Geoscience for Society

125th Anniversary Volume

Edited by Keijo Nenonen and Pekka A. Nurmi
Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49, 4958, 2011

REFLECTION SEISMICS IN EXPLORATION

FOR MINERAL DEPOSITS: INITIAL RESULTS
FROM THE HIRE PROJECT
by
Ilmo T. Kukkonen1)*, Pekka Heikkinen2), Suvi Heinonen2),
Jukka Laitinen1) and HIRE Working Group3)

Kukkonen, I. T., Heikkinen, P., Heinonen, S., Laitinen, J. & HIRE Working
Group of the Geological Survey of Finland 2011. Reflection seismics in exploration for mineral deposits: initial results from the HIRE project. Geological Survey of
Finland, Special Paper 49, 4958, 5 figures.
The goals of the HIRE (High Resolution Reflection Seismics for Ore Exploration
20072010) project have been to (1) extend reflection surveys to exploration of the
Precambrian crystalline bedrock of Finland, (2) apply 3D visualization and modelling
techniques in data interpretation, and (3) improve the structural database on the most
important mineral resource provinces in Finland. In compiling models of the HIRE
targets we have used reflection seismic data, airborne and ground geophysics, geological maps and drilling data.
Seismic reflection surveys have traditionally been applied in exploring for oil and
gas deposits, but currently there is increasing interest in using the method in exploration for mineral deposits in crystalline bedrock areas. This can be attributed to the
high resolution provided by the reflection method, which is much better than that of
any other conventional geophysical method. In addition, the petrophysical parameters
underlying rock reflectivity, i.e., the acoustic impedance, which is a product of rock
density and seismic velocity, is closely associated with geological rock properties.
Our list of targets comprises fifteen exploration and mining camps in a very diverse
selection of geological environments containing Cu, Ni, Cr, PGE, Zn, and Au deposits,
most of them economic, as well as the first Finnish site for nuclear waste disposal.
The surveys were carried out in co-operation with 12 industrial partners. Fieldwork
was completed in 20072008, and processing and interpretation in 20092010. The
surveys comprised 2D lines measured using either Vibroseis sources or dynamite shots
in shallow drill holes. Typically, a target area was covered with a network of connected
lines with a total length of 1090 line km, which provided a good database for 3D visualization and modelling. Our seismic contractor was Vniigeofizika, Moscow, Russia,
and the company was responsible for the field acquisition and basic processing of the
data. The Institute of Seismology, University of Helsinki, has been our research partner and subcontractor in the project and responsible for the more detailed post-stack
processing of the results.
Previously unknown structures were revealed in all HIRE targets, and our database
on the structures of the investigated deposit areas has considerably expanded. Furthermore, previously unknown potential host rocks of deposits were discovered in several
targets. The HIRE results have considerably increased the level of detailed knowledge
at previously unexplored depths and it seems that the ore potential of the study areas
may be higher than earlier anticipated. The results support the continued application of
seismic reflection surveys in mineral exploration.

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Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Ilmo T. Kukkonen, Pekka Heikkinen, Suvi Heinonen, Jukka Laitinen and HIRE Working Group

Keywords (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): mineral exploration, metal ores, bedrock,

seismic methods, reflection methods, Precambrian, HIRE Project, Finland
1)
2)

Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland

Institute of Seismology, P.O. Box 68, FI-00014 University of Helsinki

* E-mail: [email protected]

