e.g., low vision specialist,
orientation and mobility instructor, school psychologist).

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CHILD FIND/SCREENING AND REFERRAL

Section 3

COMMUNITY AWARENESS AND CHILD FIND

Federal law mandates Child Find for all students suspected of having a disability.
(300.125) Each school system is required to develop and implement, according to
state and federal guidelines, a written plan for identifying and serving students
suspected of having a disability.
For students with visual impairments, child find relies upon the cooperation of various
agencies. Referrals are made to Tennessee Early Intervention Services (TEIS) from
numerous agencies, hospitals, and medical personnel. Children referred to TEIS are
served in their homes prior to the age of three when school systems assume
responsibility for their education. In order to identify all children with visual impairment,
community residents must be made aware of visual behaviors that warrant referral for
screening. This information may be provided through day care centers, community
agencies, Lions clubs, Prevent Blindness America and other agencies that may see
children prior to their entering school.
Involvement of Media/Communication Resources
A variety of methods may be used to disseminate information to the public about child
find programs for students with visual impairment. Media such as newspapers, radio
and television, newsletters to school personnel and other agencies, brochures provided
by the health department, stuffers included in bills and statements are effective means
of creating an awareness of the importance of early identification of children with visual
impairments.
Referral for Special Education
Each school system must identify, locate, and evaluate all children suspected of having
visual disabilities and who might need special education and related services. Each
school systems general education program must conduct annual child find vision
screening activities in order to identify students with special needs. Any person
(parents, school personnel and/or community agency personnel) who reasonably
believes that a child may have a disability may make a referral for vision services. It is
preferable that referrals be in writing. Parents must provide written consent before the
child is evaluated. The evaluation must assess the child in all areas of suspected
disability. The evaluation and IEP process must be completed within 40 school days 4
from the date the parents signed informed consent is received by the school system.
Local educational agencies may need to pay for the diagnostic eye exam if the child is
not under the care of an eye specialist.
4

Rulemaking Hearing Rules of the State Board of Education, Special Education Programs and Services, Chapter 0520-1-9
(3) Referral, Initial Evaluation, and Reevaluation
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A flowchart is included on the following page to clarify the steps and offer a suggested
sequence for evaluating students suspected of having a visual impairment.
(Step 1) When a concern has been expressed regarding a childs vision, the parent is
contacted for information about the childs prior history of eye conditions and treatment
by eye care specialists. The referral process is explained and a copy of Rights of
Children with Disabilities and Parent Responsibilities is provided to the parents.
(Step 2a) Most parents are aware when they have a child who is visually impaired and
will have obtained appropriate eye care for their child. However, if a visual impairment
is suspected and an eye doctor has not seen the child, the parent(s) needs to schedule
a medical eye examination by an eye doctor.
(Step 2b) In either case, an eye report needs to be completed by the eye specialist
and returned to the childs school or the teacher of students with visual impairments
(TVI).
(Step 3) Once an eye report is obtained, the TVI reviews the report and determines
whether the student meets the standards for eligibility as a student with a visual
impairment.
(Step 4) If eligibility standards are not met, appropriate documentation procedures are
to be followed, and the parent and school staff are informed.
(Step 5) If the student meets the eligibility standards for visual impairment as visually
impaired, referral for a comprehensive visual evaluation is made.
(Step 6) The IEP chairperson contacts the parents and explains the evaluation
process, specifies who will evaluate their child, and identifies types of assessments to
be administered. Written parental consent to conduct the evaluation is obtained and a
prior written notice explaining this decision is provided to the parents.
(Step 7) The functional vision and media assessment and educational evaluation is
completed by the TVI, which includes input from the parents and teachers.
(Step 8) An IEP meeting is held:
a. to determine whether or not the child is eligible for special education services as
visually impaired because state disability standards are met and the students
needs cannot be met in the general education program, and
b. if eligible, to develop an Individualized Education Program (IEP) based on the
identified needs of the student.

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FLOWCHART
SEQUENCE FOR EVALUATING STUDENTS SUSPECTED OF HAVING A VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
Step 1
Suspected Vision Problem:
Contact ParentsMedical Vision Records
Provide and Explain Rights

Step 2a
If no Medical Vision Records Available,
Parents Schedule Vision Examination
with Eye Doctor

Step 2b
Eye Report Completed by Eye
SpecialistReturned to School or to
the TVI

Step 3
TVI Reviews Eye Report:
Determines if Standards as VI
Have been met

Step 4
If VI Standards Not Met:
Information DocumentedParents and School Staff InformedReferral Process Complete

Step 5
If VI Standards Met:
Referral Made for Comprehensive
Visual Evaluation

Step 6
IEP Chairperson Contacts Parents to:
Obtain Informed Parental Consent
Explain Assessment Procedures
Provide Prior Written Notice

Step 7
TVI Completes
Obtains Information from Parents and Teachers
Educational Evaluation
Functional Vision and Media Assessment

Step 8
IEP Team Meeting Held to Consider Eligibility of Student:
DetermineChild with a Visual Impairment
Determine Need for Special Education Services

TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

Step 5
15
If VI Standards
Met:
Referral Made for
Comprehensive

GUIDELINES FOR EVALUATION

Section 4

MEDICAL EVALUATION AND REPORT

Students, who have a medically documented eye condition, where best corrections
meet the eligibility standards for visual impairment, may require special education
services. Other students may be suspected of having a visual impairment, based on
failure of vision screening and subsequent examination by an eye doctor. These
students will require a referral to an ophthalmologist or optometrist for a comprehensive
eye examination and may require special education services.
Some students who are referred for special education services are under the care of an
eye specialist. If the child has been seen in the last twelve months, the doctor should
complete the eye report form. The Eye Report Form (Appendix B) provides written
documentation of the eye condition, which includes, but is not limited to:

history of visual impairment,

measurements of visual acuity, prescription(s), low vision aids, field of vision, and
color perception,
cause of visual impairment, and
prognosis and recommendations.

The form should be returned to the students school or to the TVI. If more information
or clarification is needed, the TVI may contact the eye doctor. The medical information
will assist the TVI in determining what formal and informal assessments will need to be
conducted.

FUNCTIONAL VISION AND MEDIA ASSESSMENT

REVIEW OF SCHOOL HISTORY AND EDUCATION RECORDS
A component of the Functional Vision Assessment should be a statement of the
students present levels of performance in curricular areas of reading, writing,
mathematics, science and social studies as well as a summary of social adjustment.
This information may be obtained from scores from state mandated tests and/or from
the classroom teacher. If current grade achievement levels are not available, or if the
teacher of visual impairments determines that further evaluation is needed, the teacher
of visual impairments should assess, or obtain assessment, of the students levels of
performance in the required areas. In compiling test information, the media in which
the student was tested and any accommodations for testing should be noted.

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The teacher of visual impairments should compile a summary of the students school
history specific to the visual impairment, including:
when vision needs were first identified
when and which services were initiated
service level provided in successive grades and placements (direct, consultation,
collaborative)
special skills addressed (orientation and mobility, keyboarding, braille instruction,
etc.)
interruptions of continuity in services, such as due to protracted school absences
medical information pertaining to changes in vision
changes or addition of learning media, e.g., braille or auditory accommodations

EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

A statement about
objectives and is a
educational records
is the job of the
assessment.

the student's present levels is essential in setting goals and

component of the IEP. When the review of school history and
do not identify current levels or additional information is needed, it
teacher of visual impairments (TVI) to assess or secure the

The present levels of performance on basic skills in reading, math, and writing are key
to providing information for the Functional Vision Assessment and in developing the
IEP. Assessments may be either criterion-referenced, comparing skills to mastery of
specific performance indicators, or norm-referenced, comparing individual performance
to that of a national or state sample. Some of these assessments are group
administered, while others are individually administered.
The State Board of Education has approved Curriculum Standards that have been
identified by the Tennessee Division of Curriculum and Instruction of the Department of
Education for content areas across the curriculum and for each grade level. These
standards are detailed on the state website and updated as necessary. These
standards identify performance indicators and serve as criterion referenced indicators
of achievement and are used in structuring course content.
Four of these curricular areas have been identified for testing:

English/ Language Arts

Mathematics

Science

Social studies

The Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP) has been developed for
monitoring and tracking student progress in these curricular areas. The normTN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

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referenced information from the TCAP Achievement Tests, TCAP Competency Test, the
End of Course Test, and the Gateway Tests compare the performance of students with
visual impairments with that of the normally sighted peers. The TCAP-Alt: PA (Portfolio
Assessment) and TCAP-Alt: ASA (Academic Skills Assessment) provide a method for
assessing progress in the four curriculum areas. More detailed information on statewide
assessments, accommodations and the alternate assessment can be found in Section
6 of this manual.
The utility of norm-referenced tests for exceptional students has been questioned (M.
Frase-Blunt, 2000), as have issues in the adaptability of such tests for students with
visual impairments (Allman, 2000). For example, specific questions have been raised
among educators of students with visual impairments regarding adapting and
interpreting the extensive graphic illustrations in these tests.
The impact of testing accommodations, which provide access to testing, has not been
fully determined. Detailed information from the TVI about the test accommodations is
needed for any accurate administration and interpretation of test results. (See Section
6: Accommodations for Statewide Assessment).
Additional and more meaningful assessment, beyond state mandated tests, may be
required to determine the students present skill levels. A listing of tests for determining
reading levels for normally sighted students has been compiled for Tennessee and is
available as part of the English/Language Arts Standards.
Locating tests that have been transcribed into braille may be facilitated through the
Tennessee Instructional Resource Center for Visually Impairments (TRCVI) and LOUIE
database of the American Printing House for the Blind (Appendix C). Even with the
provision of tests in braille, the TVI should be aware that not all tests may be
appropriately adapted and transcribed into braille. Some tests may arrive with omitted
items and without adjusted information for test interpretation. Even if a tactual item is
provided in lieu of a print diagram or picture, it may not be a valid measure of mastery
or a reliable test indicator. Large print tests that have been produced by photo
enlargement of the regular print test (which is the typical procedure for production of
tests in large print) may have sections where the font is smaller than large print. The
TVI should be alert to the font size of fractions, diagrams, and dictionary or glossary
sections.
Assessment of students with visual impairments with additional disabilities is an
intricate task. A variety of professionals with a broad knowledge of curriculum and
cognitive benchmarks and experience with students with visual impairments with a wide
range of skill levels may be required for an accurate measure of the students abilities.
(Section 7: Consideration of Other Disabilities). Tests that have been found useful for
students with visual impairments are available through the Products Catalog of the
American Printing House for the Blind. Some have specific norms for students using
braille or large print.
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A Compendium of Instruments for Assessing the Skills and Interest of Individuals with
Visual Impairment or Multiple Disabilities is available from Lighthouse International
(Benoff, Lang, and Beck-Visola, 2001). This listing can serve as a reference for direct
use by the TVI or as a resource for school personnel responsible for assessment.

