1.

1 A Intro

Spheres
o Atmosphere of gases (N2 -78%, O2-21%, Ar, CO2, Neon, He, H2O)
o Hydrosphere oceans, lakes, streams, underground water, snow/ice
Oceans = 71% of planet surface, land 29%
60% ocean basin, 40% continental crust
o
o Biosphere all of Earths living matter, thin zone (-100 m to 2000 m)
o Geosphere interior
Lithosphere continental/oceanic crust + uppermost
mantle
Asthenosphere upper mantle, relatively soft lubricating
layer
Mantle hot taffy like
Outer core liquid, inner core solid

Scientific method

1.1 B -Origins

Sun
o 99% of mass of solar systems, diameter 1.4 million km, 75% H/25% He, 6000K to 15,000,000K in the core
Solar system
o 4 terrestrial (rock/metal), 4 jovian (gaseous), 3 dwarfs, 100 moons, 4000 asteroids/comets
Terrestrial planets
o Rocky bodies, densities vary from 3.9 g/cm3 for Mars to 5.5 g/cm3 for Earth
o Crusts/mantles made of silicate minerals and metallic iron cores
Jovian
o Density 0.7 g/cm3 for Saturn to 1.8 g/cm3 for Neptune
o Jupiter/Saturn made of H and He, Uranus/Neptune made of liquids rich in O2, C, N2, H
Dwarfs Pluto, Ceres, Eris
o Large enough to have sufficient mass to have gravity shape them to be spherical
o But not large enough to have gravitationally cleared their orbit of other asteroids/comets
How did the Solar System form Observations
o Dynamic characteristics
Planets are spread out and ordered, orbits coplanar with rotational plane of Sun, nearly circular
Suns rotation and planets revolutions around Sun are in same direction
Planets rotate same direction as Sun
Moon systems mimic planetary system
o Chemical characteristics

Closer to sun, higher % of metals/rocky material

Lower % of volatiles (compounds e.g. CH4, NH3, H2O that are easy to break apart)
Forms division b/w terrestrial + jovian (more volatile + H/He)
Sun almost has interstellar composition
Interstellar matter = 90% H, 9% He, some dust (ice/rock/metals)
o Anomalies (weird things)
Uranus/Pluto orbits tilted from main plane
Venus revolution is opposite all of other planets and Sun, turns very slowly
Explained by large collisions during final stages of major accretion
Theory Nebular Contraction and Condensation
o Coplanarity of orbits + coincidence with Suns rotational axis = common origin
o Circular orbits, rotations, revolutions almost all the same = structure was ordered
Cloud of gas (H/He)
Cools, slight motion/rotation
Becomes gravitationally unstable, collapse as gravity pulls inward
As you pull inward, conservation of angular momentum requires rotation speed increase (figure skater pull in
to spin faster)
Rotating/collapsing cloud rotates faster and flattens into rotating disk
Generates enormous heat towards centre of the disk, fusion starts and Sun is born
Disk cools gradually
Condensation begins, accretion (growth by collision, e.g. stick onto planet) increases, large bodies
sweep up material due to gravitational fields
Sun shifts into energetic state, generates solar wind (charged particles) that sweep remaining gas from Solar
System giant planets stop growing since no more gas, but accretion still continues
Planets evolve
Condensation
o Temperature decreases rapidly away from Sun
o Planets each formed in different thermal environment thats why they have different compositions
o Different gases condense to solids at different temperatures
Metals condense at highest, rocky material at
lower, volatiles at much lower
o All planets, moons, asteroids formed from material in
disk same source composition, thus condensation
must control composition of planets

1.1 C Asteroids/comets

Asteroids- predominantly rocky metallic bodies found within

asteroid belt
o Composition
Metallic 10%, Stony/silicate 15%, stony +
carbon 75%
o Formed in inner solar system by condensation, accretion, fragmentation
o mm to 525km diameter, 3000-7000 kg/m3 density
o Stable orbits in solar plane, 1/10 of lunar mass
o Majority in belt between Mars and Jupiter
Comets dusty iceballs, water ice + methane ice + ammonia ice + dust
o Tail composed of particles being sublimated away by the sun
Dust tail dust particles, reflect sunlight

 Ion tail charged gas particles, glow due to solar wind

Stardust particles in tail rich in carbon compounds appropriate for initial building blocks for life
Composition
Ices + rocky metallic dust, H20, methane, ammonia, carbon compounds
o Formed in outer solar system, by condensation, accretion, fragmentation plus sublimation
o Up to 10 km nucleus, 0 tail when far from sun to 1 million km when heated, 100 kg/m3
o Assumed in Oort Cloud/Kuiper belt
Moon is smaller, cools quicker, rocks are older than Earth
o Asteroids are smaller, expected to cool even quicker
o Timeline: Earth formation, asteroids, Moon rocks, Earth rocks
Meteors asteroids or comets entering the Earths atmosphere
o Light comes from excited air molecules
o Ice or rock fragments
o Comet breaks up, and debris is spread out along orbit, and as it comes towards Earth, looks like meteor shower
o
o

1.1 D New Worlds

Detecting planetary systems around other stars

o Direct = planets shadow observed as it passed in front of its star
o Primary method observe wobble of star caused by mass of orbiting planet
Stellar wobble detected by observing oscillating Doppler shift of light the star emits
o E.g. one planet orbit a star, centre of mass of system is shifted toward the planet
Rotating star has slight wobble around centre of mass
When star is moving towards Earth, the light we detect has diff freq than when it moves away from
the Earth
See slide 4 for analogy
o Eccentric orbits = collisions and ejections are common, means huge seasonal changes and high possibility of major
collisions
o Life depends on water, water only exists in small thermal zone close to the Sun, large planets close to the Sun limit
where life could exist
Need giant planets in stable, near-circular orbits well away from the Sun
Permits terrestrial planets to form in life zone
Stable climatic conditions for life
Star must blow H and He gas from nebula earlier to stop giant planets from growing

1.2 A Earth structure

Inner/outer core, mantle, crust, atmosphere

Chondrules small rocky pieces accreted to form meteorites, ~35% iron, Earth crust 6% Fe, so Earth did not condense directly
from solar nebula
4 Key processes in formation of Earth/Moon
o Accretion
Growth by collision, condensation, accretion, gravity increases, continued accretion
Kinetic energy converted to heat
o Radioactive Decay
Spontaneous decay of unstable elements, generates heat
Internal heat increases faster than it is radiated from the surface of the proto-planet
Rock is great insulator, heat generated through radiation/compression or heat trapped inside (from impacts)
takes long time to conduct away to space
Thus, proto-Earth would have heated up more quickly than it gave off heat

Compression
Gravitational compression increases with accretionary growth, add more and more material, pressure within
increases, heat increases further
o From accretion + compression = 1000C, add radioactive decay = 1600C
o Iron Catastrophe
Temp increased above melting point of iron compounds
Differentiation process by which material in planetary body is separated according to density and chemical
affinity into layered body with a core, mantle, crust
Dense, heavy compounds (i.e. iron, nickel) sink to core, light silicon material rise to form crust, leave
magnesium residue between them
Increasing density of compounds with depth
Motion releases more heat, positive feedback temp rises to 4000C
Total meltdown = layering of Earth by compound density
Effects:
Slowed heating mantle and core depleted in radioactive elements
o Radioactive elements concentrated in crust, heat generated is easier to conduct and radiate
away to atmosphere
o Meltdown stabilizes, Earth begins to cool
Atmosphere created
o Melting breaks down compounds, outgassing generates atmosphere
Plate tectonics possible requires layered Earth
Two ways to define structure
o Composition
Crust
Thin, low density scum
Continental
o Felsic (e.g. granite, 70-75% SiOx) to intermediate (60% SiOx)
o 20-70 km thick, high proportion of radioactive isotopes
Oceanic
o Mafic (e.g. basalt, < 52% SiOx)
o Very thin, fewer radioactive isotopes than continental
Division of Earth Rocks
Felsic/Intermediate (granite cools w/i crust)
o Continental crust
o Low density
o 70-75% silicates (SiOx), feldspar rich
o Low melting point (700-1000C)
o Includes majority of radioactive atoms (U, Th, K)
Mafic/Ultramafic (e.g. basalt erupted at surface)
o Oceanic crust + mantle
o Higher density
o < 52% sillicates, magnesium and iron/olivine and pyroxene rich
o Higher melting point (1200C)
Mantle
2800 km thick
Ultramafic (peridotite, 45% SiOx)
Composition quite uniform, crystal structure changes with depth/pressure)
Core
3500 km thick
o

Metallic (not rock) mostly Iron and Nickel

Much denser than crust and mantle rocks
o Rheology strength and deformation, how a material behaves when force is applied
Lithosphere
Rigid, stiff outer shell (crust + upper mantle)
0-200 km thick, 0 at ridge crests, up to 100 beneath oceanic, up to 200 beneath continental
Asthenosphere
Weak, ductile, plastic zone solid but some melt present
Extends from base of lithosphere to 300-700 km
Lower mantle (mesosphere)
Solid with no partial melt but still ductile (ability to deform)
Variation in properties due to increasing pressure with depth
Outer core
Fluid, 4000-5000C, 2200 km thick
Inner core
Solid, up to 7000C, pressure great enough to keep inner core solid
Variation in properties due to increasing pressure with depth
Comparing continental vs oceanic crust
o Composition
Continental felsic/granitic
Oceanic mafic/basaltic
o Density
C 2.7g/cm3
O 2.9g/cm3
o Thickness
C 35 km
O 5-7 km
o Elevation
C sits higher (avg. 880m)
O lower (avg. -3700m)
o Age
C 0-4 Gy
O 0-200 My
Isostasy principle of mass balance, gravitational equilibrium through buoyancy mechanism
o Reach balance determined by densities
Air 0 g/cm3, felsic crust 2.7g/cm3, mafic crust 3.0 g/cm3, ultramafic mantle 3.3 g/cm3
Thus continental crust on top of oceanic crust, but floating in upper mantle