HIRE Working Group: Ilmo T. Kukkonen, Pekka A. Nurmi, Jukka Kousa, Jouni
Luukas, Aimo Ruotsalainen, Ilkka Lahti, Jarkko Jokinen, Erkki Lanne, Jukka
Lehtimki, Peter Sorjonen-Ward, Heikki Forss, Jukka Laitinen, Eeva-Liisa Laine,
Kerstin Saalmann, Kirsti-Loukola Ruskeeniemi, Tapio Ruotoistenmki, Markku
Paananen, Seppo Paulamki, Timo Tervo, Asko Kontinen, Jarmo Nikander, Jouni
Lerssi, Tapio Halkoaho, Matti Niskanen, Kimmo Pietikinen, Seppo Elo (GTK);
Erkki Jalkanen (Terramecs Ky); Pekka Heikkinen, Kari Komminaho, Suvi Heinonen
(Institute of Seismology, University of Helsinki); Arsen Suleimanov, Nadeshda
Zamoshnyaya, Ivan Moissa (Vniigeofizika); Erkki Ruokanen & GTK traffic controllers; Seppo Kantelinen, Matti Kallunki & GTK field personnel;Vniigeofizika field team
(c. 30 people); Permitting, agreements, accounting: Ilkka Keskitalo, Eija Verlander,
Mervi Jrvinen, Seija Silvennoinen (GTK)
3)

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Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Reflection seismics in exploration for mineral deposits: initial results from the HIRE project

INTRODUCTION
Seismic reflection soundings are widely applied in
exploration for oil and gas, but less commonly in
mineral exploration in crystalline bedrock areas.
The reasons for this have been the traditionally high
cost of seismic surveys and the required technologies, as well as logistical difficulties in terrains that
are often challenging (topography, soft and wet
soils, accessibility, permits, environmental restrictions, mining areas, man-made seismic noise, etc.).
On the other hand, many factors support the
use of the method in mineral exploration. One of
them is the unprecedentedly high spatial resolution,
which surpasses that of any other geophysical surface method. Assuming that sufficient impedance
contrasts exist, reflectors with a vertical thickness
as thin as 10 m and with horizontal dimensions
greater than about 350 m can be directly detected
in the uppermost 12 km. The resolution does not
essentially decrease with depth in the depth range
where exploration is concerned (to 12 km depth)
(Yilmaz 1991).
Massive deposits always have a sufficient impedance contrast with their host rocks, regardless of the
host rock type, and are therefore detectable with reflection seismics (Salisbury et al. 2003). Thus, the
potential exploratory power of reflection seismics is
good, but the detection of massive deposits depends
on the dimensions of the target as well as the shape
of the body (Bohlen et al. 2003). Reflection seismics can be used as a direct exploration tool, but
the small dimensions of deposits in relation to typical seismic wavelengths makes their direct detection quite challenging. On the other hand, reflection
seismics can be a very efficient tool in the structural
analysis of environments where deposits are already
known. In such areas, seismic data also provide a
powerful means for 3D modelling with modern visualization software.
In exploration, the application of new methods,
or methods that have not previously been applied in
an area, usually provides new perspectives on the
subsurface, which often results in novel ideas and
discoveries. Mineral exploration requires and benefits from new methods and technologies.
Reflection surveys are often more demanding in
crystalline than in sedimentary rocks, which can
be attributed to the typically smaller contrasts in
acoustic impedances between rock types in crystalline bedrock. This sets demanding requirements for
the signal-to-noise ratio in hard rock surveys to provide results with a comparable data quality to those
from sedimentary rocks. On the other hand, the
rapid development of digital signal acquisition and