FUNCTIONAL VISION ASSESSMENT

A teacher who is licensed to teach students with visual impairments (TVI) administers a
Functional Vision Assessment (FVA). A Functional Vision Assessment helps the TVI
determine how well a student uses his or her vision in performing daily
activities/routines, with a variety of materials and in a variety of settings. It also helps to
determine whether and in what ways the visual impairment interferes with the learning
process and the educational supports needed for the student.
Teachers of students with visual impairments must consider a number of factors before
they determine materials and strategies to use during the assessment of functional
vision. Information collected from the cumulative folder, current assessment data, and
interviews with parents and teachers will help guide the selection of materials,
strategies and areas to assess during the FVA. Following are sample questions that
might be considered in preparation for administering the FVA:
Can the student:
Understand verbal directions?
Follow simple one and two step directions?
Respond verbally? By matching? By pointing? By head nodding? By eye gaze?
Read and write?
Does the student:
Use a communication device?
Require special positioning and handling?
Have a short attention span?
Need practice items?
Require special reinforcers?
Wear glasses and/or use a prescribed low vision device?
In addition:
Will the examiner need assistance with the assessment?
Is the student following developmentally sequenced, functional life skills, or an
academic curriculum?
Information for a FVA should be gathered from a variety of sourcesstudent records,
interviews with family, student and professionals, and administration of informal and
formal techniques. Student records can supply information about previous testing,
attendance, and progress. Interviews with the student, parents, and school staff can
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make the TVI aware of concerns and other valuable information for the assessment
report. Informal assessments should include observations, interviews and informal
activities with the student. Informal techniques may be the most reliable method for
obtaining information from students with multiple disabilities. These activities may
include tasks such as writing, cutting, sorting, or other tasks based on concerns
reported by the classroom teacher, parent or other staff who work with the student.
Following are suggestions for completing observations:

Observe student in a variety of settings and while performing a variety of daily

routine activities
Observe at different times of the day and over a number of days
Note the color and sizes of materials used with the student
Note environmental factors such as lighting, background, and complexity of visual
tasks
Observe near and distance vision tasks

Formal tests of visual functioning can provide information based on recognized

procedures and standards. These tests may be in the form of checklists, eye charts,
performance-based measures or criterion-referenced assessments. Again, the TVI will
need to individually determine which tests will be used. These observations and tests
may include, but are not limited to the following:

Appearance of the eyes

Behavioral abnormalities
Peripheral vision
Color discrimination
Light sensitivity and preference
Contrast sensitivity
Visual perceptual skills
Central near vision skills
Depth perception
Central distant vision skills

During the Functional Vision Assessment, the TVI should observe and document:

Sizes of objects and print that are successfully discriminated

Distances objects and print are viewed
Color and/or contrast between object or print and background
Complexity of tasks
Use of prescribed glasses and/or low vision device(s)
Body movements and visual behaviors exhibited by the student
Comments made by the student
Time required to complete tasks

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Students diagnosed with the same visual impairment, visual acuity, and/or field
restrictions may function very differently from one another in their daily activities. The
TVI should remember that usable vision can fluctuate due to health, medications,
lighting, fatigue, motivation, or stress. This fluctuation may greatly affect the students
functioning and must be assessed and monitored regularly by the TVI.

LEARNING MEDIA ASSESSMENT

The Learning Media Assessment (LMA) is an integral component of the Functional
Vision and Media Assessment for students with visual impairments. For some students
who are visually impaired, the learning media is clearly established with early learning
experiences, but for others with low vision, determining the most useful primary learning
media requires detailed evaluation with on-going reevaluations. Media options may
range from exclusive use of either print or braille to a combination of braille, print with
optical devices, and listening. For example, a student may use enlarged print or
standard print with optical devices for math, and use braille for language arts activities,
and recorded material for recreational reading.
Current State and Federal Guidelines require that the IEP team address a
consideration for the need for braille for each student with a visual impairment. To
provide information to address this consideration the TVI may draw on several
resources.
The Learning Media Assessment of Students with Visual Impairments: A Resource
Guide for Teachers (Koenig & Holbrook, 1993) and Functional Vision and Media
Assessment for Students Who Are Pre-Academic or Academic and Visually Impaired in
Grades K-12 (Sanford & Burnett, 2000) offer detailed frameworks for collecting and
documenting information. Both of these instruments incorporate multiple sources of
information: interviews from teachers, parents, and the student; pertinent medical
information in student records; and direct observations of the student's functioning in a
variety of settings.

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CONSIDERATIONS IN LEARNING MEDIA ASSESSMENT

LEARNING MEDIA VARIABLES

VISION CONSIDERATIONS

Etiology And Stability Of Eye

Condition

Progressive eye conditions that are at risk of vision loss

(congenital glaucoma, retinitis pigmentosa, etc.)
Recent loss or gain in visual acuity

Print Accommodations A Student

Is Currently Using

Type size needed

Skill with low vision aids (closed circuit television, hand held
magnifiers, additional illuminations, etc.)
Focal distance (with any optical devices)
Visual field (ranging from letters to words)
Peripheral field (scanning and relocating text)
Distance (such as a telescopic device)

Reading Rate

With classroom assignments at functional reading level

Stamina for volume of class work assigned

Writing

Legibility to others
Ability to read own handwriting
Ability to make corrections
Rate and stamina
Keyboarding skills
Basic writing skills for grammar, punctuation, capitalization,
spelling, and organization

Academic Achievement Levels

Basic skills in reading (phonemic awareness and reading

comprehension)
Math (computation and reasoning)
Compare basic skills with measured intellectual functioning &
adaptive skills

Age And Class Placement

Compare achievement and grade placement

Consider instructional time required by the TVI
Current services provided for the student

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The LMA is unique for each student. For some, additional information may be derived
from a clinical low vision evaluation and training with prescribed optical vision devices.
(See Low Vision Assessment) For others, academic delays, which have been attributed
to the students visual impairment, may warrant additional testing to determine if there
are learning problems beyond those attributed to the visual impairment. Students who
have a significant cognitive impairment, in addition to their visual impairment, may rely
primarily on listening and auditory skills, with braille or print literacy skills being
employed as auxiliary learning media. (See Section 7: Considerations of Other
Disabilities)

If it is determined to add braille as a learning medium for a student who has exclusively
used print, several new instructional components must be addressed. First, adequate
instructional time with the licensed TVI should be made in the school day for the time
required to introduce the Literary Braille Code and learn to read with braille at a level of
proficiency (Hicks and Barron, 1995). Short daily lessons are more effective than
longer sessions provided two or three times per week. The new braille user must
develop tactual skills as well as learning the 189 contractions and short-form words
which are represented by the 63 arrangements of the six braille dots 5 (Braille Authority
of North America, 1994). For braille to become a useful learning medium, rather than a
smattering of braille knowledge, priority in the instructional day will be required.
Second, the instructional challenge of providing a student with braille as an additional
learning medium should be undertaken by a licensed TVI with firm knowledge of both
the Literary Braille Code and the Nemeth Code of Mathematics and Scientific
Notations. Resources for the teacher about instructional strategies for students adding
braille as a learning medium may be found in Communications Skills for Visually
Impaired Learners (Harley, Truan, & Sanford, 1996) and in Foundations of Education
(Koenig, A. J., & Holbrook, M. C. (2000). Other resources include the American
Foundation for the Blind, the American Printing House for the Blind, the Texas School
for the Blind and Visually Impaired, and the Tennessee School for the Blind.
Third, the instructional strategy for adding braille as a learning medium will differ
according to the student's reading fluency, basic math skills, and knowledge or writing
skills. Therefore, the TVI should gather information to determine these levels.

Adding braille: Students who are fluent readers of print

The majority of the braille code used in textbooks below the high school level is
introduced in the first three grades. The more common English words are more highly
5

Braille Authority of North America. (1994). English Braille American Edition, 1994. Louisville, KY: American Printing House for
the Blind.

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codified. Students who already have reading skills at a third grade level or above may
focus on acquiring the knowledge of the code as quickly as possible by applying
reading and writing literacy already acquired in print. Braille math skills can be
introduced into the student's current math curriculum without requiring such a volume of
new braille symbols, and instruction may make use of a talking calculator to transfer the
student's existing math skills though braille and listening.
The building of braille speed and accuracy for these students, who are already readers,
is enhanced when new braille skills are integrated into school subjects. For example,
the student may begin to write answers for multiple choice tests in braille, using justlearned alphabet letters and numbers. Using new braille skills for a list of spelling or
vocabulary words will allow braille to become functional in the classroom before braille
punctuation or code rules are mastered. Two of the handful of manuals or instructional
sequences that have been designed to teach the Literary Braille Code, have been
primarily used with school-age students. These are Braille Too (Hepker and CrossCoquillette, 1995) and Braille Connection: A Braille Reading and Writing Program for
Former Print Users (Caton, Pester, and Bradley, 1990.)

Adding braille: Students who are beginning readers

Students whose reading and math skills are below a third grade level, will be acquiring
braille skills in conjunction with basic word identification (phonemic awareness, whole
word recognition, and syllabication), comprehension skills, and math (computation and
reasoning). If there is a suspected need for braille, instruction should be initiated
promptly, rather than waiting, to maximize future braille reading speed and efficiency.
Early introduction of braille will maximize future braille reading speed and efficiency.
The additional knowledge required to learn the braille code is less of a hurdle to master
when acquired along with reading and math skills, than when massed together to meet
an immediate learning need. A combination of braille and print reading is most effective
for students with low vision for academic work. These students can learn to participate
in selecting the most effective media for an assigned task. The Patterns reading series
(Caton, Pester, & Bradley, 1982) and Braille Fundamentals (Cleveland, Levack, Sewell,
& Toy, 2001) are two resources for reading and writing instruction for the beginning
braille reader.
Learning Media Assessment Plan
For all students, regardless of academic skills levels, adding braille as a learning
medium has an emotional component. The student's success in applying newly
learned braille skills and utilizing more than one medium depends in part on the
emotional adjustment and support and acceptance of the student, the parent and the
classroom teacher.

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Whether the student learning braille is a fluent reader or a beginning reader, listening is
a major learning medium for all students with visual impairments. Students may need
specific instruction to build listening comprehension skills and acquire skills in
manipulating listening equipment (changing speed and pitch), securing recorded
information, and selecting which medium to use efficiently for specific tasks.
Maximizing listening skills becomes especially important for students who have recently
lost vision or cognition and no longer can rely on established reading skills.
It is important to secure adequate reading materials in the appropriate media. There
are numerous sources of textbooks in braille, large print materials, and recorded media
(see resource listing in Appendix C).

LOUIE: An online database, maintained by the American Printing House for the
Blind, of textbooks which are accessible in braille, large print, or recorded form from
participating producers across the country.

The National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped of the
Library of Congress: Loans registered patrons recreational reading in braille, large
print, or recorded form including the equipment to access the recorded books and
electronic books which may be downloaded in braille.

Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic: Has recorded textbooks for registered
subscribers. This organization will also record texts that have not as yet been
recorded.

Tennessee Instructional Resource Center for Visually Impaired (TRCVI):

Organization for parents and agencies to provide support to parents and families of
children with visual impairments.

The LMA will provide information for the IEP Team, which is charged with the
responsibility of determining the learning media. Specific instructional objectives and a
schedule for implementing the objectives may then be developed. The goal is to
enable the student with a visual impairment to develop independent learning skills and
to use media, whether print, braille, recordings or a combination of these media as tools
in all subjects.

DOCUMENTATION OF ADVERSE AFFECTS

Once the IEP Team has determined that a students visual impairment and its impact on
learning are within the guidelines for visual impairment, it must be documented that the
impairment causes an adverse effect on educational performance in the classroom or
learning environment. Information obtained during the Functional Vision and Media
Assessment of a student who has met the eligibility standards will verify that the

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students disability is such that academic needs cannot be met through the general
educational program (including a Section 504 Implementation Plan), and that the
students progress would be adversely affected without specific curriculum additions,
modifications and instructional strategies to meet those needs. The information
obtained through the Functional Vision and Media Assessment will lead directly to the
development of an IEP including goals and instructional objectives to meet the
student's learning based on documented visual needs. It is not necessary that a child
experience failure in school before adverse affects can be demonstrated. According to
federal legislation and IDEA eligibility for special education services, an impairment is
considered a disability when:

That impairment has an adverse effect on educational performance [34CFR

300.7(b)(11)]0.7(b)(11)]

A students communication skills are so impaired that he or she requires

specially designed instruction to address his or her educationally related
communication needs. [20 U.S.C. 1402(3)(A) and 1402(25)].