1.2 B Moon structure

Surface
o Highly cratered
o Completely igneous (cooled from molten state), no sedimentary rock, no atmosphere = no erosion to form sediments
o Regolith (lunar soil) formed by micrometeorite impacts
o Highlands (light colour) = felsic, old
o Maria (dark) = mafic
o Moon rocks are depleted in volatiles e.g. less C, N, H2O, S compounds than in Earths rocks
Internal structure concentric layers
o Catastrophic differentiation as well

o Smaller than Earth so cooled faster

General lunar structure
o Lithosphere crust + upper mantle, 1000km
Asymmetric crust earthside = 60km, farside = 150km
Probably due to gravitational pull of the Earth
o Lower mantle
No asthenosphere, solid (more ductile than litho)
o Core
Solid, no fluid outer core, tiny
o Compared to Earth
Much thicker litho, tiny metal core, few volatiles
Suggestion: Make a table comparing the thicknesses of the various layers
Formation of the Moon 4 hypotheses
o Sister/co-formation
Coalesced together 2 bodies right from the start, farside 150km thick
Problem: compositions are different (moon has few iron/volatiles)
o Capture
Moon formed elsewhere, captured by Earths gravity
Problem: physically impossible
o Daughter/fission
Earth spun off the Moon, explains composition
Problem: physically impossible
o Impact
Large (Mars-sized) impactor hit proto-Earth
Earth was layered, but likely still molten
Primarily involved outer part of Earth (crust and mantle)
Explains similarity to Earths mantle, undersized metallic core, fewer volatiles (lost to space in collision)
Stages in lunar evolution
o Origin 4.6 Ga, fragmented from Earth
o Differentiation into concentrically layered planet(4.5 Ga)
Oldest rocks 4.4 Ga, must have been layered and surface solidified by then
o Accretion continues (3.9 Ga)
o Flooding of impact basins with magma (3.9-3.2 Ga)
Maria filled with mantle-derived magmas (basalt/mafic material)
Repeated flows
o Quiescence (3 Ga today)
Internal still moonquakes but rare
Surface gradual change through decreasing # of impacts

1.2 C General Rock Classification

Minerals atoms of one or more elements combine with atoms of other elements to form compounds
o 5 requirements:
Must be naturally formed, substance found in nature
E.g. research labs producing synthetic equivalents dont count
Solid
All liquids/gases excluded, based on state of matter, not composition
Inorganic processes
Excludes organic materials that make up plant/animal bodies

Organic = composed of organic carbon, form of carbon found in all organisms

o Leaves/coal not minerals
Decaying vegetation geologically transformed into coal, which is also made of
organic carbon
Even though coal is found in naturally occurring deposits, not mineral
Calcite forms shells of oysters/marine organisms contains inorganic carbon
o Calcite is mineral because inorganic and crystalline
Specific chemical composition
Either chemical elements (e.g. gold, copper) or chemical compounds in which atoms are present in
specific ratios (quartz SiO2)
Each mineral is unique based on chemical composition/arrangement of atoms in internal structure
o Chemical comp is fixed/varied within defined limits
o E.g. quartz fixed ratio of two O atoms to 1 Si atom
Characteristic crystal structure
Geometric pattern of atoms
A given mineral has identical crystal structure/symmetry down to the atomic scale
Tiny particles of matter (atoms) that compose it are arranged in orderly, repeating, 3D array
o
o
o
o
o Solids that dont have such orderly arrangement referred to as glassy/amorphous (without
form), not minerals
Graphite vs. Diamond
o Same composition (pure carbon) but diff minerals as diff crystalline structure
Graphite hexagonal sheets of carbon
Diamond cubic structure
Rock naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals/nonmineral solid matter
o Identity determined by mineralogy/texture
Texture size/shape of rocks mineral crystal and the way they are put together
If crystal are large enough, coarse-grained
If not large enough to be seen, fine-grained
Rock Types igneous, sedimentary, metamorphic
o Igneous formed by solidification of magma (crystallization)
Melting of rocks in hot, deep crust and upper mantle
Composition
Felsic (feldspar and silicon rich)
o Low melting temperature (700-800), low density, e.g. granite
Intermediate
Mafic (magnesium and iron rich)
o Higher melting temperature (1200), higher density, e.g. basalt
Cooling environment
Intrusive molten rock that buoyantly rises into existing solid rock in crust and solidifies there slowly
o As magma slowly cools, crystals have time to grow larger coarse-grained
o Large, interlocking crystals
o E.g. large crystals in granite
Extrusive molten rock that buoyantly rises to the surface (exposed to air, into the ocean) where it
solidifies quickly

Magma erupted at Earths surface, and cools rapidly, no time for crystals to grow gradually
fine-grained
o E.g. small crystals in basalt
Sedimentary formed by deposition, burial, lithification
Sediments found at Earths surface as layers of loose particles, e.g. sand, silt, shells of organisms
Weathering and erosion of rocks exposed at surface
Weathering chemical/physical processes that break up/decay rocks into fragments and dissolved
substances of various sizes
o Chemical minerals in rock chemically altered/dissolved
o Physical solid rock fragmented by mechanical processes that do not change its chemical
composition
o Weathering reduces CO2 in atmosphere as CO2 bicarbonate ions, lowered CO2 = climate
cooling, lower temp and decrease in CO2 reduce weathering reduced weathering rate
increase in CO2 in atmosphere leads to climate warming, increases weathering
o Feldspar + carbonic acid + water dissolved kaolinite + dissolved silica + dissolved
potassium ions + dissolved bicarbonate ions
Particles then transported by erosion (set of processes that loosen soil/rock and move them
downhill/downstream to where they are deposited as layers of sediment)
Deposition (2 ways):
Accumulation/cementation of mineral grains transported and deposited by water, wind, ice
o E.g. sandstone (made from quartz weathered to sand)
Chemical precipitation at the deposition site
o E.g. some limestone
o Plankton can make shells from CaCO3
Calcium carbonate forms limestone
Lithification process that converts sediments into rock
Compaction particles squeezed together by weight of overlying sediments into mass denser than
the original
Cementation precipitate around deposited particles and bind them together
Bedding formation of parallel layers of sediment as particles are deposited
Process:
Particles/dissolved substances created by weathering transported downhill by erosion
deposited as layers of sediment on land/water form parallel layers (bedding) buried sediments
lithified siliciclastic sediments (made up of rock fragments) make sandstone chemical sediments
precipitated from seawater to form fossilized stkeletons
Metamorphic formed by recrystallization in solid state of new minerals/transformation of pre-existing solid rock
under influence of high temp/pressures
Rocks under high temperatures and pressures in deep crust and upper mantle
Igneous and sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks altered by changes to pressure and temperature
Changes occur in solid state
Mineralogy, texture and composition altered
Often display fine-scale swirly patterns
E.g. sandstone + pressure & temperature = quartzite
o Limestone + pressure & temperature = marble
Metamorphic becomes sedimentary through erosion
Foraminifera one group of marine organisms that build shells from CaCO3
Regional metamorphism occurs where high pressure/temp extend over large regions
Accompanies plate collisions that result in mountain building/folding and breaking of sedimentary
layers that were once horizontal
o

Contact metamorphism high temp restricted to smaller areas, rocks in contact with magmatic intrusion
o Sedimentary processes form limestone, + pressure and temperature (metamorphism), forms into marble
Rock Cycle
o First, need to know
What are minerals
Three basic groups of rocks
Processes by which they move through rock cycle
Rates art which materials move through rock cycle
o Magma cools/solidifies igneous rock weathering,
transportation, deposition sediment cementation and
compaction (lithification) sedimentary rock heat and pressure
(metamorphism) metamorphic rock melts into magma
o Cycle begins with rifting of continent sediments erode from
continental interior and deposited in rift basins, buried to form
sedimentary rocks
Rifting continues, new ocean basin develops, magma rises
from asthenosphere at mid-ocean ridges and chills to form basalt, igneous rock
Subsidence of continental margin (sinking of Earths lithosphere) leads to accumulation of sediments
and formation of sedimentary rock during burial
o Oceanic crust subducts beneath continent, building volcanic chain, magma rises from
melting plate and mantle and cools to make granitic igneous rocks
Further closing of ocean basin leads to continental collision, high mountains, rocks
buried deeper and modified by heat and pressure to form metamorphic
Streams transport sediment away from collision zones to oceans, where it
is deposited as layers of sand and silt. Layers of sediment buried and
lithified to form sedimentary rock

1.3 A Seismology and Imaging the Earths Interior

Seismology study of how vibrations travel through Earth

o 2 branches
Earth structure/properties
Earthquakes (causes, mitigation, prediction)
o Scales
Global mantle convection, core structure
Crustal resources, faults
Near-surface engineering, archaeology
o Speed that vibrations travel controlled by material properties (compressibility, rigidity, density)
o Changes in material change the path the waves take
Refraction (curvature)/reflection
o With no change in properties, no refractions, no reflections
One quake produces diff types of vibrations and those pulse of energy arrive at diff times
o Faster vibrations get further ahead of slower ones, so the further you are away, the larger the gap you feel
Types of waves
o P waves (primary, compressional, push-pull)
Change in volume of material
Particles move parallel to direction the wave travels
Wave spreads in all directions (spherical spreading)
Crustal velocity about 6 km/s

S waves (shear, secondary, shake)

Change in shape of material
Particles move perpendicular to direction wave travels
Spherical spreading
Crustal velocity about 3.5 km/s
o Surface waves
Interface waves travelling along surface
Wave size decreases away from surface
Generated by body waves (P/S waves) deforming the surface
Not spherical spreading
E.g. love waves (lateral motion), Rayleigh waves (elliptical, rolling motion)
Velocity about 2 km/s
Any deformation (earthquake, explosion) produces both P/S waves
Speed (m/s) = frequency (cycles/s, Hz) * wavelength (m/cycle)
o In general, velocities increase with depth
o Controlled by material properties
Compressibility solids and liquids
Rigidity liquid/gas cannot be bent, no rigidity, S waves cannot travel in liquids/gases
Density
o P waves have two shadow zones, S waves have one big one around the outer liquid core
o Gradual changes in velocity = same composition, changes in pressure and temp
o Abrupt changes in velocity = change in composition, mineral phase change, addition of some melt
o

1.3 B Motion Within

Geothermal gradient
o Heat increases with depth in the Earth
Determined from surface measurements, lab studies, geochemistry, seismic data
Abrupt changes in temperature correspond with compositional change
o Heat comes from
Radioactive decay
Isotopes are concentrated in crust
Compression
Generated during accretion and iron catastrophe
o How does it cool?
Can only cool from the surface (ocean/atmosphere because rock is a good insulator), thus temp increases
away from the surface
Outer core is gradually solidifying, eventually entire metallic core will be solid
How is heat energy transferred
o Radiation light
Heat away from Earths surface (into air/water)
o Conduction vibration
Inefficient heat transfer within the Earth
o Convection density change & buoyancy
Most efficient heat transfer within ductile (but solid) mantle and fluid core
o Advection external motion
E.g. windchill makes you colder as wind advects heat away
Plate Tectonics and Geomagnetic field driver?
o Heat and density lead to convection