processing in the last 30 years has significantly improved the situation, and at present high-fold, high
resolution surveys can be readily carried out and the
results processed at a reasonable cost and time. The
rapidly improving technological capabilities have
gradually changed the situation in favour of applying seismic reflection surveys for mineral exploration and waste disposal site studies (e.g. Green &
Mair 1983, Pretorius et al. 1987, Stevenson & Durrheim 1997, Eaton et al. 1997, Goleby et al. 1997,
Salisbury and Snyder 2007, Eaton et al. 2003).
In Finland and the neighbouring marine areas,
the most extensive seismic reflection surveys have
been conducted for crustal-scale studies, namely
the BABEL surveys in the Baltic Sea, the Bothnian
Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia (Korja & Heikkinen
2005), and the FIRE surveys on land (Kukkonen &
Lahtinen 2006). The results of FIRE and the subsequent drilling of a 2.5 km deep hole in Outokumpu
into a strong upper crustal reflector (Kukkonen et al.
2006, Heinonen et al. 2009) indicated that host rock
environments of mineral deposits could be successfully delineated and traced with reflection seismics.
Early applications of reflection seismics in mineral exploration and mine camp studies in Finland
included the reflection and wide-angle surveys
across the Outokumpu belt bearing Cu-Co-Zn sulphide deposits (Penttil 1968), the Sokli carbonatite
intrusion hosting phosphorite deposits (Jalkanen
et al. 1978, Paarma 1981), the Luikonlahti survey
in 1982 (an Outokumpu type sulphide deposit) (P.
Heikkinen, pers. comm. 2010), and the survey of the
Ylivieska gabbro, a Ni-Cu exploration target (Heikkinen 1984). In addition, we must add here the theoretical discussion and modelling of reflections in the
crystalline rock environment and test measurements
by Noponen et al. (1977, 1978, 1979). These early
applications already demonstrated the possibilities
of the method in structural studies of deposit environments, but it took more than 30 years until reflection seismics developed into a technology that
could be effectively applied in mineral exploration.
The present paper provides a brief overview of
the HIRE (High Resolution Reflection Seismics
in Ore Exploration 20072010) project, which has
been carried out by the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK). The goals of the HIRE project have
been to (1) extend reflection surveys to the exploration of the Precambrian crystalline bedrock of
Finland, (2) apply 3D visualization and modelling
techniques in data interpretation, and (3) improve
the structural database of the most important mineral resource provinces in Finland.
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Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Ilmo T. Kukkonen, Pekka Heikkinen, Suvi Heinonen, Jukka Laitinen and HIRE Working Group

The seismic contractor responsible for the field

acquisition and basic processing of the data was
Vniigeofizika (together with Machinoexport), Moscow, Russia. The Institute of Seismology, University of Helsinki, has been GTKs research partner and
subcontractor in the project and responsible for the

more detailed post-stack processing of the results.

As many of the targets are located in areas of active
exploration and/or mining, 12 industrial partners
have also participated in the project. The present
paper reviews the ongoing project and presents selected results from the HIRE surveys.

HIRE SURVEY TARGETS, ACQUISITION AND DATA PROCESSING

The HIRE surveys have altogether comprised 700
line km of 2D reflection surveys in 16 target areas
(Figure 1). The targets have consisted of exploration and mining camps in a very diverse selection of
geological environments with Cu, Ni, Cr, PGE, Zn,
and Au deposits, most of them economic, as well as
the Finnish site for nuclear waste disposal.
Fieldwork was carried out in the 16 target areas
in 20072008. Typically, a target was covered with
a network of connected survey lines, with a total
length of lines varying from about 10 km to 90 km
per target.
The HIRE surveys have consisted of 2D soundings. Vibroseis sources were applied on lines running on roads, but off-road explosion lines were
used in special cases where roads or useful tracks
were not available in geologically important locations. The common midpoint (CMP) method with
symmetrical split-spread geometry was applied,
with asymmetric shooting at the ends of the lines.
The number of active recording channels was 402,
and the channel interval was 12.5 m. The maximum
offset between the source and receivers was 2502
m in the case of symmetrical geometry, and up to
5025 m at the ends of lines in asymmetric geometry.
The source point interval was 50 m, but locally,
for instance in the proximity of interesting struc-

52

tures, it was reduced to 25 m. Vibrators or small

dynamite shots in shallow drill holes were used to
generate the seismic source signal. In vibrator work,
three (minimum two) 15.4-ton Geosvip vibrators
were used as a group. The applied force was about
10 t per vibrator. The sweep was a 16 s linear upsweep with a frequency band of 30165 Hz, and the
total listening time was 22 s. The final correlated
signal length was 6 s. The number of sweeps per
source point was six. The sweeps were stacked and
the stacked data were saved.
Data processing was carried out in three main
steps. First, on-site processing was performed by
Vniigeofizika at the field base. The first results
were mainly used for quality control. Second, basic processing was continued from the field results
in the Moscow office of Vniigeofizika. Third, poststack processing was carried out by the Institute
of Seismology of the University of Helsinki (HYSeismo), starting from the NMO (normal-moveout) stacked sections provided by Vniigeofizika.
The post-stack processing included four processing
steps: 1) whole trace amplitude equalization, 2) stolt
migration with a depth-dependent velocity function,
3) spectral balancing, and 4) depth conversion.

Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Reflection seismics in exploration for mineral deposits: initial results from the HIRE project

Figure 1. The target areas surveyed in the HIRE project. The targets of Outokumpu and Suhanko were already included in the earlier FIRE project
(Kukkonen et al. 2006).

EXAMPLES OF HIRE RESULTS

In the following, we present examples of HIRE
results from a few targets.
The Vihanti area of western Finland is well
known for its semi-massive Zn-Cu-Pb deposits,
which were mined by the company Outokumpu
Oy from 1954 to 1992. The deposits are semi-mas-

sive sphalerite and pyrite lenses in skarn rock and

cordierite gneiss hosted by felsic-intermediate volcanic rocks (Kousa & Luukas 2004). In the Vihanti
area, the HIRE survey altogether comprised 84 km
of lines, which provided a detailed image of the
deep structures of the Lampinsaari and Vilminko
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Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Ilmo T. Kukkonen, Pekka Heikkinen, Suvi Heinonen, Jukka Laitinen and HIRE Working Group

formations. One of the Vibroseis lines ran across

the Lampinsaari formation. In comparison with the
geological cross section of the Vihanti mine, the
seismic reflection section revealed a very similar
overall structure (Figure 2a and b). The results indicate that the ore-hosting skarn-banded felsic volcanics, cordierite gneisses and mafic volcanic rocks
have significant mutual impedance contrasts, but
also a distinct contrast against the surrounding in-

termediate tuffites. This suggests that the host rocks

of the deposit could be traced in the subsurface with
reflection soundings. The Vihanti HIRE survey has
revealed a large number of similar reflectors in the
area. Whether they all represent rock types potentially hosting deposits is an open question at the moment, but the results support further exploration in
the Vihanti area.

a)

b)

Figure 2. a) Geological cross-section of the Lampinsaari formation from the Vihanti mine (adapted from Kousa & Luukas 2004); b) Detail of a
migrated seismic section running across the formation. The horizontal and vertical scales are identical. The section is located about 500 m to the
SW from the geological cross-section in Figure 2a.

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Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Reflection seismics in exploration for mineral deposits: initial results from the HIRE project

The Kevitsa ultramafic intrusion in northern

Finland (Figure 1) hosts a large low-grade Ni and
platinum element (PGE) deposit (Mutanen 1997),
which is currently being developed for mining by
First Quantum Minerals Ltd (FQM). The HIRE
survey was carried out with the explosion method
along four connected lines (Kukkonen et al. 2009a).
The results revealed the basal contact of the intrusion against strongly reflective metasediments and
metavolcanics. The seismic data are in good agreement with gravity models (Figure 3a). The Kevitsa

deposit, which consists of fine grain size dissemination of sulphides in ultramafic host rock, also seems
to be observable in seismic data (Figure 3b). In addition to these results, the seismic data revealed numerous shear and fracture systems. This has led to
a new seismic project in Kevitsa, and a 3D seismic
survey was launched in early 2010 by FQM with the
aim of generating detailed information on shears,
faults and other tectonic structures relevant for the
design the Kevitsa open pit.

a)

b)

Figure 3. a) 3D presentation of HIRE results in the Kevitsa ultramafic intrusion together with gravity modelling (adapted from Kukkonen et al.
2009a). The seismic sections extend to a depth of 5 km; b) Detail of the Kevitsa HIRE results viewed from the N. The disseminated Ni-PGE Kevitsa
deposit appears to be reflective.

55

Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Ilmo T. Kukkonen, Pekka Heikkinen, Suvi Heinonen, Jukka Laitinen and HIRE Working Group

The Hannukainen-Rautuvaara area in northern Finland hosts several Fe-oxide-Cu-Au deposits,

mostly in clinopyroxene-dominated skarn or albitite (Niiranen et al. 2007). In Hannukainen, one
of these deposits was open-pit mined in 19781992
by the companies Rautaruukki Oy and Outokumpu
Oy. Presently, Northland Exploration Finland Oy
holds the exploration claims for the area and is developing the deposits for mining. The overall HIRE
survey in the area comprised 80 km of lines, which
have revealed an extensive system of potentially ore
bearing rocks in the area (Kukkonen et al. 2009b).
Here we present only a detail from the SW side of

the abandoned Hannukainen open pit (Figure 4).