After the IEP Team has determined that the student meets the eligibility standards,
including the documentation of adverse affects, that decision will be documented as
part of the Eligibility Report for special education services. Adverse affects will be
unique for each student as identified through the Functional Vision and Learning Media
Assessment. Determination of adverse affects for students who meet the standards for
a visual impairment should consider:
Need for Braille
Expanded Core Curriculum and Needs
Access to Specialized Instruction
Access to Specialized Materials
Necessary Classroom Accommodations

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS FROM FUNCTIONAL VISION AND MEDIA

ASSESSMENT
Recommendations concerning educational implications for students with various kinds
of eye conditions must be drawn from several sources. The medical diagnosis gives
very limited information needed to develop an educational plan. Guidelines can be
drawn from teachers who have experience in teaching students with various kinds of
eye conditions. However, it is most important to use the information obtained from the
Functional Vision Media Assessment report. This information should be carefully
considered along with the medical report, and the clinical low vision evaluation in the
case of a student with low vision, in planning for these students.

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Upon the completion of the medical evaluation, the Functional Vision and Learning
Media Assessment, and the observations of visual behaviors, the TVI should document
the implications of the visual impairment upon the educational needs of the child. Both
immediate needs and long term needs should be considered. The TVI needs to include
in the educational implications as much data as possible to enable the team developing
the educational program to make informed educational decisions regarding the student.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS FROM FUNCTIONAL VISION ASSESSMENT

The following educational implications are designed to follow the outline of the
Functional Vision and Learning Media Assessment. In addition to this, all students
need an assessment of the subject areas covered by the Expanded Core Curriculum
for Students with Visual Impairments (Hatlen, 1996)
Appearance of Eyes
Abnormalities in appearance of the eyes may indicate a need for treatment and/or
counseling in regard to possible stares and adverse comments by peers and adults.
Behavioral Abnormalities
Some students who are severely visually impaired may exhibit mannerisms such as
light gazing, rocking and moving the hands or fingers in front of eyes. The substitution
of meaningful activities and replacement behaviors may help to decrease such
behavioral abnormalities.
Eye Responses and Eye Movements
Blink Response: The blink response, a protective movement of the eyelids in
response to an object approaching the face, is an indication of the presence of
some degree of vision and depth perception. Students without a protective blink
response may be more prone to eye injuries.
Pupillary Response: If the pupils of a student are sluggish in responding
(contracting) to a light source from a penlight, the student may have difficulty in
adjusting to changes in lighting. If the pupils are of unequal size, the student may
have difficulty in accommodating while reading.
Pupillary Reflection: Normal eyes will show a reflection of light in the middle of each
pupil showing that the eyes are properly aligned. If the eyes are not properly
aligned from birth to about age seven, the brain will suppress vision in the weaker
eye causing amblyopia. Amblyopic students may be helped by proper seating. For
example, if a student has very poor vision in the right eye, it might be best to seat
him/her in the right side of the room.

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Visual Attention: Students may not respond to visual stimuli due to neurological
damage. They may need to be taught to use their remaining senses. Students with
inconsistent responses to visual stimuli and poor fixation skills may benefit from
specific visual skills training and environmental adaptations.
Convergence: Students who have convergence problems (inability of the two eyes
to bring their visual axes to focus on a near object) may have eye fatigue from
reading and near vision activities. Frequent rest periods may be needed, and more
emphasis on listening activities may be required.
Eye Movements: Poor eye movements (shift of gaze, scanning, and ocular pursuit)
can be the result of a variety of conditions. This may cause the student to exhibit
more head movements, and to read slower than normal. Training in systematic eye
movements may be appropriate for some students.
Eye Dominance: Students with mixed dominance (e.g. left-handed and right-eyed
dominant) may have difficulties with activities that require them to line up a target
with their dominant eye. The TVI may recommend seating and placement of
materials that would accommodate a strong/better eye preference.
Peripheral Field of Vision: Traveling can be adversely affected by limitations in the
visual field. Students may need to be taught to move their heads and scan before
moving across an area. The physical education teacher should be advised of the
need to modify activities due to the students peripheral field limitations.
Color Discrimination: The classroom teacher may need to be made aware of
students with color deficiency. Modifications of activities may include: providing
good lighting, using bright, contrasting colors, labeling crayons and avoiding colorcoded texts, graphs and diagrams. Activities such as labeling clothing and learning
how to interpret traffic lights and signs may also be needed.
Light Sensitivity and Preference: Some students perform better in dim light (e.g.,
children with albinism) and some perform better in bright light (e.g., children with
optic atrophy and optic nerve hypoplasia). The lighting requirements may be noted
on the eye doctors report. Generally, students should not face windows or glare.
Some students may need to be seated away from windows, and some may need a
desk lamp for additional lighting.
Visual Perception Skills
Assessment of visual perception skills is appropriate for preschool and primary level
students who have not learned to read or write or students with multiple impairments
causing cognitive delays. Such skills as visual discrimination, visual memory, figureground perception, eye-hand coordination, visual closure and visual sequencing may

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need to be provided by the TVI using a developmental vision curriculum, e.g., Program
to Develop Visual Efficiency and Visual Functioning (Barraga & Morris, 1980).
Near Vision
Students with limited near visual discrimination skills may need to be taught by pairing
tactual learning with near vision activities. Systematic search patterns with extra time
for locating objects may be necessary. Sometimes tactual learning may need to be
considered as the primary learning mode.
Learning Media
Current Print Functioning: A number of factors can affect a students print
functioning such as near visual acuity, age of onset, cause of impairment, parental
expectations, experience with printed materials and concept development.
Students who have the same visual acuity and eye condition may differ greatly in
their ability to use printed materials. The TVI should consult with the regular
classroom teacher and parents in recommending the media of instruction and
learning. Some students may be able to read regular print, some may need a low
vision device, some may prefer large print, some may need to rely on listening, and
some may rely on tactile or braille materials. Other students may find that
combinations of these media work best for them in their instructional programs.
Writing Functioning: Using adaptive materials such as bold-lined paper may help
students who have difficulty in copying print. Assignments may need to be
shortened or additional time may be needed to enable the student to complete
writing activities. Alternative methods of responding, such as multiple choice or
word banks, rather than writing answers fully, may be used to shorten the writing
task. Systematic instruction in handwriting, and keyboarding may be required for
the student with low vision.
Depth Perception
Students with depth perception problems may need special instruction to help in the
development of eye-hand or eye-foot coordination and in recognition of objects at a
distance. The TVI should consult with the physical education teacher and suggest
modifications as needed.
Distant Vision
Distant Visual Discrimination: Students who have difficulty with distant visual
discrimination may need preferential seating or positioning for viewing classroom
activities such as experiments and demonstrations. Chalkboard activities, overhead
projection and map reading may require preferential seating for students with
limited distant vision. The TVI may need to recommend that the student be given
copies of class notes. The classroom teacher may be asked to verbalize everything

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written on the chalkboard. The TVI may need to consult with the classroom teacher
on ways to make viewing most meaningful.
Orientation and Mobility: Orientation and mobility skills may be noted throughout the
functional vision assessment process. Special instruction may be needed in
trailing, protective and search techniques, and in familiarizing the student with
common areas of the school building. A thorough evaluation of orientation and
mobility may be needed.

EXPANDED CORE CURRICULUM SKILLS ASSESSMENT

The Expanded Core Curriculum for Students with Visual Impairments (Hatlen, 1996)
refers to the unique learning needs of students with low vision and blindness. In
addition to assessments in the core curriculum or the curriculum all students learn in
school, e.g., reading, writing, mathematics, students with visual impairments should
receive assessments and instruction in each of eight content areas: compensatory
skills including communication modes, orientation and mobility, social interaction skills,
technology, independent living skills, leisure and recreation skills, visual efficiency, and
career education. For a student with low vision or blindness, the Expanded Core
Curriculum is an integral component for providing a free and appropriate public
education.
In cooperation with parents, assessment in each area is the responsibility of the TVI
and other professionals as indicated below. Formal and informal instruments that are
used to assess each area are listed in resources in the appendices of this manual.
School districts that need assistance with assessments of students with visual
impairments may wish to contact the Tennessee School for the Blinds Outreach
Services. Through cooperative arrangements, students enrolled in Tennessee public
schools may receive assessments for compensatory skills including communication
modes.

COMPENSATORY SKILLS INCLUDING COMMUNICATION MODES

These are the skills that students with visual impairments learn in order to access the
general education core curricula. They include the use of tools, adaptations,
modifications and behaviors that provide for access to educational activities and the
visual environment (i.e., reading with braille enables a student to read textbooks used
in academic classes.) Other compensatory skills may include but are not limited to:
writing adaptations, organizational skills, use of recorded materials, listening skills, and
the use of optical devices.

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To determine which communication modes are appropriate for a student, a Learning

Media Assessment (LMA) is performed and repeated at appropriate times throughout
the students education. The LMA will explore the students most efficient and
comfortable use of visual, tactual, and auditory senses for reading and writing. The
LMA will also take into consideration other assessments including but not limited to the
eye report, the observations of visual functioning, the clinical low vision evaluation,
reading and writing assessments, and psychosocial assessments. Information from an
orientation and mobility assessment may be considered as it pertains to the use of
distance vision. The need for braille must be considered at each IEP meeting.

ORIENTATION AND MOBILITY

Orientation involves knowing where you are, where you are going, and how to get to a
destination by interpreting information in the environment, while mobility involves
moving safely through the environment. Orientation and mobility needs must be
addressed for all students with low vision and blindness. Orientation and mobility
assessments can be completed by TVIs and/or certified orientation and mobility
instructors. Cane skills and independent community travel must be assessed and
taught by the certified orientation and mobility instructors. Orientation and mobility
emphasizes a fundamental need and right of people with visual impairments to travel
as independently and safely as possible. Individual Education Programs (IEPs) which
will result in the student's goal of independent travel in rural areas, suburbs and city
environments should be based upon:

development of body concepts, spatial awareness, and orientation strategies;

posture and gait;
understanding how the physical world is organized;
use of special devices such as the white cane;
use of transportation options; and
the use of distance vision and devices (when appropriate).

SOCIAL INTERACTION SKILLS

Almost all social interaction skills are learned by visually observing other students and
adults. Students with visual impairments need assessments to determine the extent to
which they have acquired skills such as facial expressions, gestures, postures and
personal space; how to accept or decline help graciously; and as needed, socially
acceptable behaviors that may replace blindisms (self-stimulatory behaviors). Social
interaction skills also relate to how an individual interacts with others regarding topics
and issues of having a visual impairment or blindness.

INDEPENDENT LIVING SKILLS

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Living independently requires that students with low vision and blindness learn how to
function independently.
Independent living skills range from basic personal
management skills to total independent living skills. Examples may include brushing
teeth and toileting to tactually marking a stove or learning how to shop for groceries.
Direct, sequential instruction is often needed for students to learn such skills as cooking
or how to ask for or hire sighted assistants. Independent living also includes use of
resources specific to the needs of students with visual impairments, e.g., where to
purchase or repair an embossed wristwatch.

RECREATION AND LEISURE

While participating in a general or an adapted physical education class may lead to a
healthy and active lifestyle, students with low vision or blindness also need to develop
knowledge and skills that enable them to participate in activities in their communities.
For example, to be a spectator at a school or community sports event, a student who is
blind or with low vision needs to know how the sports field is organized and how the
players move. To learn a new skill, e.g., ice skating, special attention needs to be given
to teaching movements that cannot be observed in others.