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Operates by warm low density material buoyantly rising and cool high density material sinking source of
plate tectonics/geomagnetism
Convection physical motion of material by thermally induced change in density
o Heat, thermal expansion, buoyant rise
o Cool, thermal contraction, sinks
Mantle convection heating at the base (metallic core is isolated from mantle, connected by conduction across compositional
boundary)
o Heating makes rock less dense, so it rises
o Cooling at surface makes rock more dense so it sinks
Convection dominates as it is most efficient
Conduction important at core-mantle boundary/top of crust
Radiation at top of crust
Advection plays a role in certain situations

2.1 A Electromagnetism

Magnetism forces between moving electric charges

o Electricity + magnetism are linked = electromagnetism
Electric current (moving charge) generates a magnetic field
Moving a conductor through a magnetic field generates a current
Forces are generated at the atomic level
o Electrons move around atomic nuclei
o All atoms exhibit magnetic properties
o Currents are due to moving unpaired (unbalanced) electrons producing a magnetic field
Fields are generated at the atomic level
o Field describes behaviour of forces that are applied to moving, charged particle
o All atoms generate magnetic fields
Geomagnetism Earths field
o Dominant component is a dipole field (i.e. two poles) 90% of field explained by this
Fields can be described by strength/intensity, direction
Dipole currently tilted relative to rotational axis
o Strength/intensity
60 microtesla at magnetic poles, 50 microtesla at UBC, 30 microtesla at equator
o Direction
Declination horizontal component
Angle between magnetic north and geographic north
Compass points to magnetic north
Dip vertical component
Angle between magnetic field and horizontal
Below equator, magnetic lines point upward
Above equator, magnetic lines point downward
Field changes constantly
o Short time scale
Interactions with solar wind
Magnetosphere shields Earth by trapping incoming charged particles
Aurora borealis/australis
o Occur when energetically charged particles (mostly electrons) accelerate along magnetic
field lines in upper atmosphere, collide with gas molecules, give off light
o Energized particles result from interaction of solar wind

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Colours depend on molecules being excited, elevation

E.g. green oxygen (120-180 km), blue nitrogen (below 120 km)
Magnetic storms (affects power grids, cell phones)
Diurnal (daily) variations
1% variations, due to solar heating and convection, predictable
Lightning very rapid, local effects
Human influence power lines, local effects
External effects distort geomagnetic field
Historical time scale
Secular variation magnetic poles wobble around the rotational axis
North and south poles move 10km/year
Averages to geocentric axial dipole linked to rotation
Geological time scale paleomagnetism
Magnetic field reversals i.e. north becomes south magnetic pole
Occur frequently and quickly
Reversed just as common as normal
Suggests 2 stable orientations of the field normal/reversed 98%, 2% transitional
o

2.1 B Generation of Earths Magnetic Field (Dynamo Theory)

Magnetic field cannot be generated by magnetized minerals

o Interior is too hot
o Outer, cool , crustal layer does not produce a strong enough field
o Static source cannot account for field reversals/secular variation must be dynamic
Requirements
o Create dipole field by flowing current
o Dynamic source can change with time
o Self-sustaining over geological time
Electromagnetic dynamo
o Mechanical energy changes into electrical energy through the dynamo
Current flowing creates a magnetic field
o Coupled dynamo system with several dynamos linked by current, magnetic fields
Dynamo
o Need conductor e.g. iron
o Not enough to make magnetic field...need additional motion
o Convection in outer core (fluid, 6000C), allows current to produce magnetic field
Field reversals
o Fluid iron in outer core so fluid that very small changes in motion can have significant effects in how field changes
o Motion earth rotation, convection in outer core
Source of heat?
Conduction of heat
o Heat from below (conduction from inner core)
o Cool from above (conduction to base of mantle)
Mantle then convects heat away to surface
Solidification of core releases heat as Earth cools
Some radioactive decay
o Convection + liquid metal core = always changing magnetic field
Sometimes organized, and field strengthens
Sometimes disorganized, and field weakens

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Sometimes chaotic, dipole breaks down

But: Earths rotation dominates flow patterns, forces two stable patterns
49% normal, 49% opposite, 2% messed up

2.1 C Paleomagnetism

Measure residual magnetic field trapped in rocks

o Orientation, direction, strength
Measure age of rock (radioisotope dating)
Magnetic time scale how field has changed through time, another method to date ancient events
Discoveries
o Reversal/seafloor spreading
Key evidence to prove plate tectonics
Symmetric + parallel reversals across oceanic ridgecrests
Signature of spreading frozen into oceanic crust
o Apparent polar wander plates are moving, not the poles
Paleopole crustal remanent magnetism indicates location of magnetic pole at time rocks cooled (rocks trap
magnetic field at the time they cooled past Curie temp)
As age increases, paleopoles rotational pole, why?
If rocks move, then it appears that the pole has moved
The plates wander, not the magnetic/rotational poles
o If you reconstruct plate positions from apparent polar wander curves, theyll match
Remanent Magnetization
o Some rocks permanently magnetized
o Strength of frozen/fossil field depends on atomic properties
Ferromagnetic (iron) atoms/minerals yield strongest fields
o Thermoremanent Magnetization
Ambient field frozen in once mineral cools past Curie temperature (minerals critical magnetic temp), only
resets if heated above Curie temp
E.g. cooling basalt with iron content
o Molten state is too hot to align to Earths field (random orientation of ferromagnetic mineral
fields)
o Cools , below Curie temp = becomes magnetized, takes on prevailing polarity (N/S
directionality of Earths magnetic field, measured by either as normal or reversed), field
frozen in
Continents: lava flows episodic lava flows form layered sequence
Oceanic crust: near-continuous creation of new oceanic crust at mid-ocean ridges
o Depositional Remanent Magnetization (quiet deposition)
Magnetized grains settle in Earths magnetic field
If water is still/quiet, grains slightly aligned, e.g. clay particles with ferromagnetic minerals
o Incorporated into sedimentary rock
Weak remanent field
Sediment layers deposited with weak orientation to field experienced during deposition
Near-continuous sediment deposition
High sedimentation rates = detailed magnetic record
Tectonics on Mars?
o No dipole magnetic field
o Magnetized rocks used to have dynamo generating field
Secular variation vs Apparent polar wander

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Secular
Real, historically measurable motion of magnetic poles
Wobble of dipole field about rotational axis, averages out to rotational axis
N/S poles move 10 km/year
Caused by changes in convection patterns in outer core
Magnetic field intensity also changes
Apparent polar wander
Paleomagnetic data can be interpreted that field is not dipole, but it is actually plates that are moving

2.2 A Plate Tectonics

Fundamental processes that controls how our planet looks and functions
o E.g. plate collisions create mountain ranges, volcanoes, earthquakes
o Convection in mantle that drives plate motion cools Earth interior, changes ocean/atmosphere chemistry, powers
whole ecosystems
Continental drift slow, lateral movement of continents across surface of Earth, once joined together in supercontinent called
Pangaea (250-300M years ago)
o Pangaea evidence: glaciations, climatic belts different than todays, fossil linkages b/w continents, connecting crustal
ages and tectonic signatures
Lithosphere divided into plates thin, rigid, cool
o Plates float on viscous atmosphere
o Plates in motion relative to one another
o Lithosphere constantly being created, destroyed, modified (recycling)
What drives the plates
o Convection dominates transfer of heat from interior of Earth
Moves heat conducted from the core efficiently through the mantle
o Earth is gradually cooling, fluid outer core gradually solidifying, convection motion gradually slowing...but still major
convection occurring in outer core/within mantle
o Lithosphere forms from rising magma, cools as it spreads, cooled lithosphere sinks
Primary forces driving plates
o Basal drag friction between rigid lithosphere and more ductile asthenosphere drags plate along
o Slab pull cold descending plate is denser than hot mantle, gravity pulls dense plate down
o Ridge push heating at rift raises ridge crest, gravity pulls plate down from high ridge
How does heat escape through the crust?
o Conduction
o Convection magma (volcanoes), water (hydrothermal circulation)

2.2 B Plate Tectonics

Plate margins/boundaries
o Divergent
Lithosphere created, 2 plates spread
Rift/ridge = spreading centre (most are located in ocean basins)
Rising molten rock is hot, low density, rock expands...
Rock cools and contracts away from the ridge
Crust pulled down as lithosphere cools and thickens
Continental crust rifting is possible
E.g. East African rift
o Convergent
Oceanic-continental convergence

14

Subduction
o Oceanic plate subducts because buoyancy wins
Continental 2700kg/m3, oceanic 3000 kg/m3
Oceanic lithosphere recycled/reincorporated into the mantle
Continental lithosphere
o Modified by deformation, intrusion, metamorphism
o Enlarged by magmatism, accretion
Oceanic-oceanic collision
Older oceanic lithosphere cooler (has had a longer time to cool)
o Denser, less buoyant
o Older sinks beneath younger
Continental-continental collision
No subduction both plates thick (and felsic) and low density, cannot subduct into denser mantle
Plates eventually fuse
o Major deformation and metamorphism
o Crustal and lithospheric thickening
o E.g. uplift of Himalayas/Tibetan Plateau
Accretion addition of continental crust through collision
Accreted terranes continental crust that is distinguishable from neighboring regions by age,
composition, geologic history
o Transform plate boundary
Adjacent plates grind past each other, strike-slip fault motion
Wilson cycle
o Rifting within continent splits continent
o Leads to opening of new ocean basin and creation of new oceanic crust
o Seafloor spreading continues and ocean opens, passive margin cooling occurs and sediment accumulates
o Convergence begins, oceanic crust subducted beneath continent creating volcanic mountain belt at active margin
o Terrane accretion from sedimentary accretionary wedge/fragments carried by subducting plate welds material to
continent
o Continents collide, orogeny (mountain building by tectonic forces, through folding/faulting of rock layers) thickens
crust and builds mountains
o Continent erodes, thinning the crust, process begins again

2.2 C How fast do plates move

All plates are in relative motion

Typical 3-4 cm/year
o Pangaea breakup 6000km of oceanic crust consumed
Can be tracked directly using GPS
Rates of plate motion and topography
o Separation rate = rate of new crust creation
o Spreading rate affects topography
Fast spreading ridges = broad and smooth
E.g. East Pacific Rise
Slow spreading ridges = narrow and rough
E.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Effects? Climate change: ocean currents, glaciation, volcanism, etc.
Supercontinent cycle plate motions gradually assemble, then rift apart