The ores, which are characterized by semi-massive
magnetite and weak sulphide dissemination in skarn
rock, are seen as very bright reflectors. The uppermost reflector correlates with the layer mined in the
Hannukainen open pit and it has also been followed
down-dip with drilling to a depth of about 400 m. In
addition to this layer, the reflection data show two
other strongly reflective layers below the known
ore-bearing layer. These reflectors have not yet been
drilled, but they may indicate potential target rocks
that extend to a depth of at least of 1.5 km beneath
the abandoned open pit.

Figure 4. Detail of a migrated section in the Hannukainen Fe-oxide-Cu-Au deposit. The deposits mined in the Hannukainen open pit are associated
with the uppermost strongly reflective layer. Beneath this layer, similar bright reflector packages exist.

The final disposal of spent nuclear fuel is being

planned in Olkiluoto, western Finland, by the company Posiva Oy. The HIRE survey in Olkiluoto consisted of three lines with a total length of 31 km. As
an example, the results from line V1 running from
Olkiluoto island (the repository site) to the main
continent are illustrated in Figure 5.
The survey in the Olkiluoto area revealed numerous previously unknown structures in the upper
crust. On Olkiluoto island, reflectors could be correlated with drill-hole-based data on lithology and
brittle fracture zones (Kukkonen et al. 2009c). The
main brittle fracture zones detected in drill holes are
represented as reflectors in the seismic sections, and
several new structures have been interpreted. The

56

most prominent structures observed are subhorizontal strong reflectors, which very probably represent
Postjotnian diabase sills intruding both the Svecofennian gneisses and the Mesoproterozoic rapakivi granites. These reflectors can be associated with
similar subhorizontal seismic structures recorded in
marine seismic transects in the Bothnian Sea (Korja
& Heikkinen 2005), and thus they represent a largescale structure. The Mesoproterozoic rapakivi granites can be distinguished as homogeneous, seismically transparent domains that extend to a depth of
at least 4 km. The interpreted rapakivi structures are
in a close agreement with gravity modelling results
(Kukkonen et al. 2009c).

Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Reflection seismics in exploration for mineral deposits: initial results from the HIRE project

Figure 5. Example of the HIRE results obtained in Olkiluoto, western Finland, where the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel is planned. The NW-SE
oriented 10 km long line reveals strong subhorizontal reflectors interpreted as diabase sills and brittle fracture zones dissecting the Paleoproterozoic
migmatitic gneiss and Mesoproterozoic rapakivi granite. The more transparent domains are interpreted as rapakivi granite, in agreement with results
from gravity modelling (adapted from Kukkonen et al. 2009c).

CONCLUSIONS
The HIRE project has produced detailed 2D seismic
reflection data sets from all target areas, comprising fifteen exploration and mining camps and the
Finnish nuclear waste disposal site. In this short
presentation we have only been able to provide selected examples of the results. Interpretation and
modelling of the data are still ongoing, and final
conclusions cannot yet be presented. However, previously unknown structures have been revealed in
all HIRE targets and our database on the structures
of the investigated deposit areas has considerably
expanded. Furthermore, previously unknown potential host rocks of deposits have been discovered in

several targets. The HIRE results have considerably

increased the level of detailed knowledge at previously unexplored depths, and it seems that the ore
potential of the study areas may be higher than earlier anticipated. The results support the continued
application of seismic reflection surveys in mineral
exploration.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks to Raimo Lahtinen (Geological Survey of
Finland, Espoo) for a constructive review of the
manuscript.

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Geological Survey of Finland, Special Paper 49

Ilmo T. Kukkonen, Pekka Heikkinen, Suvi Heinonen, Jukka Laitinen and HIRE Working Group

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