CAREER EDUCATION
Sighted students learn about jobs and the world of work by observing others perform
and complete tasks. This information is often not available to students with low vision
and blindness. Students with visual impairments are also often at risk of being the
recipients of diminished expectations for them to carry out age-appropriate chores and
tasks. These students need to learn what skills they have or may develop that lead to
employment. Further, these students need to learn about the governmental services
that will provide special training and assistance as well as legislative information
relating to reasonable accommodations that can be made to jobs that will allow them to
become employed. By age 14, a student with low vision or blindness must have an
Individualized Transition Plan (ITP) developed as part of the students Individualized
Education Program (IEP). While career education will be provided throughout the
school years, formal assessments of interests and aptitudes will be needed for the
development of the ITP.

ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY
Assistive technology assessments are conducted by persons who have special
knowledge of low/high technology devices designed for students with low vision and
blindness. Assistive technology devices are not necessarily electronic devices and may
range from something as basic as a book stand or pencil grip (low technology) to a
refreshable braille display (high technology). Although teachers of students with low
vision have general knowledge about many devices, they are expected to learn

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specifics of devices that are used based on their students needs. For students who
have additional disabilities, assistive technology may include, but is not limited to, such
devices as augmentative communication systems with tactile overlays or a device that
would enable a student who is deaf-blind to communicate with hearing and sighted
students and adults. The need for assistive technology must also be discussed at a
students IEP meeting.

VISUAL EFFICIENCY
Assessments of visual efficiency are conducted by a variety of professionals, each of
whom contributes to the assessment to determine ways in which a student uses
functional vision and how he or she may improve visual efficiency. Starting with an eye
report from the students ophthalmologist or optometrist, the teacher of students with
visual impairments performs a Functional Vision Assessment (FVA). This assessment
describes the students functional vision for various educational tasks. Lighting, spatial
arrangements (e.g., size and distance of objects), contrast, color, and time are among
the variables that are considered for near, intermediate, and distance tasks in different
environments. The FVA is usually performed prior to a clinical low vision evaluation.
An optometrist or ophthalmologist with a low vision specialty performs the clinical low
vision evaluation. This evaluation has two major purposes. First, the evaluation
determines whether a student will benefit from optical devices for accessing standard
print and distance vision tasks. Optical devices include but are not limited to
magnifiers, prisms, monoculars, light absorptive lenses, therapeutic contact lenses, and
closed circuit televisions.
Optical devices are then incorporated into the learning media assessment. In this way,
braille, large print, standard print with optical devices, and other communication media,
e.g., recorded materials and spoken output on a computer, may be considered for
instructional purposes.
The second purpose for the clinical low vision evaluation is for teachers and parents to
better understand how a student is using his or her functional vision. For example, a
student with visual and additional severe disabilities may not be able to respond to
typical eye tests in an ophthalmologist's or optometrists testing procedures that require
verbal or matching abilities. A clinical low vision specialist is better able to describe
such a students visual abilities and work with a TVI and parents to maximize use of
vision for learning.
Once functional and clinical Low Vision Assessments are completed, the teacher uses
this information derived from these assessments to plan instruction to increase visual
efficiency and teach the use of optical devices for purposes of using vision in school
and home environments.

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DEVELOPING AN EDUCATION PLAN

A list of questions is presented for educators to consider when making decisions
regarding adaptations to fit the needs of the student with a visual impairment. These
questions are grouped in four areas:
Educational Environment
General Curriculum
Learning Media: Reading and Writing
Expanded Core Curriculum Skills
1. Educational Environment
The visual performance of students who have visual impairments can often be
enhanced through careful consideration of the visual environment. By giving a
sufficient quantity and quality of lighting, the learner may be better equipped to
accomplish a visual task. This may include such needs as additional lighting or the
need for devices and environments that allow for light control. Heightened contrast
between the background and the visual task may improve visual efficiency. More time
is often required to accomplish a visual task and should be determined based on each
students performance. Distance from the task and size of image should be adjusted to
suit the needs of the learner. Size of image can be enlarged by using large print or
prescribed optical devices. Reducing the complexity of the visual image may increase
recognition ability. Visual recognition of printed materials becomes more efficient when
these factors are carefully adjusted to meet the needs of the learner.
Some questions, which might be considered, include:
What adaptations need to be made to the educational environment to allow the
student the most favorable access to the curriculum?
What adaptations need to be made in contrast between the background and the
visual task?
How can distance from the task to the eyes be adjusted to fit the needs of the
learner?
What kind of lighting is needed?
What type of seating is best for optimal functioning?
How can size of image be best enlarged?

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 Does reducing the complexity of the visual image increase recognition ability?
Does the student need copies of items that are on the wall, overhead, or on the
board, etc. or can the student learn to use optical devices prescribed for distance
vision, e.g., a monocular telescope?
2. General Curriculum
The teacher should include all curricular adaptations which are needed to permit the
student to participate successfully in the general curriculum. Certain questions to
consider might include the following:

What adaptations to the general curriculum should be made which will allow the
student to be as independent as possible?

What modified pictures, tactile graphics or even real objects are needed to enable
the student to understand the concepts?

What basic experiences are needed to enable the student to understand the
concepts in the curriculum? The teacher may help develop more accurate concepts
by providing concrete experiences through field trips and bringing materials to the
classroom for the student to explore.

What kinds of materials/instruction are needed to teach the use of tools being used
in the curriculum? (Example: television, movies, computers, experiments, etc.)

3. Learning Media: Reading and Writing

From the learning media assessment, the information should be reviewed to determine
the adaptations needed for the student to function optimally in his/her environment.
Specific questions should include:

What are the impacts of the visual impairment on reading and writing?

What adaptations are needed to enable the student to read and write more
fluently?

What adaptations are needed in working distance, print size, contrast, optical
devices and time?

How much emphasis should be placed on auditory skills development?

What auditory areas need help: discrimination, memory, sequencing, overall

comprehension, ability to ignore background noise?

Does the student need different media for different activities? For example: braille
may be needed in writing, auditory material in reading, print material may be
needed in math.

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4.

Expanded Core Curriculum Skills

In addition to the academic needs in the general curriculum, expanded core (or unique
needs) curricula should be considered. These needs are necessary because of the
problems encountered due to the visual disability.
Visual Efficiency

Does the student need a clinical low vision evaluation and prescribed optical
device(s)?

Does the student need instruction in the use of the prescribed optical device?

Does the student need training for better utilization of functional vision?

Communication Skills

What are the students needs related to communication skills?

What approach to reading instruction is appropriate?

What word identification strategies are needed?

Are there other learning problems that need to be considered?

What are the best strategies for developing listening and writing skills?

Social, Recreation and Independent Living Skills

What skills in social, recreation and daily living are impacted by the visual
impairment?

What special skills does the student need to participate with peers in social and
recreational activities?

Assistive Technology

Has the student had an assistive technology evaluation, if needed?

What special assistive devices is the student currently using, or which devices may
be needed such as scanners, voice output, writing guides, bold line paper, reading
stands, refreshable braille, books on tape, etc.?

What instruction is needed to enable the student to use these devices?

What future needs can be projected in assistive technology?

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Career Education

Has the student received an individualized transition plan (ITP)?

Does the student have special needs in career education?

Have the students interests been considered?

What independent living skills are needed to prepare the student for post secondary
education and employment?

What support services are needed?

Orientation and Mobility

Has the student had an orientation and mobility assessment?

What are the students assistive technology needs in orientation and mobility?

Is special instruction by an orientation and mobility (O&M) instructor needed?

Is the student able to become an independent traveler?

Several related factors, such as the degree of visual impairment and the age of onset
of the visual impairment, should be kept in mind in attempting to form educational
implications. Other factors to be considered in the educational planning are the
intellectual level, age and experiential background, and adjustment to the general
education curriculum. The type of eye condition is only one among a number of
important factors that should be carefully considered in planning educational programs
for students with visual impairments. For additional information the teacher should
refer to books that have been written in this area such as Visual Impairment in the
Schools (Harley, Lawrence, Sanford & Burnett, 2000).

FUNCTIONAL VISION AND MEDIA ASSESSMENT REPORT

The functional vision report must include identifying information about the student, a
data review of school history and educational records, a summary of the students eye
condition based on information from the eye report, a summary of the students clinical
low vision evaluation (if appropriate), a summary of interviews and general observations
of the student, a summary of the students visual functioning, educational implications,
an eligibility statement, and recommendations for services.
In addition, the functional vision report should provide a summary of the students
educational performance assessment in reading, mathematics, writing, and other areas
of the core curriculum. It should specify the students current communication mode(s)
based on the Functional Vision and Learning Media Assessment. A summary of the

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Expanded Core Curriculum Skills Assessment should include descriptions of current

functioning and needed instruction in: compensatory skills, orientation and mobility,
social interaction skills, independent living skills, recreation and leisure, career
education, assistive technology, and visual efficiency.
Suggested components of a Functional Vision Report are listed below. However,
school systems are encouraged to customize their reports based on the behaviors and
characteristics of the children evaluated, as well as the contents of this chapter.
Outline of Report Format

Student identifying information

Educational history
Summary of medical eye report
Summary of clinical low vision evaluation (if appropriate)
Interviews and general observations
Summary of visual functioning
Educational implications
Statement of eligibility
Recommendations (including communication mode)

Present Level of Performance in CORE Curriculum

Present Level of Performance in Expanded CORE Curriculum
Recommendations

Low Vision Assessment

Clinical low vision evaluations are given for two reasons (see section on visual
efficiency). First, they determine whether a student will be able to benefit from
prescribed optical devices. These devices may enable students to read a standard
print text and to see details at a distance, e.g., read a dry erase board or see signs.
Second, a clinical low vision evaluation may provide information to teachers and
parents about how children with visual and with additional disabilities use their vision.
As a result of a Functional Vision and Media Assessment, a child may be referred for a
clinical low vision evaluation if recommendations are made for any enlargement,
reduced distance, or variation in lighting or contrast in instructional materials.
A referral should also be made if there is a question about how a child uses his or her
functional vision or if there is a recommendation for instruction to increase visual
efficiency. Following a clinical low vision evaluation and the implementation of
recommendations, a second functional vision assessment will determine whether a
student with low vision has improved or has the potential to improve his/her functional
vision with instruction, e.g., in the use of prescribed optical devices.

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ELIGIBILITY GUIDELINES
Section 5

IEP TEAM ELIGIBLITY DETERMINATION

When the Functional Vision Assessment, Learning Media Assessment, Expanded Core
Curriculum Skills Assessment, Educational Performance Assessment, and other
relevant assessments have been completed, the school district must arrange a meeting
with the IEP team meeting. The IEP team will review the assessment results and
determine whether or not the student meets the Tennessee definition/standards for
visual impairment and whether the student needs special education services. If special
education services are warranted, the IEP team will develop an IEP.
When developing an IEP for a student who is visually impaired, particular attention
should be given to the following areas: specific modifications, accommodations and
materials needed to access the general education curriculum; Expanded Core
Curriculum (compensatory skills including communication modes, orientation and
mobility, social interaction skills, independent living skills, recreation and leisure, career
education, assistive technology, and visual efficiency); use of low vision devices; and
access to a licensed teacher of students with visual impairments.