15

2.2 D Earth Topography and Plate Tectonics

Continental margin is not necessarily a plate boundary

o Plates can include both oceanic/continental lithosphere
Active margin = plate boundary (margin where tectonic forces actively deform crust), passive = not a plate boundary
(continental margin far from plate boundary, attached to oceanic crust as part of same plate)
nd
2 order topographic features (i.e. mid-ocean ridges, mountain belts on continents, trenches) are at the plate boundaries
Higher continental topography are supported buoyantly by having a thick, low density root of continental crust
o Called isostasy state of gravitational equilibrium
Density differences eventually result in buoyancy balance being reached
o Alternative is dynamic support where a hot asthenosphere below provides buoyant lift
o Isostasy responsible for how intrusive rock that formed deeper in crust can now be exposed at surface (e.g. Chief)
Plutons/Batholiths very large intrusions
Often solidify 10-12km deep
Chief solidified 10km deep (94 million years ago) how did it get to surface?
Isostatic compensation density balance
o Balance is reached by densities
o As erosion removes crust, continental crust thins, buoyancy lifts crust to keep it in isostatically stable state
Topography closely correlated to crustal thickness

2.2 E Heat flow, hydrothermal circulation and life

Hydrothermal circulation convective flow of water

o Cool water percolates down, hot water rises
o Continental crust
Heat source igneous intrusions/increasing heat with depth
Path pre-existing fractures/cracks
Result hot water dissolves/carry minerals, rising fluids cool, minerals precipitate out, cracks eventually fill
shut
Importance resources (concentrates ores, e.g. gold, silver, zinc, copper)
Geothermal power
Geothermal energy
o Hot water used to heat houses
o Steam used to drive turbines
Electricity
Marine hydrothermal circulation hydrothermal vents
o Cold ocean water down fractures to 1-2km, hot water returns at up to 400C
Fractures are formed as cooling crust is under tension
Marine hydrothermal vent biology ecosystem based on bacteria
o Chemosynthesis
Dont need the sun
Bacteria use toxic H2S to power growth
Water + CO2 + H2S + O2 organics + sulphates
Microbial biosphere of heat + sulphur loving bacteria lives within the rocks under the seafloor
o Bacteria consume volcanic gas/fluids
Earths dynamic structure and composition
o Earths crust + mantle in constant motion due to convection of ductile mantle rock
o Drives plate tectonics, results in melting + volcanism (more convection) and hydrothermal circulation (convection of
water)

16

o
o

Convection of metal within liquid outer core generates magnetic field

Heat + gravity convection

2.3 A Earthquakes and Seismology

Physical properties of rock

o States solid/liquid/gas
o Rheology fluid/ductile/elastic/brittle
Apply a force (stress)
Causes deformation (strain)
Release force = elastic rebound (store and release elastic energy)
If deformation results in brittle failure, rock breaks and energy is elastically released/elastic rebound after cool,
brittle rocks break = earthquake
If deformation entirely plastic/ductile, rock flows and there is no earthquake
All earthquakes generate P/S/surface waves not aftershocks but pulse of energy arriving at diff times
Earthquake = vibrations/waves travelling through Earth
Not random dist, all eq fall on plate boundaries
Intensity and magnitude
o Mercalli Index perceived intensity/observed damage, how it feels (human perception)
Descriptive, not quantitative
Scale from I (not felt) to XII (damage nearly total, objects thrown in air)
E.g. <IV felt by some, V felt by all, no damage, VI shaking frightening to most, damage rare, etc.
o Local (Richter), body, surface magnitudes
Practical/useful for smaller earthquakes
Richter
Based on maximum ground motion i.e. surface waves
Logarithmic scale
Limitations:
o Designed for close earthquakes (600km range)
o Designed for specific older seismograph design
o Designed for California geology
o Need to change for earthquake source directivity, ground conditions, local crustal structure
Body wave (Mb) + surface wave magnitudes (Ms)
Dominant frequency as well as ground motion
Problem: larger the earthquake, more energy it generates at low freq
o Mb/Ms use higher freq seismic energy, underestimate magnitudes for large earthquakes
o Mb invalid for Mb > 6.5
o Ms invalid for Ms > 8.4
o Seismic Moment (moment magnitude, Mw)
Most accurate/meaningful description of rupture
Valid for large earthquakes
Seismic moment based on:
Area of fault that slipped
Distance fault slipped
Rigidity/stiffness of rock (shear strength)
Determined from low freq data, valid for large earthquakes
o Summary:
Diff methods to calculate M, always Richter is not correct
Most methods useful for smaller eq, lose accuracy when large eq being studied

17

Mw works for all scales, difficult + time-consuming to calculate

Local/Mb first magnitude calculated, thus large eq magnitudes usually underestimated

Fault types
o Thrust push together until things break, compression
o Normal pull apart until things break, extension, tensional
o Strike-slip push two parts of rock formation in opposite directions, shear rock until it breaks, regional shear
Depth
o Crustal
o Lithospheric mantle
o Deep (below lithosphere, only in subduction zones)
Earthquakes and plate tectonics
o Divergent boundary
Depth shallow focus, within cool/brittle crust, close to spreading centre
Normal fault (tensional) pull-apart produces the rift
Long, narrow trough formed when block of rock drops downward relative to its two flanking blocks
Intensity low (<6.5)
Hot zone with very thin lithosphere so quakes cant occur very deep
o Transform fault boundary
Oceanic eq (majority)
Depth shallow to intermediate (<100km)
Distribution close to fault plane
Intensity low to intermediate (up to M7)
Continental eq
Depth shallow to intermediate (<100km)
Distribution broader
Intensity low to high (M8)
Fault mechanism (strike-slip)
Plates slide past one another
o Convergent boundary (oceanic-oceanic, oceanic-continental)
3 zones of subduction eq
Crust of overriding plate/on interface between descending slab and overriding lithosphere (thrust)
Interface between plates/within overriding lithosphere (thrust between two plates)
Within downgoing oceanic plate
o Due to bending (compression and tension)
o Phase change of minerals
Shock collapse to denser/crystalline structure
Dehydration (losing water from rock structure as heat increase with depth)
Earthquake foci defines subducting plate
Fault mechanism (thrust faulting)
Consistent with compression
Intensity low to extreme (largest quakes are all subduction eq, e.g. M9.5 Chile)
o Convergent boundary (continental-continental)
Depth and location
Crust and into lithospheric mantle focal depths (100km)
No subduction, so quakes only in lithosphere
Fault mechanism thrust, consistent with compression
Intensity low to very high (up to mid M8)
o Intraplate (within)

18

Uncommon due to gradual accumulation of strain within the plate

Occurs in weak zones (e.g. failed mid-continent rifts, where there was major faulting, even if it was 100s of
millions of years ago)
Can be continental/oceanic
Depth in lithosphere, generally crustal (colder, more brittle)
Mechanism variable depends on direction of stress applied, typically strike-slip/thrust
Magnitude up to M7/M8, extremely rare; mostly <M6

2.3 B Earthquake Hazard in Vancouver

Relative plate motion Juan de Fuca plate and NA plate converging at 5cm/year
Cascadia subduction zone
o Quakes only in overriding plate and within downgoing plate, not on interface
o None on interface because (possible explanations):
Subduction and convergence have stopped low hazard
Lubricated or smooth subduction
Smooth, stable sliding punctuated by occasional small quake
Large amount of strain do not build
Low hazard
Locked subduction
Very large amount of strain building
Cyclical
High hazard
o Evidence for locked subduction zone:
Convergence/compression
GPS shows JDF and NA converge 40mm/y, Victoria and Penticton moving 5 mm/y closer
Uplift due to compression
Gradual uplift and compression prior to release
Then release of accumulated elastic stress: rapid subsidence and extension
Tofino rising 6mm/y
Tsunami sand layers
Thrust eqs generate tsunamis
Sediments reveal cyclical pattern of tsunami sand layers
Downdrop of coast allows wave to bring in sand that covers old surface
o E.g. former marsh surface, layered with sand layer from waves, new marsh starts building on
top of sand
Turbidite deposits
Large eqs trigger landslides both above ground/beneath ocean
Turbidites underwater landslides that flow down continental slope to deep seafloor
Ghost forests
Stands of cedar killed by salt-water inundation after last sudden drop in coastal elevation
Initially a forest, gradual uplift earthquake rapid subsidence/drop in elevation salt water
flows into forest rebound uplift
First Nations oral history
Earthquake in night followed by flooding, village destroyed
Canoes destroyed by falling out of trees
Japanese tsunami records
Wave modelling done to predict which locations in Japan would be damaged by Cascadia tsunami
5 of those sites recorded large tsunami on same day in 1700

19

Where is it locked?
Locked from central Vancouver Island to northern California
Could release all at once/in segments
Mw = 9+ if full release, Mw = 8+ if segmented
Controlling factors heat
Young hot slab
o 150C fault becomes seismogenic, clays dehydrate, form stronger minerals
o 350C transition to stable-sliding begins
Locked zone transition zone free slip
Evidence for subduction zone earthquake
Locked subduction zone
Periodic release huge earthquakes
Irregular cycle (300-900 year intervals)
Silent slip

2.3 C Tsunamis

Release of strain (elastic rebound) generates eq waves and raises/drops seafloor creating a tsunami
Tsunami (harbour wave) waves generated by displacing the full water column
o Low long waves in deep water
o Tall short waves in shallow water
o Caused by subduction eq
Must be very large eq generated by fault rupture/rebound of locked plates
E.g. ocean seafloor fault, water column pushed up
Shallow enough they rupture the seafloor
Can also be caused by landslides, impacts, volcanic eruption, etc.
o Prediction systems are very good now, problems: too close to rupture so too little time to warn public
Large earthquake, move to higher ground
Water recedes unusually, move to higher ground
o Wave speed = (g*water depth)^(1/2)
Deep water
Amplitude = <10m
Wavelength = 100km
Speed = 200m/s
Deep ocean
Small amplitude, fast velocity
Shallow water
Increasing drag, wave slows, amplitude grows
o Much of damage is caused by debris carried by the water
o 2 scenarios
Broad continental shelf
Wave begins growing far offshore
Energy dissipated gradually, wave impact not as devastating
Narrow shelf
Wave grows rapidly as it nears land
Rarely a large wave, but strong surge
Shoreline orientation and features influence wave focusing/scattering
Secondary tsunami generated by an earthquake-triggered landslide
Tsunami prediction