ORIENTATION AND MOBILITY NEEDS

Orientation and Mobility Services are defined as services provided to blind or visually
impaired students by qualified personnel to enable those students to attain systematic
orientation to and safe movement within their environments in school, home, and
community [300.24(b)(6)(I)]. This includes teaching students the following, as
appropriate:

to understand spatial and environmental concepts and use of information received

by the senses (such as sound, temperature, and vibrations) to establish, maintain,
or regain orientation and line of travel (e.g. using sound at a traffic light to cross the
street);
to use the long cane to supplement visual travel skills or as a tool for safely
negotiating the environment for students with no available travel vision;
to understand and use remaining visual and distance low vision aids; and other
concepts, technique, and tools. [300.24(b)(6)(ii)]

A visual impairment can have a significant impact on a childs ability to keep track of
his/her location in the environment (orientation) and on the ability to travel safely and
efficiently in school and community environments (mobility). Specialized training, or

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orientation and mobility instruction (O&M), is a related service that addresses the travel
challenges frequently associated with a visual impairment.
Every time an IEP team meets to determine a visual impairment and need for special
education, orientation and mobility instruction must be considered. Each initial
evaluation and reevaluation requires an orientation and mobility screening and/or
evaluation unless the IEP team agrees that they can determine need from existing
data.
All children who are blind or who have low vision need a variety of travel experiences in
order to develop safety skills, travel confidence, and an appreciation for independence.
These experiences also are the building blocks for literacy, social competence and selfesteem. Expectations are based on the age of the student. Age expectations affect
the content of the evaluation, assessment procedures, and subsequent
recommendations.
Local education agencies (LEAs) must ensure that orientation and mobility services are
provided by trained and knowledgeable personnel who meet appropriate state
qualification standards. A licensed teacher of students with visual impairment can
complete an initial screening of a students orientation and mobility needs. However, a
comprehensive evaluation in multiple environments by an orientation and mobility
specialist will assure that individual mobility needs are considered.
The components of a comprehensive evaluation will be different for each child,
because children vary in their needs and potential as independent travelers. The IEP
team will be able to make an accurate determination of need if appropriate information
is provided.
Best practice for conducting an evaluation and obtaining critical
information will consider the following statements and questions.

Is the student traveling safely and as independently as possible in the school

environment?
Are there particular school environments/activities where the childs vision condition
affects mobility (stairs, crowded halls, playground, gym, lunchroom, bus-loading
area, off-campus field trips)?
How does the childs community mobility skills and experiences compare with agepeer expectations?
Can the child demonstrate age-appropriate orientation and navigation skills in
community environments?

Students with low vision often need sequential instruction and experiences to learn the
best ways to use their functional vision for travel.

Does the child have mobility needs related to functional use of low vision?

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How does low vision affect the childs ability to maintain orientation?
Does fluctuating vision affect travel abilities?
Do lighting variables affect the ability to travel safely or independently? Has the
child been evaluated in low light conditions? In glare? At night? While transitioning
between lighting conditions?
Does the child need to learn skills to compensate for the effects of low vision ?
If the child uses a wheelchair, how does low vision affect wheelchair navigation and
the ability to use accessibility options (elevators, power doors, ramps)?

Orientation and mobility skills develop over time. The need for orientation and mobility
instruction may need to be included repeatedly over time in a students IEPs. Safe,
independent travel skills (especially traffic safety skills) cannot be learned in a few
lessons. Community travel skills are acquired and practiced through repeated
exposure and application over a period of years. Orientation and mobility training is
driven by both current and future needs.

NEED FOR BRAILLE

The reauthorization of IDEA (1997) specifically states that students who are visually
impaired must be provided with instruction in braille unless the IEP team determines
otherwise. The TVI should specifically assess the need for braille and make a
statement in the Functional Vision and Media Assessment report regarding the
appropriateness of braille instruction for each student who is visually impaired. Factors
to consider when making the decision to provide instruction in braille include, but are
not limited to:

visual functioning for near tasks,

low vision assessment, prescription of and training in use of appropriate device(s),
eye condition and prognosis (stable or deteriorating),
cognitive ability,
reading speed,
eye fatigue and eye pain, and
parent and student preferences.

Systematic and regular instruction from knowledgeable and appropriately trained

personnel is essential for a student to become proficient in braille. IEP teams must
ensure that the instructional time allocated for braille instruction is adequate to provide
the level of instruction determined appropriate for each student.

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SERVICES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION

Section 6

SERVICE DELIVERY CONSIDERATIONS

States are required to have policies and procedures for ensuring that, to the maximum
extent appropriate, students with disabilities are educated with students who are not
disabled, and that special classes, separate schooling, or other removal of students
with disabilities from the regular educational environment occurs only if the nature or
severity of the disability is such that education in regular classes with the use of
supplementary aids and services cannot be achieved satisfactorily. In addition, the
IDEA Amendments of 1997 require that each childs IEP contain an explanation of the
extent, if any, to which the student will not be educated and participate with
nondisabled students in the regular class and in academic, extracurricular, and other
nonacademic activities.
Recognizing that the regular education classroom may not be the most appropriate
educational setting for all students who are blind or visually impaired, federal law
requires public agencies to provide a continuum of alternative placements or a range of
placement options, to meet the needs of students with disabilities. Each IEP team
should consider the full range of settings that could be appropriate depending on the
individual needs of the student, including needs that arise from any other identified
disabilities that the student may have. The following are options of the continuum of
services for students who are blind or have low vision:

a regular education class with needed support services provided in that classroom
by an itinerant teacher of students with visual impairments;
a regular education class with needed support services in and outside the
classroom by the itinerant TVI;
a vision resource class with a TVI available to the students for instruction in the
regular education class and in the vision resource class;
a self-contained class in a regular school that provides services that address needs
arising from the students blindness or visual impairments as well as other identified
disabilities, if applicable; and
a special school with a residential component that provides services that address
the full range of the blind or visually impaired students disability-specific needs,
including those arising from other disabilities, if applicable.

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STATEWIDE ASSESSMENT (TCAP)

Students with visual impairments must participate in state, regional, and district largescale assessments in accordance with the 1997 Reauthorization of the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA'97).
The IEP Team determines whether a student with a visual impairment will take the
Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program (TCAP) Assessment or the
Tennessee Comprehensive Assessment Program-Alternate (TCAP-Alt).
Students taking the TCAP State Mandated Tests (statewide TCAP and TCAP-Alt: ASA)
may take the test with:
1. No accommodations,
2. Allowable accommodations, and/or
3. Special accommodations.

ALLOWABLE ACCOMMODATIONS
When Allowable State Accommodations are to be used with the TCAP assessment,
documentation of these accommodations is to be attached to the IEP, as all decisions
about accommodations are made through the IEP Team and thus become part of the
student's Individual Education Plan (IEP). If an accommodation is not used throughout
a student's daily educational instruction, it is not advisable to use the allowable
accommodations during assessment. The students IEP Team makes decisions
regarding the use of Allowable Accommodations when considerations are made for the
use of Special Accommodations.

SPECIAL ACCOMMODATIONS
IEP Teams must complete the State/District-Mandated Assessments section of the IEP
and attach the appropriate Accommodations Addendum for each TCAP Assessment
that will be administered to the student during the school year. The IEP Team will need
to verify the student meets specific requirements before Special Accommodations
may be used. All special accommodations used must be documented on the IEP as a
classroom accommodation that has been used consistently during the school year.
Directions for completing the Special Conditions Accommodations documentation are
provided in Individualized Education Program (IEP) Instructions for State IEP, which
can be found on the Special Forms page of the special education website at:
http://www.tennessee.gov/education/speced/seassessment/.
Special
Education
personnel are responsible for administering Special Accommodations. The IEP Team
determines which of the special conditions is appropriate for the student with a visual
impairment for the specific tests. Students may use multiple accommodations. TCAP

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tests include achievement, writing, high school subject content mastery, and gateway
assessments.

ALTERNATE ASSESSMENT (TCAP-ALT)

Students with disabilities who meet participation requirements for the TCAP-Alt
comprise a very small percentage (1% or below) of the total school population. The IEP
Team determines when a student with a visual impairment should participate in the
alternate assessment to the state mandated TCAP tests.
After the IEP Team has agreed the student meets participation standards for the
alternate assessment, a determination is made as to whether the student will
participate in the TCAP Alternate Standards Assessment (TCAP-Alt ASA) or the TCAP
Alternate Portfolio Assessment (TCAP-Alt PA). When the TCAP-Alt ASA is the most
appropriate alternate TCAP assessment, the IEP Team must provide the assessment
appropriate for the students assigned grade level. Both Allowable Accommodations
and Special Accommodations may be used when administering the TCAP-Alt ASA.
The IEP Team should carefully follow all instructions when making TCAP-Alt testing
determinations. Instructions for the decision-making process of the IEP Team,
administration of accommodations on TCAP assessments, and the TCAP-Alt ASA and
Portfolio Assessments may be found on the special education website at:
http://www.tennessee.gov/education/speced/seassessment.htm.

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CONSIDERATIONS OF OTHER DISABILITIES

Section 7

Many students who are identified with a visual impairment will have concomitant
disabilities that impede their progress in acquiring skills through the general education
curriculum. Some of these disabilities may in fact be due to the same genetic or
developmental factor, which contributed to the students identified visual impairment.
Frequently, these additional disabilities are overlooked once the student has been
identified as eligible with a visual impairment. This section provides guidance for
determining when other disabilities may be causing an adverse affect on the students
progress within the general education curriculum, and best practices in the evaluation
of suspected concomitant disabilities.
The determination of visual impairment for a student does not exclude the possibility of
the existence of other disabilities. In fact, of the 15 disabilities utilized in Tennessee
which do not specifically refer to vision, all can exist along with vision impairment or, in
the case of multiple disabilities, subsume vision impairment as a component. These
would include:

Autism
Deafness
Developmental Delay
Emotional Disturbance
Functionally Delayed
Hearing Impairment
Intellectually Gifted
Mental Retardation
Multiple Disabilities
Orthopedic/Physical Impairment
Other Health Impairment
Specific Learning Disabilities
Speech or Language Impairment
Traumatic Brain Injury

In each case, the requirements for determining eligibility for the other educational
disabilities apply as written, with some assessment adaptations necessary, along with
experience in how various functions can be affected by vision limitations.
Assessments that are used to determine the existence of a disability for which a
student may require special services, compare that student to the population of sameage peers as a whole, rather than to an isolated population of students with similar
disabilities. Therefore, it is not appropriate to search for assessment procedures
developed only for individuals with disabilities. Instead, the course of action should be

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to compare students with visual impairments as much as possible to non-disabled

students within the same age range, leaving out the procedures which cannot be
administered, and reporting any adaptations which may deviate from standardization.
A number of the above listed conditions will require intelligence testing in order to
determine eligibility. Generally speaking, when the student is capable of answering
questions, the verbal portions of an individually administered intelligence test (such as
verbal scales of the Wechsler intelligence tests, or verbal subtests of the StanfordBinet) will provide the best estimate of that students intellectual functioning.
Historically, students with visual impairments and no additional disabilities have been
quite successful in providing answers on such procedures, although they may not
clearly understand some of those answers if their everyday experiences have been
limited. In fact, they are likely to score higher than average on subtests tapping verbal
memory, because of more than usual practice utilizing this function. Estimating
intelligence entirely from verbal functioning will slightly reduce the likelihood of a valid
determination, but correlation of verbal intelligence with academic achievement has
always been high. Performance subtests can also be administered when the student
has vision, but results should not be combined to determine full scale or composite
score as best estimate of intellectual functioning, unless the discrepancy between the
verbal intelligence and performance intelligence quotients is minimal. Instead, handling
of performance items can be observed as additional information regarding how that
student functions visually.
There has been doubt expressed by some psychologists as to whether a student can
be termed learning disabled if also visually impaired, as learning disability guidelines
require the ruling out of learning problems primarily resulting from visual, hearing, or
motor disabilities. Those who are unfamiliar with patterns of test results caused by
poor visual acuity or other visual impairments may be more comfortable attributing all
deficits to a documented acuity problem than trying to determine which educational
deficits stem from other causes. This determination is clear-cut in verbal subtests; as
no significant deficit in scores can be attributed to vision alone. Differentiating on
performance subtests is more complicated and often requires experience, but it can be
important, especially when dysfunction is in visual perception rather than acuity, as
remediation may require the expertise of a learning disability specialist rather than a
vision specialist. As this is not intended to be a manual regarding psychoeducational
testing, detail regarding patterns of test results will not be offered. However, it can be
definitively stated that a student may have a disability in visual acuity (i.e., in what the
student can see) and also a disability in visual perception (i.e., in how the brain
processes visual percepts), and that the student may require services to counteract
both disabilities separately in order to maximize educational opportunities.

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APPENDICES
Section 8

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APPENDIX A

SCREENING AND PRE-ASSESSMENT

General Education Vision Screening Guidelines

Children's Vision Screening Referral Summary

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GENERAL EDUCATION VISION SCREENING GUIDELINES

According to Prevent Blindness America (1998), vision problems affect one out of
twenty preschoolers and one in four school-age children. They report that over 80
percent of preschool and school-age children never receive a vision screening. Most
persons are visual learners, acquiring approximately 85 percent of all knowledge
through vision. Therefore, it is imperative that a possible visual problem be identified as
early as possible
Vision screening is the responsibility of the general education program. Each school
system in the state of Tennessee is required to conduct system-wide grade level
screening. Vision screening is required two times during grades K-3, and twice during
grades 4-8. It is recommended that grades K and 2 be screened in the lower grades,
and grades 4 and 8 are screened in the upper grades be screened for vision problems.
Students in all classrooms in the specified grade level must be screened. This
screening does not require parental permission; however, parents should be notified of
screening results. Other students who should be screened are those who are new to
the school system and those suspected of having a vision problem by their teachers.
School systems may utilize school personnel, volunteers or agencies to conduct their
system-wide screening. Minimum procedures for vision screening include distance and
near vision acuity. Muscle balance, visual field, depth perception and color perception
may also be included. The Vision Screening Results Form may be used to record the
results of vision screening. If a student fails any of the areas below, a second
screening should be done as confirmation of the problem. This second screening is a
continuation of the initial screening and should be administered on a different day, if
possible. The practice of confirming the results of the initial screening should

reduce errors and/or over-referrals. Failure in one or more of the

following areas should be confirmed by a second screening:

An acuity of 20/40 or less in either eye for distance or vision for children grades K
through 3
An acuity of 20/30 or less in either eye for distance or near vision for children
grades 4 through 12
A difference of two lines or more between eyes

It is not necessary for students who have already been identified with visual
impairments to undergo vision screening and/or a referral to an eye specialist.

REFERRAL FOR EYE EXAMINATION

A vision-screening program must include a referral for an eye examination. Follow-up
procedures should include appropriate medical examination and intervention.
Screening personnel should notify those responsible for follow-up when students fail

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the screening. Results of the final screening should be recorded in the students
cumulative record.
Distance and near vision screening results are usually reported as visual acuity and
represent central field vision. The optimal distance for testing distant visual acuity is
twenty (20) feet. Visual acuity is recorded as a fraction in which the numerator
represents the test distance and the denominator represents the row of letters that can
be read on the chart. For example, acuity of 20/100 indicates that a child reads at 20
feet what the normally seeing child should be able to read from a distance of 100 feet.

METHODS OF SCREENING FOR POSSIBLE VISION PROBLEMS

Screening of Distance Vision
Screening of distance vision may be done in three major ways: 1) screening at optical
distance using a stereoscopic instrument, 2) screening at physical distances using a
variety of charts or cards which are manipulated by the screening personnel, and 3)
photoscreening.
1. Screening using a stereoscopic instrument
Two instruments are typically used for screening at optical distances; the Keystone
Telebinocular and the Titmus Vision Tester. Each instrument includes appropriate
cards for assessing near and distance acuity, fusion, muscle balance, depth
perception and color perception when appropriate.
Instructions for conducting screening using the Keystone Telebinocular and the
Titmus are provided with the machines. These instructions should be followed very
carefully to ensure valid results. The screening personnel should keep in mind that
the two stereoscopic instruments mentioned above tend to over-refer. The screener
should select a quiet and private place to conduct the screening. The instrument
should be placed on a table close to an electrical outlet. It may be necessary to
have an electric adapter and a spare bulb. Forms for recording results should be
next to he instrument. Chairs should be provided for the child and the screening
personnel.
2. Screening at Physical Distances
Screening at physical distances involves the use of a variety of charts, cards, and
other materials, which are manipulated by the screening personnel. In this method,
screening personnel actually measure the physical distance between the student
being screened and the various charts or other instruments being used.
The room selected for vision screening using the second method should be quiet
and provide good lighting. If distance screening is to be conducted in the same

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room as the other areas to be screened, the room must be large enough to
accommodate the screening distance indicated on the chart.
The Snellen Chart is considered to be the most reliable instrument for vision
screening. Unlike the stereoscopic instruments, use of the Snellen Chart is less
likely to result in over-referral due to failure on the screening. If a stereoscopic
instrument is used in the initial screening and a child fails that screening, it would be
beneficial to use the Snellen or a similar instrument for the second screening.
The tests for distance vision will not detect the child with hyperopia or
farsightedness. The Plus Lens Test is a more reliable test to detect hyperopia. The
childs vision is checked using the Snellen Chart or one of the binocular instruments
while wearing plus lenses mounted in a small, inexpensive frame. The plus lenses
are of 2.25 diopters for all ages. If the child can see the 20-foot line at twenty feet
from the chart with both eyes while wearing these lenses, a referral should be
made. Many of the stereoscopic instruments provide their own criteria for screening
with the plus lens test (Harley, Lawrence, Sanford, & Burnett, 2000).
Screening Very Young Children or Children with Multiple Disabilities
Other charts may screen children who are unable to respond to the Snellen Chart
because of developmental level or multiple disabilities. The Snellen E Chart, the
Apple, House, Umbrella test or the Symbols for 10 Feet Chart (Lighthouse
International) may be used. Other materials that may be appropriate are the Lea
materials and the Home Eye Chart (Vision Associations), for screening preschool
children.
A checklist titled Guide to Testing Distance Visual Acuity (Prevent Blindness) is
available in an easy-to-use format. It includes a diagram of room set-up, specific
instructions for preparing the child, and interpretation of test results.
3. Photoscreening
Photoscreening is currently being used by various agencies such as the Lions Eye
Center to detect potential vision problems in pre-literate children, ages six months to
four years. The photoscreener takes two black and white pictures of the eye which
are later evaluated by eye care professionals.
Screening at Near Distance
Near vision screening is typically conducted by one of two methods: screening using
stereoscopic instruments or screening using near vision test cards.
1. Screening using stereoscopic instruments
The same stereoscopic instruments used for distance screening may also be used
to screen for near acuity. While these instruments do tend to over-refer, they do

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offer some advantages over a hand held chart in that they provide for a constant
illumination and object distance (Harley, Lawrence, Sanford & Burnett, 2000, p.
126).
2. Screening using Near Vision Test Cards
Near vision is commonly tested using one of several reading cards, which are
available from a variety of sources. The reading card is ordinarily held at a distance
of fourteen inches from the eye. The reading distance for low vision children and
illumination should be recorded. Jaeger and point-print denote size, which can be
used in designing educational material. Jaeger thirteen to eighteen point type is
largely used in books for first grade and low vision children (Harley, Lawrence,
Sanford & Burnett, 2000, p. 126). Some examples of reading cards that may be
used include the ETDRS Near Chart (Prevent Blindness America, 1996), Rosebaum
Pocket Vision Screener and the Lighthouse Near Vision Acuity Test. Many of these
cards may be obtained through Prevent Blindness America or Lighthouse
International.

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Children's Vision Screening Referral Guidelines

Refer the child who shows possible appearance, behavior or complaint signs of a vision problem.

Eye(s) turning inward or outward

Watering eye(s)

Red-trimmed, encrusted or swollen lids

Upper lid touching or partly covering pupil

Styes or infections

Presence of white pupil when looking

directly at the child's eyes, or in photo

Possible eye injury

Thrusting head forward

Rigid body when looking at distant objects

Squinting or frowning

Tilting head to one side

Closing or covering one eye

Excessive blinking

Blurred or double vision

Headaches, nausea or dizziness

Sees blur when looking up after work

Burning, scratchy or itching eyes

Unusual sensitivity to light

Guidelines for the distance acuity screening (Snellen Chart)

Age of Student

Starting Line

Refer the child who does not

pass the line with one or both
eyes when re-screened.

5 years and younger

20/50

20/40

6 years and older

20/40

20/30

Source:

Adapted and modified from Prevent Blindness

TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

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APPENDIX B

ASSESSMENT AND DOCUMENTATION FORMS

Assessment Documentation
Letter to Ophthalmologist or Optometrist
Eye Report for Children with Visual Problems

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VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
Assessment Documentation
Name of Student: ____________________Grade: _____Date of Birth: __________Age: ______
School System: _________________________School: ________________________________

1. A licensed teacher of students with Visual Impairments conducted a written functional vision

and media assessment which included:

Observation of visual behaviors at school, home, or other environments
Educational implications of eye condition based upon information received from eye report
School history and levels of educational performance
Formal/informal tests of visual functioning
2. Assessment and/or screening of expanded core curriculum skills included:

Orientation and mobility

Social interaction
Visual efficiency
Independent living
Recreation and leisure
Career education
Assistive technology
Compensatory skills
Evaluation of the childs reading and writing skills, needs, appropriate reading and writing
media, and current and future needs for braille
3. An ophthalmologist or optometrist indicated at least one of the following (Check all that apply).

Central visual acuity in the better eye or both eyes with best possible correction of 20/50 or
less
Reduced visual field of 60 degrees or less with both eyes.
Medical and educational documentation of progressive loss of vision, which may in the
future, affect the student's ability to learn visually,
Other visual impairment(s), not perceptual in nature, resulting from a medically documented
condition.
Explain or reference data findings: ______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
4. An orientation and mobility screening and/or evaluation was conducted to determine if there

are related mobility needs in home, school, or community environment.

5. Documentation and assessment of how the students visual impairment adversely affects

educational performance in the classroom or learning environment was gathered.

Explain or reference data used to support findings: _________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
_
__________________________________________________________________________
_

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Letter to Ophthalmologist or Optometrist

Date: ________________________
Dear Ophthalmologist or Optometrist:
The State of Tennessee, Department of Education, is making every effort to identify and provide
special education services to students across Tennessee who have visual impairments which affect
their ability to perform efficiently in the general education classroom. According to the Tennessee
Department of Education Administrative Policies and Procedures, a student must have a visual
impairment and one of the following characteristics to be eligible to receive special services, which
would allow a licensed teacher of students with visual impairments to work with him/her:
1. Visual acuity in the better eye or both eyes with best possible correction:
a) Legal blindness20/200 or less at distance and/or near
b) Low vision20/50 or less at distance and/or near
2. Visual field restriction with both eyes:
a) Legal blindnessremaining visual field of 20 degrees or less
b) Low visionremaining visual field of 60 degrees or less;
3. Medical and educational documentation of progressive loss of vision, which may in the
future, affect the students ability to learn visually, or
4. Other visual impairment, not perceptual in nature, resulting from a medically documented
condition.
A complete eye report is required in order to document any or all visual problems which might
identify the child as having a visual impairment. Please return the Eye Report form to the address
provided below. Thank you for your assistance with this request.

Sincerely,

Send Report to:

____________________________________
(Name)

________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________

____________________________________
(Position)
Telephone ___________________________

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EYE REPORT FOR CHILDREN WITH VISUAL PROBLEMS

NAME OF STUDENT : _________________________________________ SEX ______ ETHNICITY _________________
(TYPE OR PRINT)
(FIRST)
(MIDDLE)
(LAST)
ADDRESS _________________________________________________________ D.O.B. _____/______/_________
(NO. AND STREET) (CITY OR TOWN)
(COUNTY)
(STATE)
GRADE ______ SCHOOL _____________________________ SCHOOL SYSTEM ______________________________
I.