20

o Real-time systems in place in Pacific basin

o Linked to global earthquake monitoring system
o High risk areas warned
Sumatra vs. Cascadia
o Subduction thrust is about same size = eq/resulting tsunami can be roughly same size
o Locked from central Vancouver to northern California (1000km long rupture zone, similar to Sumatra)
o Elastic deformation
Sumatra dropped 2m, rebounded 3m west
Tofino (prediction) drop 1.8m, rebound 1.6m west
o Tsunami
Tsunami sand deposits in both regions
o Submarine landslides turbidite flows
Sumatra sonar survey detected major slumps and flows
Cascadia record of 13 major episodes in 7700y
o Earthquake
Sumatra M9.3, 1200km long rupture
Cascadia M8/9+, 1000km long rupture, could release in segments
Last release = January 26, 1700, 9PM PST
Cascadia tsunami modelling
o Outer coast high risk
Not much warning time other than feeling earthquake
o Victoria, Southern Gulf Islands risk
Not as bad as outer coast
o Vancouver low risk
Relatively minor surge north of Point Roberts

2.4 A Magmatism and Volcanoes

Volcanism key process in development/ongoing evolution of our planet

o 2/3 of crust is igneous (oceanic), continental crustal rock is predominantly igneous
o Magma source and path magma chemistry volcano structure hazard
o Occurs mostly at plate boundaries (Ring of Fire)
Boundary type controls location, composition
o Intraplate volcanism can be extremely important
o Magma
Molten rock + volatiles (gases and dissolved gases)/or molten rock + solid rock
Controlled by pressure and temperature
Melt fraction increase with temp increase/pressure decrease/increase in water content/composition
becomes more felsic
Partial melt differentiation, only fraction of minerals melt
o Different minerals melt at diff temp and pressures
o Partial melt has diff chemistry/composition than source rock
E.g. chocolate chip cookiechips melt first
o Magma from asthenosphere rises through lithosphere to form magma chamber, lava erupts from chamber through
central and side vents, lava accumulates on surface to form volcano, gases injected into atmosphere
o Divergent plate boundaries
Generation of magma at spreading centres
Source asthenosphere
Solid, but 1-10% partial melt

21

Partial melt from upper mantle (primary diff of upper mantle rock)
Upwelling (convection)
o Rises slowly
o Pressure decreases, lower temperature required to melt
o Melt fraction increases, especially when close to surface
Magma composition
Low temperature melt component of mantle:
o Mafic rock
o Gabbro (intrusive)/basalt (extrusive)
Low silicon content, about 50%
Melt temp at Earths surface 1200C (high)
Very fluid lavas (low viscosity)
Gases escape easily
Low volatile content
Eruption
Magma chamber forms 1km below ridge
Mush zone (1-3% melt, small fluid lens at top)
Sides solidify and grow laterally (intrusive)
Underwater eruptions
o Surface = typically linear
Rapid cooling at the surface: contact with ocean water (pillow lava)
Accelerated cooling at depth hydrothermal circulation
Fluid lava, non-explosive, gentle slopes
o Convergent plate boundaries
Diverse structure/chemistry
Form primarily in arcuate chains that parallel subduction trench
Generation of magma and magma chemistry
Initial source partial melt from upper crust of subducting lithospheric plate and partial melt from
mantle above
o Partial melting as temp rises 100km depth
Assisted by water-saturated oceanic crust
Sediments (more felsic) carried down on/in the slab
o Low temp melt component buoyantly rises
Secondary source melted overlying lithosphere
o Additional differentiation occurs by melting/mixing with overlying crust
Magma chemistry
Initial source subducting lithospheric plate
Secondary source melted continental/island arc lithosphere
o Ridgecrest 50% SiO2 (mafic), 1200C
o Subduction
Island arc lavas 60% SiO2 (intermediate), 1000C mostly basaltic
Continental arc lavas 70-75% SiO2 (felsic), 800C give rise to andesitic lava
As SiO2 content increases, lavas become cooler, more viscous
Melting enhanced by dehydrating of subducting sediments and crust
o Crust highly fractured at ridgecrest
o Hydrothermal circulation fills a lot of the cracks, but locks in great deal of water in minerals that were precipitated into
the cracks
o With added heat/pressure, some of water is released, enhancing melting of rocks above

22

Subducting plate does not melt away, only small fraction of crust melts
Plate dominated by lower, mantle portion
Crustal portion very similar to mantle rock
Plate sinks into mantle, heats up, becomes indistinguishable from mantle rock, so subducting plates can be
imaged all the way down to the bottom of the mantle
o Melting only occurs at shallow depths/water-rich, low temp melting component of oceanic crust
Much of melt rising through lithosphere above is melt generated by water triggering melting in mantle rock
above
Magma conduit system
Dikes primary transport route
o Sheet-like intrusion, cut across existing structures, near-vertical
Sills sheet-like intrusion
o Follow existing layer/structure, near-horizontal
Magma chambers holding tanks, important zone of magmatic differentiation
Plutons/batholiths large to enormous magma chambers
Eruption
Central eruptions
o Conical mound fed by central vent/pipe (crater)
Constructed by numerous, successive extrusive flows/ash
Steeper: 10-40 degrees (felsic, cooler, viscous lavas)
o Vent fed from 1+ magma chambers in crust below
2-3km below summit
Further magmatic diff occurs in magma chamber
o Structural styles:
Enormous variety due to magma chemistry, erosional style
Steeper cones (viscous lava)
Extrusive layers of ash and lava (brittle, unstable material)
o Cyclical evolution
Eruption, collapse, resurgence, eruption
Sequence
o Faulting (i.e. landslide blocks)
o Explosive release of pressure (initial explosions)
Vertical eruption column
Intraplate volcanism hot spots
o Occur within plates
Localized, near-continuous source of magma
Point source
Form chain of volcanoes parallel to plate motion
Linear rifts/volcanic arcs form perpendicular to plate motion
o Geostationary location
Plumes or hot spots are roughly stationary relative to deep mantle
Plates move above plume trail of extinct volcanoes
o Magma generation
Initial source plume from the mantle
Instability at core-mantle boundary causes mantle plume to arise
Plume head reaches top of mantle, basaltic magma produced by decompression melting penetrates
lithosphere and erupts as flood basalts
Plate moves over remains of plume, now a hotspot, and forms hotspot volcano
Continued plate movement over hotspot creates chain
o

23

Secondary source melted overlying lithosphere (oceanic or continental)

Partial melting of overlying crustal rocks/mixing with rising magma (even more diff and contamination)
Partial melt from plume rising from lower mantle
Chemistry very similar to ridgecrest magma
Diff: magma is more primordial (less recycled)
Originates in the deep mantle
o Magma chemistry
Ultramafic to mafic rock (e.g. basalt)
Low silicon content (SiO2 50%)
Melt temp at the Earths surface 1200C (high)
Very fluid lavas (low viscosity), gases escape easily
o Eruptions
Central eruptions
Broad, gentle shield volcanoes
o Constructed by numerous successive extrusive flows
o Gentle: 5-10 degrees (mafic, hot, fluid lavas)
Fissure eruptions
Can happen if mafic lava makes it through the crust
Generate extremely large extrusive plateaus
Types of volcanoes
o Shield Flat, layers of thin flows of basaltic lava (e.g. pahoehoe, aa)
Lavas can erupt on flanks of volcano as well as from central vent
o Volcanic dome bulbous, steep-sided mass of rock
Trap gases beneath them, pressure increases until explosion, blasting dome into fragments
Viscous felsic lavas pile up over the vent
o Cinder cone when volcanic vents discharge pyroclasts, solid fragments build up to create this
Vent may become filled with volcanic debris
o Stratovolcano concave-shaped composite volcano
Lava that has solidified in fissures forms radiating dikes that strengthen the cone
o Craters found at summit of volcanic mountains, surrounding central vent
During eruption lava overflows crater walls
After eruption lava sinks back into vent and solidifies, fill with rock fragments until next eruption that
material is blasted out
o Caldera Large, steep-walled, basin-shaped depression
When great volumes of magma are discharged rapidly from large magma chamber, chamber can no longer
support the roof
Formation fresh magma fills magma chamber, triggers eruption
Eruption continues, magma chamber becomes partially depleted
Mountain summit collapses into chamber, forming caldera, with large pyroclastic flows
Lake forms in caldera, as residual magma in chamber cools, minor eruptive activity continues in form
of hot springs/gas emissions

2.4 B Volcanism and Hazard

Lava flows normally avoidable

Tephra fall ash, dust, pebbles, boulders dangerous to aircraft
o Enormous eruption columns require trapped gas to power cloud to high altitudes
Pyroclastic flow hot tephra cloud rises but some material is too dense
o Collapses and flows down volcano slopes

24

o Gases, dust, hot ash, boulders flow in hot avalanche

o 200 km/h, 800C
Lahar/debris flow
o A flow of water + volcanic debris, mud flow
60-90% solid material
Eruption not required
E.g. Mt. Rainier lahar can travel to Tacoma
Mt. Baker far away from major population zones, lower hazards
o Debris flow of unstable volcanic material
Cheakamus River blocked in last major slide in 1855-56, dam breached, flood downstream
Explosions
o Trapped, high pressure gas released
o Requires viscous, cool magma and high gas content
o E.g. Mt. St. Helens, 1980
Faulting
Explosive release of pressure
Tsunami
o Explosion or landslide generated
o E.g. Canary Islands some time in the future?
History of major slumps from volcanic islands
150-500 km3 of rock could go into water, displace water, tsunami would propagate across Atlantic
Gas
o Significant amounts of gas released, i.e. H2O, CO2, SO2, can be toxic
Climate change
o Enormous amounts of ash/gas released
Blocks solar radiation (rapid cooling effect)
Increase greenhouse gases (gradual heating effect)
Hazard mitigation
o Monitoring volcanoes
Seismicity volcanic tremor
Tilt expansion from magma influx
Gas output
o Monitoring lahar/debris flow channels
Seismic/motion sensing systems
Takes several hours to flow from Rainier to Tacoma
o Sensible zoning of population
Safe distance from volcano
50m above lahar channels
Benefits of volcanism
o Ash deposits produce fertile soils
o Geothermal power, hydrothermal circulation
o Ore formation/deposition
o Atmosphere and oceans
Original development of atmosphere/ocean came from volcanoes
Volcanism still important role in atmospheric composition (e.g. CO2)
o Tourism