HISTORY
A. Probable age at onset of vision impairment. Right eye (O.D.) ________________ Left eye (O.S.) _________________
B. Severe ocular infections, injuries, operations, if any, with age at time of occurrence. _______________________________
C. Has pupils ocular condition occurred in any blood relative(s)? ____________ If so, what relationship? ________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

II.

MEASUREMENTS (See back of form for preferred notation for recording visual acuity and table of approximate equivalents)
A. Visual Acuity
Distant Vision
Near Vision
Prescription
Without With Best With Low
Without
With Best With Low
Correction Correction Vision Aid
Correction Correction Vision Aid
Sph.
Cyl
Asia

III.

Right Eye (O.D.) _______ _______ _______

_______ _______ _______

_______ _______

_______

Left Eye (O.S.)

_______ _______ _______

_______ _______ _______

_______ _______

_______

Both Eyes (O.U.) _______ _______ _______

_______ _______ _______

_______ _______

_______

B.

If glasses are to be worn, were safety lenses prescribed in: Plastic Tempered glass With ordinary lenses

C.

If low vision aid is prescribed, specify type and recommendation for use: ________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

D.

FIELD OF VISION: Is there a limitation? Yes No If so, record results of test on chart on back of form
What is the widest diameter (in degrees) of remaining visual field? O.D. ________________ O.S. ___________________

E.

Is there impaired color perception? Yes No If so, for what color(s)? ______________________________________

CAUSE OF BLINDNESS OR VISION IMPAIRMENT

A.
Present ocular condition(s) responsible for
Vision impairment. (If more than one, specify all
but underline the one which probably first caused
severe vision impairment.)
B.

C.

Preceding ocular condition, if any, which led to

present condition, or the underlined condition,
specified in A.
Etiology (underlying cause) of ocular condition
Primarily responsible for vision impairment,
(e.g., specific disease, injury, poisoning, heredity
or other prenatal influence.)

O.D. ______________________________________________________
O.S. ______________________________________________________
O.D. _____________________________________________________
O.S. ______________________________________________________
O.D. ______________________________________________________
O.S. ______________________________________________________

If etiology is injury or poisoning, indicate circumstance

and kind of object or poison involved: ________________________________________________________________________
IV.

PROGNOSIS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

A. Is the students vision impairment considered to be: Stable Deteriorating Capable of Improvement Uncertain
B.

What treatment is recommended, if any? ______________________________________________________________________

C.

When is reexamination recommended? __________________________________________________________________

D.

Glasses:

E.

Lighting requirements: Average Better than average Less than average

F.

Use of eyes: Unlimited

G.

Physical activity: Unrestricted Restricted as follows: _____________________________________________________

Not needed To be worn constantly For close work only Other (specify) ________________________

SEND EYE REPORT COPY TO :

Limited, as follows: _________________________________________________________

Date of Examination __________________________________________

Name of Examiner ___________________________________________
(Print or type)
Signature of Examiner _____________________________ Degree _____
Address _____________________________________________________
No. and Street
City
State
Zipcode
If Clinic Case: Case Number _____________________________________
Clinic Name ______________________________________

Preferred Visual Acuity Notations

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Page 2 of 2

DISTANCE VISION: Use Snellen notation with test distance of 20 feet. (Examples: 20/100, 20/60).
For acuities less than 20/200, record distance at which 200 foot letter can be recognized as numerator
or fraction and 200 as denominator. (Examples: 10/200, 3/200). If the 200-foot letter is not recognized
at 1 foot, record abbreviations for best distant vision as follows:
HM HAND MOVEMENTS
PLL PERCEIVES AND LOCALIZES LIGHT IN ONE OR MORE QUADRANTS
LP
PERCEIVES BUT DOES NOT LOCALIZE LIGHT
No LP LO LIGHT PERCEPTION
NEAR VISION: Use standard A.M.A. notation and specify best distance at which pupil can read.
(Example: 14 70 at 5 in.)

TABLE OF APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENT VISUAL ACUITY NOTATIONS

These notations serve only as an indication of the approximate relationship between recording of
distant and near vision and point type sizes. The teacher will find in practice that the pupils
reading performance may vary considerably from the equivalents shown.
Near

% Central Visual
Efficiency for Near

Point

Usual Type Size

Mail order catalogue

Distant Snellen

A.M.A.

Jaeger

Metric

20/20 (ft.)

14./14. (in.)

0.37(M.)

100

20/30

14/21

0.50

95

Want ads

20/40

14/28

0.75

90

Telephone directory

20/50

14/35

0.87

50

Newspaper directory

20/60

14/42

1.00

40

Adult text books

20/80

14/56

10

1.50

20

12

Childrens books 9-12 years

20/100

14/70

11

1.75

15

14

Childrens books 8-9 years

20/120

14/84

12

2.00

10

18

20/200

14/140

17

3.50

24

12.5/200

14/224

19

6.00

1.5

8/200

14/336

20

8.00

1.0

5/200

14/560

3/200

14/900

TN Guidelines Visual Impairment-2003

Large type text

58

APPENDIX C

RESOURCES

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59

TENNESSEE AGENCIES PROVIDING TRAINING FOR VISION SCREENING

(List is not comprehensive)

AMERICAN ACTION FUND FOR BLIND CHILDREN AND ADULTS/ AMERICAN

BROTHERHOOD FOR THE BLIND
1800 Johnson Street
Baltimore, MD 21230
Tel: (410) 659-9315
Fax: (410) 685-5653
Web: www.NFB.org
Braille reading materials and Braille calendars.
AMERICAN COUNCIL OF THE BLIND
1155 15th Street, NW, Suite 1004
Washington, DC 20005
Tel: (202) 467-5081 or 1-800-424-8666
State of TN Dept. Tel: (615) 262-4938
Web: www.acb.org
Membership organization that strives to better the lives of visually impaired students
and adults through advocacy, government affairs, annual scholarship program, etc.
AMERICAN FOUNDATION FOR THE BLIND (AFB)
11 Penn Plaza
Suite 300
New York, NY 10001
212-502-7600 or 1-800-232-5463
Web: afb.org.
Provides for materials, resources and information for individuals seeking assistance
in serving persons with visual impairments.
AMERICAN PRINTING HOUSE FOR THE BLIND (APH)
P.O. Box 6085
Dept. 0086
Louisville, KY 80206
1-800-223-1839
Web: www.aph.org
Provides Braille, large print and educational materials for school-age students with
visual impairments
AMERICAS JOB LINE NETWORK
Tel: (410) 767-2626
Web: www.blind.net/bons0003.htm
Employment information for blind persons.

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ASSOCIATION FOR EDUCATION AND REHABILITATION OF THE BLIND AND

VISUALLY IMPAIRED (AER)
4600 Duke Street
Suite 430
Alexandria, VA 22304
703-823-9695
Web: [email protected]
Professional organization of educators and rehabilitation specialists serving children
and adults with visual impairments (conferences, workshops, publications and
teacher certifications.)
BRAILLE INSTITUTE
741 North Vermont Ave.
Los Angeles, CA 90029
Tel: 1-800-272-4553
Fax: (323) 663-0240
Web: www.brailleinstitute.org
Braille periodicals and links, magazines, etc.
CAMP INDIAN CREEK CHRISTIAN RECORD BRAILLE FOUNDATION
444 South 52nd Street
Lincoln, NE 68516
Tel: (402) 488-0981
Fax: (402) 488-7582
Camp for legally blind persons age nine and up, usually held for one week in the
summer
CHALLENCE ASPEN
P.O. Box M
Aspen, CO 81612
Tel: (970) 923-0578
Fax:(970) 923-7338
Web: www.challengeaspen.com
Winter sports camp for disabled children and adults.
CITIZENS WITH LOW VISION INTERNATIONAL
2879 East Alden Place
Anaheim, CA 92806
Tel: (714) 630-8098 or f1-800-733-2258
Web: http://www.tbaynet.com/cclvi

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DISABILITY DETERMINATION SERVICES (DDS)

P.O. Box 775
Nashville, TN 37219
Tel: (615) 313-5465 or 1-8000-342-1117
Web: www.state.tn.us/humanserv/programs.htm
Make disability determinations for the Social Security Administration for Tennesseans
applying for Disability Insurance Benefits (DIB) and Supplemental Security Benefits
(SSI) through the Social Security Program.
EQUAL EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY COMMISSION
Tel: 1-800-669-3362
Web: www.eeoc.gov/
Information and assistance with employee discrimination and ADA
THE FOUNDATION FIGHTING BLINDNESS
11435 Cran Hill Drive
Owensmill, MD 21177
Tel: 1-888-394-8937
Web: www.blindness.org/htm/about/
Fund research for retinal degenerative diseases.
FREEDOM SCIENTIFIC
11800 31ST Court North
St. Petersburg, FL 33716
Tel: 1-800-444-4433
Fax: (727) 803-8001
Web: www.FreedomScientific.com
Product information, note takers, Braille display and embossers
GOODKIN BORDER & ASSOCIATES
1862 Veterans Memorial Hwy.
Austell GA 30168
Tel: (770) 944-8226 / 1-800-759-6275
Fax: (770) 944-0254
Knoxville (865) 577-3008
Nashville (blindness) (615) 264-3420 (low vision) (615) 822-4069
Web: www.gbacorp.com
Products and consultation for people with low vision, blindness, and learning
disorders

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THE HADLEY SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND

700 Elm Street
Winnetka, IL 60098-0299
Tel: 1-800-323-4238
Fax: 1-847-446-8111
Web: www.hadley/school.org
Provides distance learning classes for visually challenged students 14 years old and
above and the parents of younger children, infants and up, free of charge. Also
provides adult continuing education classes.
HEALTH RESOURCE CENTER
American Counsel on Education
1 Dupont Circle NW Suite 800
Washington, DC 20036
Tel: 1-800-544-3284
Provides higher education information.
INDEPENDENT LIVING AIDS
200 Robbins Lane
Jerico, NY 11753
Tel: 1-800-537-2118
Fax: (516) 937-3906
Web: www.independentliving.com
E-mail: [email protected]
Market source for a variety of independent living aids.
JOB ACCOMMODATIONS NETWORK
1-800-526-7234
Web: www.janweb.wru.edu
International toll-free consulting service that provides information about job
accommodations and the employability of people with disabilities. JAN also provides
information regarding the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA).
LIGHTHOUSE INTERNATIONAL
111E 59th Street
New York, NY 10022
Tel: 1-8000-829-0500
Web: www.lighthouse.org
E-mail: [email protected]
Produces publications and is a clearinghouse for visually handicapped persons.

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LIONS EYE CENTER @ VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY (TN EYE CENTER)

11211 21ST Ave.
Nashville, TN 37212
Tel: (615) 936-1034
Fax: (615) 936-2118
Provides vision services to children. Financially needy children may be referred for
TennCare and their community Lions club for sponsorship of services.
LOUIS DATABASE
Web: http://www.aph.org/louis.htm
MISSISSIPPI STATE UNIVERSITY REHABILITATION RESEARCH AND TRAINING
CENTER ON BLINDNESS AND LOW VISION
P.O. Box 6189
Mississippi State, MS 39762
Tel: (662) 325-2694, (662) 325-2001 or 1-800-675-7782
Web: www.blind.msstate.edu/irr/contact.html
E-mail: [email protected]
Information and referral source online accessible base of resources.
NASHVILLE TALKING LIBRARY
505 Heritage Drive
Madison, TN 37115
Tel: (615) 862-5874
Closed circuit radio transmission, newspaper & book articles, free receiver.
NATIONAL AGENDA FOR EDUCATION OF CHILDREN AND YOUTHS WITH
VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS, INCLUDING THOSE WITH MULTIPLE DISABILITIES
Web: www.tsbvi.edu
Advocacy group with purpose of promoting educational access for students with
visual impairments including materials, teacher licensure, early identification and
parent involvement and training.
NATIONAL ASSOCIALTION OF PARENTS OF CHILDREN WITH VISUAL
IMPAIRMENTS (NAPVI)
P.O. Box 317
Watertown, MA 002272-0317
800-562-6265
Fax 615-972-7444.
NAPVI is an organization for parents and agencies to provide support to parents and
families of children with visual impairments.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR VISUAL HANDICAPPED (NAVH)]
22 West 21st Street
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New York, NY 10010

Tel: (212) 889-3141
Fax: (212) 727-2931
Email: [email protected]
NAVH works with millions of people worldwide dealing with difficulties of vision
impairment.
NATIONAL BRAILLE PRESS
88 St. Stephens Street
Boston, MA 02115
Tel: (617) 266-6160
Fax: (617) 437-0456
Web: www.nbp.org
Braille books, free down loads, and links.
NATIONAL FEDERATION OF THE BLIND
1800 Johnson St.
Baltimore, MD 21230
Tel: (410) 659-9314
Web: [email protected]
Membership organization providing information and advocacy.
NATIONAL LIBRARY SERVICE
1291 Taylor Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20542
Tel: (202) 707-5100
Web: www.lcweb.loc.gov/ms/reference/assist
Reference Circular Assistive Services for Reading
NICHCY
P.O. Box 1492
Washington, DC 20013
Tel: (202) 884-8441
Web: [email protected]
National Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities. Personal
responses to specific questions, publications, referrals and information searches.

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NOAH
National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation
P.O. Box 959
East Hampstead, NH 03826-0959
Tel: (603) 887-2310 or 1-800-473-2310
Fax: (603) 887-6049
Web: www.albinism.org
Volunteer organization for persons and families involved with the condition of
albinism.
OUTREACH PROGRAM
Vanderbilt Pediatric Ophthalmology Department
Tennessee Lions Eye Center
1211 21st Avenue South, 110B-Medical Arts Building
Nashville, TN 37212
Tel: (615) 936-2726
Free photoscreening for children 1 through 5 years (12 months to 72 months) are
provided for Daycare Centers, Head Start, Church, Mothers Day Out programs,
Business, Home Day Care, etc. Screening requires parental consent. Screening
can be scheduled upon request by phone. Open screenings can be scheduled upon
request with very strict guidelines (Prevent Blindness Tennessee Vision Resource
Guide, 1998).
PREVENT BLINDNESS TENNESSEE
95 White Bridge Road
Suite 513
Nashville, TN 37205
Prevent Blindness Tennessee trains volunteers to conduct vision screening through
the state. Will also conduct vision screenings for systems without other personnel or
agencies to do so.
PROJECT P.A.V.E.
P.O. Box 328
Peabody College, Vanderbilt University
Nashville, TN 37203
Tel: (615) 322-2249, (615) 343-8783, or (615) 322-2249
Provides low vision evaluations, optical aids, and conferences at no charge.

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PROVIDING ACCESS TO THE VISUAL ENVIRONMENT (PROJECT PAVE)

Peabody College Box 40
230 Appleton Place
Vanderbilt University
Nashville, TN 37203-5701
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/kennedy
Phone: (615) 322-8240
TDD: (615) 343-3330
FAX: (615) 322-8236
Provides low vision assessments, devices and training to school-age children with
visual impairments in Tennessee. Provides low vision assessments, devices and
training for school-age children with visual impairments in Tennessee.
RECORDING FOR THE BLIND AND DYSLEXIC
20 Roszel Road
Princeton, NJ 08540
Tex: 1-800-221-4792
Web: www.rfbd.org
Textbooks, reference and professional materials for persons with print disabilities
RP INTERNATIONAL
P.O. Box 900
Woodland Hills, CA 91365
Tel: (818) 992-0500
Fax: (818) 992-3265
Research retinitis pigmentosa service
SERVICES FOR THE BLIND & VISUALLY IMPAIRED
Citizens Plaza Bldg.
400 Deadrick Street, 11th Floor
Nashville, TN 37248-6200
Tel: 1-800-628-7818
Provides rehabilitation services to the blind or visually impaired to promote
employment, independent living, and adjustment to blindness. This program also
provides some emergency medical treatment to prevent blindness to those who can
not afford such treatment.

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SKILCRAFT (National Industries for the Blind)

1901 N. Beauregard St. Suite 200
Alexandria, VA 22311-1727
Tel: (703) 998-0770
Fax: (703) 998-8368
Web: www.nib.org
Services and information for persons with blindness.
SPALDING MAGNIFIERS
13150 FM529 Suite 118
Houston, TX 77041
Tel: 1-888-551-0054
Fax: (713) 466-4615
Telesensory equipment
SUCCESS BY SIX
250 Venture Circle
P.O. Box 28040
Nashville, TN 37228
615-780-2538
Success by Six provides free photoscreening and chart screening for children 6
months through 5 years usually in community based settings.
TAPV

939 Statesville Road

Watertown, TN 37184
Tel: (615) 237-4556
Fax: (615) 237-4556
TECHNOLOGY
Web: www.enablemart
A website that offers adaptive technology for challenged persons.
TENNCARE
729 Church Street
Nashville, TN 37203
Any child up to age 21 who is covered by TennCare can receive a vision screening
from his or her primary care provider as part of the well child routine check-up.
Known as EPSDT, these are early and periodic screening, diagnostic and treatment
services. These check-ups are free and should be provided on a regular schedule.
A child can have a screening anytime a problem is suspected even if it is not time for
the regularly scheduled screening (Prevent Blindness Tennessee Vision Resource
Guide, 1998).
TENNESSEE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION RESOURCE CENTER FOR THE
VISUALLY IMPAIRED (TSBCVI)
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115 Stewarts Ferry Pike

Nashville, TN 37214
615-231-7340
Fax: 615-231-7307
Web: www.tsb.k12tn.net
TSBCVI provides textbooks, tangible aids, equipment, braille and large print books.
TENNESSEE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH (TDH)
Maternal and Child Health
425 5th Avenue North
Nashville, TN 37247-4750
615-741-8530
Local Health Departments may conduct vision screenings as part of the EPSDT
exam. Contact local Health Departments to see if they provide this service (Prevent
Blindness Tennessee Vision Resource Guide, 1998).
TENNESSEE EARLY INTERVENTION SYSTEM (TEIS)
P.O. Box 5095
Tennessee Technological University
Cookeville, TN 38505
888-212-3162
TEIS serves families of children birth to three years of age.
TENNESSEE INFANT PARENT SERVICES (TIPS)
2725 Island Home Blvd.
Knoxville, TN 37920
Business Hours: M-F, 8am-4:30pm
865-579-3099
Fax: 865-579-5033
Web: www.korrnet.org/lchic/organizations/TIPS.html
TIPS services provide statewide home-based programs for the families of
preschoolers.
TENNESSEE INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCE CENTER FOR THE VISUALLY
IMPAIRED (TRCVI)
115 Stewarts Ferry Pike
Nashville, TN 37214
615-231-7406
TRCVI provides instructional resources for students who are visually impaired.

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TENNESSEE LIBRARY FOR THE BLIND & PHYSICALLY HANDICAPPED

403 7TH Ave. North
Nashville, TN 37243-0313
Tel: 1-800-342-3308
Web: www.state.tn.us/sos/statelib/LBPH/lbph
Provides recorded, Braille, and large print books for persons unable to read print
because of physical disability. Maintains a library of descriptive videos.
TENNESSEE SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND
115 Stewarts Ferry Pike
Nashville, TN 37214
615-231-7340
Fax: 615-231-7307
Web: www.tsb.k12tn.net
TSB Provides comprehensive instruction for students with visual impairments.
TENNESSEE VOCATIONAL TRAINING CENTERS (TVTC)
460 9TH Avenue
Smyrna, TN 37167
Tel: (615) 741-4921
Web: www.state.tn.us/humanserv/trc-tvtc.htm
Network of 18 facilities throughout the state that provides vocational evaluation, work
adjustment and job placement in local communities.
TENNESSEE REHABILITATION CENTER
Tel: (615) 459-6811 ext. 246
The states only residential vocational rehabilitation training facility, which offers
vocational evaluation, training, independent living skill training, job development and
placement.
TEXAS SCHOOL FOR THE BLIND AND VISUALLY IMPAIRED (TSBVI)
Austin, Texas
http://www.tsbvi.edu/
U.S. DEPT. OF LABOR OFFICE & DISABILITIES
200 Constitution Avenue, Suite 1303
Washington, DC 20210
Tel: (202) 693-7880
Promotes employment of persons with disabilities

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VISION ADVANTAGE, INC.

42-200 State St. Suite A-10
Palm Desert, CA 92211
Tel: (760) 862-9040
Fax: (760) 862-9994
Web: www.visionadvantage.net
Reading devices

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APPENDIX D

REFERENCES

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72

REFERENCES
Allman, C., (2000). Guidelines for providing state assessments for alternative formats for
students with visual impairments. Howe's Now, 5, 16-18.
Anderson, S., Boigon, S. & Davis, K. (1991). The Oregon Project for Visually Impaired &
Blind Preschool Children. Medford, OR: Jackson Educational Service District.
APH Products Catalog (arranged in categories for the Expanded Core Curriculum) may be
found at http://www.aph.org/
Barraga, N. C., & Morris, J. E. (1980). Program to Develop Efficiency in Visual Functioning.
American Printing House for the Blind, Louisville, KY.
Benoff, K., Lang, M. A., Beck-Visola, M. (2001). Compendium of instruments for assessing
the skills and interests of individuals with visual impairments or multiple disabilities, New
Your: Lighthouse International. http://www.lighthouse.org/
Brigance, A.H. (1983). Comprehensive Inventory of Basic Skills. Billerica, MA: Curriculum
Associates.
Brigance, A.H. (1981). Inventory of Early Skills, Billerica, MA. Curriculum Associates.
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Impaired Learners: Braille, Print, and Listening Skills for Students Who are Visually
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those with additional disabilities. Review, 28, 25-32
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Hepker, N. L., & Cross-Coquillette, S. (1995). Braille Too: An instructional braille reading and
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Agency.
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Students with Visual Impairments, Vol. I: Social Competence. Austin: Texas School for the
Blind and Visually Impaired.
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Students with Visual Impairments, Vol. II: Self-Care and Maintenance of Personal
Environment.. Austin: Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired.
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Students with Visual Impairments, Vol. III: Play and Leisure. Austin: Texas School for the
Blind and Visually Impaired.
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curriculum for students and youths with visual impairments, including those with multiple
disabilities. Austin, TX: Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired. An updated version
may be found at: http://www.tsbvi.edu/
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Sewell, D. (1997). Assessment Kit of Informal Tools for Academic Students with Visual
Impairments, Part 1-Assessment Tools for Teacher Use. Austin: Texas School for the Blind
and Visually Impaired.
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Impairments, Part 2-Large Print Reading Assessments for Student Use. Austin: Texas
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your clasroom: A guide for teachers. New York: AFB Press. (A guide for general education
teachers.)
Tennessee Curriculum Standards for Content Areas:
http://www.state.tn.us/education/ci/index.html
Tennessee English/Language Arts Standards: K-3 Assessments:
http://www.state.tn.us/education/ci/cistandards2001/la/cik3readassess.htm
Tennessee State Department of Education/Division of Special Education:
http://www.tennessee.gov/education/speced/

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Department of Education; Oct. 2003; Publication Authorization No. 331382

1014 copies. This public document was promulgated at a cost of $ 1.9230
per copy.

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