3.1 A Earth system and climate (change)

25

Planets climate is controlled by complex interconnections between many diff dynamic systems
Early atmosphere
o Dominated by H/He (as in solar nebula)
o Light elements escaped gravity, especially when heated by Sun (more energy)
o Solar wind carries away light elements (H/He)
Secondary atmosphere initial sources
o 70-90% H2O + CO2, SO2, H2S, HCl, N2, NH3
o No O2, little N2
o Planet cooled atmospheric temp decreased saturation condensation rain surface water
Removing CO2
o Formation of carbonate rocks in ocean
H2O + CO2 H2CO3 2H + CO3
CO3 + Ca CaCO3 (solid)
Add water and CO2, trap C in rocks
o Weathering (erosion) of silicate rocks on continents
Silicate mineral + H2O + CO2 clay mineral, HCO3 + byproducts
Erode rocks, add water, bind CO2 permanently
o Both processes remove CO2
Increasing N2
o UV light comes in NH3 H escapes to space, N +N = N2
o Photodissociation of ammonia
o H2O lowered, CO2 lowered, N2 increased
Increasing O2
o Generated by living organisms
o Photosynthesis: 6CO2 + 6H2O + nutrients C6H12O6 (carbohydrates) + 6O2
O2 is a waste product, arrow is sunlight
o Evidence
Oxygen increased rapidly about 2.5 Ga because surface rocks formed at that time have chemistry required
free oxygen to be present during formation
Oxidized iron (rust)
Banded iron formations = oxygen was available for iron to be able to rust and undergo other
reactions
Quite rapid change in geological record from no O2 to quite a bit of O2
o Timeline
Pre-2 Ga gradual climb in O2 due to cyanobacteria
2 Ga O2 in atmosphere = 1%
1.2 Ga appearance of photosynthetic algae (complex cells, with nucleus), another major boost in
atmospheric O2
0.6 Ga atmospheric O2 levels at 10% of present
0.3 Ga O2 in atmosphere at present values
Production of ozone (O3)
o Addition of substantial O2 resulted in production of O3
o O3 absorbs UV radiation to warm atmosphere, provide protection for life
Linked to development of life on land
o Balance between O2, O3, O
Sun breaks down O2 to give 2 O atoms (slow)
O2 O + O
UV radiation breaks down O3 to give 3 O atoms (fast)
Rapidly react to form O2/O3 again

26

O2 + O O3
This interconversion process converts UV radiation into thermal energy, heating
stratosphere
Other chemicals can stop ozone from forming (slow)
o Ozone hole
Montreal Protocol 1989 extremely successful due to intl agreement and cooperation
Loss of ozone is problem increased skin cancer, etc.
Summary of Earths atmospheric evolution (diagram)
o Earth traps gases for protoplanetary disk
o Sunlight causes H/He to escape
o Volcanic gases accumulate, create secondary atmosphere, oceans form
o 3.5 Ga origin of life, photochemical synthesis
o 2.2 Ga origin of cyanobacteria, O2 at 0.1% of atmosphere
o 1.6 Ga origin of green algae, O2 at 10%
o 0.8 Ga origin of multicellular life, O2 at 20%
o 0.3 Ga present values
Summary of Earths atmospheric evolution
o Early active volcanism/impacts generate atmosphere rich in water, CO2, NH3
o Atmosphere evolves CO2 decreased, N2 increased
Plate tectonics create large-scale erosion, weathering removes CO2
Oceans form ocean chemistry absorbs CO2 and forms CaCO3 rocks
UV radiation breaks down NH3 to create N2
o Life alters atmosphere CO2 decreased, O2 increased, O3 created
Photosynthesis to remove CO2 and add O2
O3 produced by UV light breaking O2 apart, additional protection for life
Atmospheric compositions of other planets
o Landing probes e.g. Venus, Mars, Jupiter
o Spectrometry remote sensing
Light reflected/refracted through planets atmosphere bears signature of molecules in it
o
o

Overall summary
processes/conditinos
o Accretion/erosion of volatiles through impacts
o Solar wind (add/remove material)
o Solar radiation (heat + change atmospheric chemistry)
o Escape into space (especially H/He)
o Distance from Sun and solar radiance
o Surface temps/greenhouse effect
o Volcanic/tectonic/erosion processes
o Orbital variations
o Earth:
Chemical + biological processes
CO2 dissolved in oceans, CaCO3 formation
Photosynthesis of organisms
Carbon removal by growing organisms
Other external forcings, e.g. humans

important

27

3.1 B Forcings and Feedbacks

Climate system
o Includes atmosphere, oceans, ice, land surface, plants
o Driven by four primary factors
Sun
Orbital variations of Earth
Tectonic/magmatic processes (volcanism, erosion, subduction of material)
Humans
th
Impacts could be a 5
o Studying system can help us understand future climate change, forcing factors, how rest of system responds (complex
interactions/feedbacks)
Solar variation
o Sun primary energy source for climate system
o Energy output gradually increases as Sun matures
Orbital variations
o Rotation/orbit around Sun are not perfect
If Earths axis had no tilt, orbit would not be a forcing effect on climate
o Milankovitch deduced three subtle, radual variations have significant influence
Orbit gradually becomes slightly more/less elliptical
Tilt swings back and forth between 22.2 and 24.5 degrees
Earth not only rotates, but has slight wobble
o E.g. orbital variations cause cool, northern hemisphere summers, resulting in less snow/ice melting
o Changes in influence of orbital variations and in which periods are dominant are due to changes in the arrangement of
continents and other climate/tectonic interactions
o Very subtle changes in orbital variation have very large, long-term effects
Tectonic/magmatic processes
o Plate arraignments influenced ice age development
o Gas emitted by volcanism adds H2O, SO2, CO2
o Ash/aerosols emitted by volcanism block sunlight (SO2)
o Tectonics build mountains that increase erosion (remove CO2)
o Processes generally slow
Anthropogenic (human) factors
o Clearing land/burning of fossil fuels (release CO2 into atmosphere)
o Increasing methane output (cultivating rice/keeping livestock)
o Releasing chloroflurocarbons (greenhouse gas/ozone loss)
o Net effect of human actions has been warming
o Sun is the only other factor that could compete with human effects
But solar output has remained steady since 1970, temp has quickly risen, thus no models can account for
observations w/o human influence being dominant factor
Presently, no support for solar effects accounting for observed warming
Climate system response
o Does not follow forcing factors linearly input increase of 2x does not mean climate will change by 2x
o Positive amplify climate change underway
o Negative suppress climate change underway
E.g. small decrease in heat from the sun climate cooling more snow/ice, increase in albedo (more light
reflected) less solar radiation absorbed at the surface greater cooling
o Diff components of climate system have diff response times

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Fast atmosphere (hours to weeks), land (hours to months), ocean (days to months), vegetation, sea ice
(weeks to years)
Slow mountain glaciers (10-100 years), deep oceans (100-1500 years), ice sheets (100-10000 years)

Heat budget
o Composition of atmosphere controlled by complex interconnections between all of Earths dynamic systems
o Incoming solar energy of solar radiation reaching top of atmosphere, only 46% absorbed by Earths surface
Scattering 8%, reflection 23%, absorption 23%
o Earths energy sources inputs
Solar energy (Qs) energy received at top of atmosphere
Light from sun drives our climate system, mostly in visible wavelengths
Spectral peak at surface of Earth is visible light that is yellow-green
Geothermal energy (Qg) negligible in heat budget
Input = Qs + Qg
o Output
Radiates energy because atoms are vibrating, all bodies radiate energy
Wavelength depends on temperature
o If input = output, global temp is constant, if not, temp rises/falls until new steady state is reached
Energy in = energy out
o Earth temp relatively constant
o Sun bathes Earth in 342 Watts/m2, 30% reflect, so 240 W/m2 input into climate
o Earth must radiate 240 W/m2 otherwise it will warm/cool
Earth absorbs solar energy primarily in UV-Visible-Near Infrared spectrum
Influenced by atmospheric chemistry, amount and type/altitude of clouds
Absorbed by water vapor, dust, ozone
o O2/O3 absorb UV, shield Earth, but they dont absorb as much heat
o CO2, H2O absorb heat (i.e. greenhouse gases)
Absorbed by clouds
Reflected by clouds
o Albedo proportion of energy reflected
0 = perfect absorber, 1 = perfect reflector
E.g. snow 0.5-0.9, clouds 0.05-0.8
Earth reflects some of this energy in the Far-infrared (heat section)
Radiation
Sensible heat transfer (conduction)
Latent heat transfer (evaporation, precipitation)
Greenhouse effect
o Outgoing longwave radiation absorbed in atmosphere
o Radiation re-emitted, including back to Earths surface
o Warms surface and lower atmosphere
o Generally good thing keeps planet habitable
o Involves feedback between atmospheric composition, surface albedo, solar intensity
o Without atmosphere/greenhouse Earths surface temp = -16C
o Gases absorb 95% of longwave radiation emitted from planets surface
Reradiated back down to surface and retained in climate system

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Trapped energy increases Earths

average temp by 31C
Venus 2x solar energy received,
atmosphere reflects almost 50% of
energy,
but very dense CO2 atmosphere
creates
intense greenhouse effect,
increases temp to 460C
Carbon cycle how carbon moves between various
reservoirs
o Major reservoirs
Solid earth (rock, fossil fuels)
Oceans (H2O, CO2)
Biosphere (organic matter)
Atmosphere (CO2, CH4)
o Long-term carbon cycle: tectonics
CO2 rise in magma, volcanoes release it
Weathering consumes CO2, products carried into ocean
CO2 released at mid-ocean ridges
Metamorphism of older sedimentary rocks liberates CO2
CO2 slowly carried to mid-ocean ridge by flow within asthenosphere
Partial melting of subducted materials liberates CO2
o Summary: volcanic outgassing increases CO2, mountain building increases erosion and decreases CO2, subduction of
organic C decreases CO2, methane hydrates increase CO2
o Tectonics
Volcanism (subduction, plumes)
Faster plate motion/large hotspots, more volcanism, more CO2 (rapid)
Continental arrangement (gradual)
Ocean currents (influence climate, heat distribution)
Glaciations (influence albedo, erosion, sea level)
Erosion (increased erosion absorbs CO2)
Uplift of mountain ranges (gradual)
Regional-global weather pattern changes
High mountains = increased erosion
Tectonic control of CO2 uplift + erosion
o Erosion
CaSiO3 (silicate) + H2CO3 (carbonic acid) [formed from H2O (rain) + CO2 (atmosphere)] CaCO3 + SiO2 +
H2O
Atmospheric CO2 decreases, leads to cooler global temp
o Uplift
Continental continental collision uplift
Causes steep slopes, mass wasting, mountain glaciers, slope precipitationincreased rock fragmentation
increased erosion/weathering, CO2 removal global cooling
Negative feedback
Initial change to warmer climate increased temp, precipitation, vegetation increased chemical
weathering increased CO2 removal by weathering reduction of initial warming
Initial change to cooler climate decreased temp, precipitation, vegetation decreased chemical
weathering decreased CO2 removal by weathering reduction of initial cooling
Tectonics influence

30

Faster plate motions (increased volcanism) CO2 input warmer greenhouse climate increased temp, rain,
vegetation increased chemical weathering increased CO2 removal reduced warming
Oceans most of exchange occurs b/w atmosphere and upper ocean water
o Deep ocean is enormous sink of dissolved CO2, responds much more slowly
o Ocean circulation + biota aid transfer of carbon from upper to deep ocean
Human actions in carbon cycle are quite small relative to other transfer of carbon
o But system is sensitive, small change can result in large swing to a new stable state
o Earth appears to have several diff stable states changes occur until new tipping point is reached
o

3.1 C Evidence for climate change

Global warming
o Surface + atmospheric temperatures are increasing
o Snow cover and ice extent have decreased
o Global average sea level has risen as have ocean temps
o Long-term trends in increased precipitation/dryness over last 100 years
o Oceans becoming less saline (fresher) at mid/high latitudes, becoming saltier at low latitudes
o Global climate change has large effects on weather, e.g. extreme weather drought, floods, tornadoes, as well as sea
level change
o Climate history shows abrupt climate change can occur
Evidence for climate change
o Current increase in greenhouse gases extremely unusual when compared with paleoclimate records, correlates closely
with human emissions
o Hockey stick temp change warming happening unusually quickly
o Alpine glaciers strongly receding (92km3 ice lost/year)
Not just retreat but also decrease in thickness and volume
Paleoclimate climate in the past
o Methods to determine:
Present to 1000 years
Direct measurement records, historical/anthropological records, glacier recession, geothermal
measurements
Present to 1,000,000 years
Tree rings, corals, ice cores, lake/ocean sediments, fossil analysis
o Historical data:
Global average temp rapid change in past 140 years
Steadily increasing climb of CO2 concentration
All important greenhouse gases have been increasing
Rising temp increases H2O in atmosphere
Greenhouse gas concentration drives temp based on understanding of energy budget/greenhouse effect
(direct correlation)
Large variations in climate are common
Relatively regular cycle of glacial/interglacial periods (orbit controlled), but the current changes are
extremely unusual, more than a blip
Climate pretty stable for 10,000 years, roughly the time human civilization developed
o 8200 year event period matches archaeological evidence for development of western civilization at mouth of
Euphrates River
Desertification drove people to move to southern Mesopotamia to mouth of Tigris/Euphrates where irrigation
systems could be built
o Methane projections go off course 5000 years ago

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Exploration and settlement terminated by climate change in Medieval Warm period

Vikings expansion to NA terminated
Abandoned fishing/hunting settlements at onset of little ice age that started in 1350

3.1 D Climate Modelling

Solid Earth + atmospheric science + oceanography + biology = all interconnected

Global warming is a fact not a hypothesis
o Is it anthropogenic? very likely to extremely likely (the physics and correlations are convincing)
Modelling climate change
o Atmosphere + ocean interactions
Clouds are particularly difficult (current problem)
Aerosols, sulphates, dust, smoke, soot difficult to model
o Influence of glaciers/ice sheets
o Influence of solid Earth
o Earth system is non-linear
Linear = doubling X results in Y tripling
Non-linear = doubling X results in Y tripling for a while, then increasing exponentially/abruptly jumping
Climate system has several stable states
o Gradual change occurs until tipping point is reached, then rapid changes happen as climate
system changes modes into another stable state
Climate modelling results
o Conclusion temperature increase since 1850 due to human influence (fossil fuel burning and deforestation)
Changes in volcanism/solar radiance should have decreased global temps over that period
Climate sensitivity
o Double atmospheric CO2 global average temp increases 2.7C average
o Climate change = forcing X sensitivity
Uncertainty is due to how clouds will respond
Increasing temp generates more clouds
High clouds allow sunlight to pass through/trap heat (net warming)
Low clouds reflect sunlight and allow heat through (net cooling)
o Stabilizing at 450ppm = 2C temp increase
Stabilization requires reduction in emissions by 85-90% from 2000 levels in develop nations
Must peak before 2020 and reach stability before end of century
Survival of species
o Business as usual (no response)
Global warming 3C reached by 2070, 50% likely extinctions
o 2C target
o Alternative scenario (rapid immediate response)
Global warming 1C, 10% extinctions
Ice sheets and sea level

o Human forcing dwarfs natural forcing and changing much faster
o Ice sheet disintegration starts slowly but multiple positive feedbacks can lead to rapid non-linear collapse
o Stabilizing temp rise at 2C above baseline will eventually result in a new equilibrium sea level rise of 20m
Sea level was only projected to rise 0.7m-1.8m until 2100
Implications
o Warming >1C above current temp risks diff planet
Max CO2 450 ppm
o Quarter of CO2 stays in air forever

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Eventually vehicles must be zero-CO2 (renewable, hydrogen from nuclear)

Eventually power plants must be zero-CO2
Gas + oil use most of 450 ppm limit
Coal/unconventional must sequester CO2
Gas and oil supplies must be stretched

Speed needed to act depends on climate sensitivity
1.5C for 2x CO2 we have lots of time
2.7C for 2x CO2 we have time if we act now
4.5C for 2x CO2 we are in for a lot of trouble
Humans put 7 Gt (billion tonnes) of carbon into atmosphere every year
o Need to get to below 2 Gt/year to keep global temp from increasing beyond 2C
Clouds
o Very important for admitting/reflecting incoming solar radiation, trapping outgoing heat
o More low clouds cool the planet (reflect sunlight and dont trap a lot of outgoing heat)
o More high clouds warm the planet (pass sunlight but trap a lot of outgoing heat)
o Difficult to model b/c they change quickly and are relatively small
Ice sheet stability
o Sea level rise is inevitable
o Rate of change/final height reached very important
Fast changes are much more expensive to deal with
There are mechanisms by which ice streams can rapidly drain ice caps
Humans now control mechanisms for global climate change
o Human forcings dwarf natural forcings
E.g. natural rate of change of CO2 0.0001ppm/y
Human-made rate of change of CO2 2ppm/y
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
o Produces reports that support the UN framework convention on climate change, which is the main treaty on climate
change
Ultimate objective: stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with climate system
o Assess likelihood of anthropogenic climate change, potential effects, possible solutions to problem
o Provides continuing forum for scientists, economists, policy experts to work together to understand these issues
o

3.1 E Sea level change

3 main factors for change

o Melting of ice
o Thermal expansion of water
Warmer water takes up more volume than cool water
As avg ocean temp increases, ocean actually expands
o Floating of grounded polar ice shelves
Melting ice doesnt have effect on sea level, but some ice shelves extending from Greenland/Antarctic are
grounded
If these are floated, they will displace water and cause significant rise in sea level
Links between ice melt and oceans
o Acceleration of melting is happening
o Possibility that rapid ice loss from grounded ice sheets off West Antarctica by erosion by warm water

33

Warmer salty ocean water melts base of glacier, reduces friction, accelerates ice discharge
Sea level predicted to rise b/w 0.7-1.8m over next 100 years, but small changes can have major economic/social consequences
o Change of 0.5m has large consequences, protection for these is costly
Ice stream fast flowing ice (lubricated by melting at the bed), allows for fast loss of ice from ice cap
Surface melting melt descends into a Moulin, a vertical shaft carrying water to ice sheet base
Sea ice melting does not increase sea level
o The ice floats, so it is in a buoyancy balance
o Loss of sea ice and exaggerated warming will likely result in many extinctions due to habitat change
o Loss of permafrost will wreak havoc on structures built in the arctic/methane release
o Gravitational force that pulls floating iceberg downward is counterbalanced by buoyancy force that pushes it upward
Principle of isostasy
o Larger icebergs have deeper roots and rise higher above sea level
o Volume of water displaced upward to create sea level rise is equal to volume of water represented by icebergs
o If iceberg in ocean melts, sea level does not change, if ice on land melts/slides into ocean, sea level rises
Rapid climate change
o Slower the climate change, more easily humans will be able to adapt
Fast changes = greater difficulties
o Changing climate system will remain in one climatic mode of ocean/atmospheric circulation
Once it reaches a certain point, quickly switches into diff mode that is stable for new conditions
Ocean currents: Global heat conveyor belt
o Key point: creation of North Atlantic Deep Water
Dense, salty water cooled
Sinks and drives global flow
Water density drives ocean circulation
Increase temp = lower density
Increase salinity = higher density
Increase pressure = higher density
So very cold, salty water will be extremely dense and will sink
Controls on salinity of surface water
o Evaporation
Hot air causes evaporation, salt left behind leaving surface waters saltier
o Ice formation
Freezing salt water excludes salt
Water ice is fresh, water left is saltier
o Precipitation
Fresh rainwater decreases salinity
o Ice melt/river input
Fresh water input decreases salinity
Deep water formed where dense, salty water is cooled at the surface
o North Atlantic deep water sinks/drives global flow
o Antarctic deep water smaller source, adds to flow
Warm Gulf Stream in Atlantic Ocean carries very warm, salty surface water to the arctic
To shut down generation of North Atlantic deep water just add fresh water
o Melting of Greenland ice cap/arctic sea ice freshens water in North Atlantic
o Cold fresh water will not sink into dense salty water below
Thus, tap is turned off and entire global current system must reorganize into a diff state
Westerly winds blow across warm Gulf Stream surface waters, resulting in warmer temp in northern Europe than at equivalent
latitudes in NA

34

Earths ocean current system may have two or more stable states that it toggles between depending on salinity of northern
ocean

3.2 A Impacts

When asteroids/comets whose orbits cross that of the Earth = risk

Meteors asteroids/ comets entering planets atmosphere
o Streak is the heated, excited atmosphere glowing
Many believed impact craters were volcanic in origin, that the atmosphere completely protected Earth
o Gene Shoemaker (geologist) found this:
Melt called suevite that holds broken, shattered rock together
Impact melt fusing rock fragments (breccia) together
Shocked quartz disturbed crystal structure formed by blasts shock wave
Both cannot be produced by volcanic eruption/explosion
So few impact craters on Earth?
o Atmosphere
Shields against smaller meteor
Erosion of craters
o Ocean covers 71% of surface area (hides impacts)
o Age of rocks plate tectonics
Crater formation
o Huge amount of energy released heat + disruption
Small asteroid 10^21 Joules, as much energy used by Vancouver in 90,500 years
Asteroid vs comets
o Asteroid radius = 10km, density = 4000-7000kg/m3, speed = 10km/s
Large/dense, but slower
o Comet radius = 1km, density = 100kg/m3, speed = 60km/s
Small/low density, move very quickly
o Mass/velocity tradeoff
Crater structure changes with size of impact
o Simple crater
Typically smaller (<4km diameter)
Filled with breccia, melt, melt droplets
Surrounded by ejecta blanket (including melt droplets)
o Complex
Central peak formed by rebound of depressed crater floor
Multiple rings trough/peak rings formed by combination of rebound + slumping of crater floor
Shock waves also generate thrust faults forming rings
Impact hits centre rebounds and forms peak rings around the outside of impacted area form through
rebound/slump
Ocean impacts
o E.g. comet penetrates ocean (5km deep), craters oceanic crust below
Water vaporized and globally distributed, causes tsunami
Historical impacts
o Tunguska, Russia
Air blast of S-type asteroid 60m diameter, exploded 8km up in atmosphere
Air blast not even impacting, exploded 5-10km above Earth
Explosive energy 15 X 10^6 tons of TNT/1000 X Hiroshima

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3.2 B Large-scale, catastrophic impacts

KT Extinction geological division based on abrupt change in fossil record

o 60-75% of all species died, 90% of genera of algae/protozoans died
o Majority of all land plants disappeared
o Nothing >25kg survived
o Length of extinction debated to be 2-3 million years or less than 10000 years
Cause must have been climate/atmosphere related, two likely:
o Volcanism gradual
Deccan Traps, India
10000km3 of basalt, layered flows up to 2500m thick
Effects:
Dust and ash
o Block sunlight, rapid global cooling
o Reduce photosynthesis by plants
Greenhouse gases
o Heat trapped, gradual to rapid warming
Excess sulphur/nitrogen injected
o Acid rain affects livestock, crops, etc.
o Meteorite impact rapid
Similar effects to volcanism but much faster
Evidence:
Iridium anomaly
o 10-100 times more iridium in KT boundary layer than in normal crustal rock
Shocked quartz
o Deformed grains of quartz found at KT boundary
o Banded pattern formed by high-velocity shock wave
Can only be found in nuclear detonations, impact craters
o Largest grains all found in NA
Tektites
o Rock melt droplets blobs of glass produced by impact melting
o Found globally not likely deposited by volcanoes
o Size distribution not globally uniform same distribution as shocked quartz, larger ones
close to NA
o Glass formed by melting of continental rock
Tsunami deposits
o Sand layers impact layer sandy tsunami layer
o Found in Gulf of Mexico
Soot deposits
o Carbon detected globally in KT boundary rocks
o High temp debris ejected major fires
Impact site? Chicxulub
Geophysical imaging/drill cores of crater
Potential field methods:
o Density anomaly 180-240km diameter, complex crater, crater filled with low density
material
Classic ringed structure with central peak
o Remanent magnetic field
Shows contrast in rock type between crater rings/peak and fill rocks

36

Seismic methods:
o Seismic refraction images sediments filling crater
o Seismic reflection images structure of crater with its rings/central peak
o Drilling drill cores also give rock composition
Matches that of tektite glass

Chicxulub
o Meteor size and speed 20km/s in atmosphere, 9-17km diameter
o Impact = M11 eq, vaporized 100km3 of rock
Extinctions catastrophic events do affect planet on global scale
o Catastrophism rapid + unpredictable
o Uniformitarianism gradual + predictable
Lunar impacts
o Before 3.5 Ga, major accretion phase still ongoing, impact rate enormous
o Now 1 cm crater/minute
Prevention/identification of Earth-crossing orbit objects
o Cost of detection low
o Cost of intervention high
o Probability of impact low

4.1 A Venus: Atmosphere and Plate tectonics

Atmosphere almost entirely CO2 (96.5%), rest is N/trace gases (SO2)

o Very little water vapor/no liquid water on surface
o Clouds contain droplets of sulfuric acid/chlorine/fluorine
o Extremely thick, dense atmosphere from CO2, 90 times greater surface pressure than Earth
o Temperature 460C
Why so different from Earth?
o Runaway greenhouse effect
Greenhouse effect thick clouds reflect about 80% of sunlight
Much less sunlight penetrates through to be absorbed by atmosphere/surface
But atmosphere is so thick that greenhouse effect more than makes up for it
Formation
o Similar to Earths formed by volcanic outgassing: H2O, CO2, SO2, H2S, HCl and comet bombardment
But no water anymore
Too hot for liquid water, all of it evaporated
H2O rises into upper atmosphere where sun breaks molecule into O + H
Very light H atoms float to space
O2 incorporated into surface rocks/other gases
Loss of water
o Originally quite comparable to Earth large core/rocky mantle
Early volcanism give out lots of CO2 and water
Plate tectonics should have been in operation
But surface temp hot enough that majority of water did not condense out and form oceans, it remained in
atmosphere
o Diff from Earth no dipole magnetic field (rotation is too slow)
No protection near top of atmosphere from stripping by solar wind/bombardment by charged particles
o Solar wind/UV radiation breaks apart H2O into H and O
Hydrogen escapes
O probably reacted with sulphur compounds released by volcanism (form SO2, H2SO4)

37

 Lost water forever

Carbon sinks on Earth
Erosion combining CO2 with water to bind up CO2, but no water on Venus
Absorption into oceans sequester CO2 into carbonate rock, but no oceans
Plant life using CO2 no life
o If temp hot enough so there wasnt much surface water
No oceans to absorb CO2 and form carbonate rocks
No bacteria/plant life to bind CO2 through photosynthesis
Only factor is plate tectonics
Plate tectonics and climate on Venus
o One of most volcanically active planets in solar system, more volcanoes on surface than any other planet
o Compared to Earth Venus has a very young surface
o No plate tectonics on Venus
No linear topographic features/volcano chains as on Earth
Random distribution of volcanoes all over planet, no clear patterns
Mantle is convecting and was convecting really strong 500Ma, but volcanism is all hotspot/plume (surface is
just one single plate)
Crustal age
o Young, planet estimated to have resurfaced about 500Ma
o Volcanism has seemed to calm down since 500Ma (not very active today)
Plate tectonics and water
o Earth water cycled b/w ocean and atmosphere and crust and mantle
Water pumped out of mantle by volcanoes (released by melting of rock)
Water returns to mantle by being incorporated into rock (e.g. carbonates), returned by subduction
Water being released by subducting plate that triggers volcanisms above subduction zones
Water is carried down/released into mantle
o Venus water permanently lost from atmosphere
Over time, less and less water in mantle rock minerals b/c water is released and not returned
Water is important required for life, triggers melting in subduction arcs (by decreasing melting
temp), plays role in greenhouse
o Also, the more water, the more ductile, the easier the rock flows
o Decrease water in mantle/crustal rocks = mantle convection slows down, lithosphere gets
stiffer (to a limit where lithosphere will no longer break/bend to subduct)
Shift from multi-plate to single-plate system
As you lose water from atmosphere and dont return it to mantle, plate tectonics slows down and stops
Already have atmosphere too hot for liquid water on surface, so no water to absorb CO2 and turn into CaCO3
With no plate tectonics, little compression/mountain building = no erosion on surface
This method of removing CO2 from atmosphere also decreases
Little wind on Venus due to slow planet rotation
No CO2 sink, but CO2 still produced (hotspot volcanism)
Greenhouse effect more CO2, higher temp, lose more water
Positive feedback creates runaway greenhouse situation
o Stagnant lid mantle convection
Hot rising mantle doesnt get to surface
Drips from the bottom of the lithosphere
Cold surface plate doesnt break/subduct thick and intact
o Earth could lose plate tectonics if it moves into stagnant lid mode
Studies suggest 50C avg temp would trigger into stagnant lid
B/c hotter temp at surface stiffen lithosphere, makes it hard to break/bend
o

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Earth always had plate tectonics, Venus should have started with it, Mars may have, Moon/Mercury never had

4.1 B Mars

Plate tectonics
o Not now, maybe early in its history
o No dipole magnetic field
But strong remanent magnetization in crust so Mars did have dipole field at one time (4.5-4 Ga)
Patterns however do not provide strong evidence for ancient plate tectonics
Volcanism
o Long history of massive volcanism, some of the largest volcanoes in the solar system
o Consistent with absence of plate tectonics
Rather than hot spot beneath moving plate forming linear chain, Mars has regions centred over magmatic
plume for very long periods of time
Plume volcanism, not plate tectonics
Mars smaller, cooled quicker than Earth
o Lithosphere thickness unknown, but probably cooler/stiffer than Earths
o Appears to be stagnant lid with heat escaping from ductile, slowly convecting mantle via conduction/hot spot plumes
Olympus Mons largest volcano in solar system
o Rises 24km about surrounding plain
o Formed by hotspot volcanism due to rise of large mantle plumes under stationary lithosphere
Stagnant lid mantle convection
o Hot rising mantle doesnt get to surface
o Drips from the bottom of the lithosphere
o Cold surface plate doesnt break/subduct thick and intact
o Sometimes plume will penetrate lithosphere and form a volcano
Crustal age
o Mars Express Orbiter
Volcanic activity much less active than Venus, stopped several billion years ago, but there is still some
Likely geothermal heat that drives hydrothermal convection/provide liquid water within crust, so life could
exist
Liquid water on Mars?
o Polar icecap largely water ice (mainly frozen CO2 with some H2O)
o Atmospheric pressure too low to permit liquid water to exist
Either water vapour/ice since Mars is frozen desert
o Clear that there have been large amounts of water on surface at times, currently large permafrost deposits below the
surface
o Clear evidence of water erosion, including large floods/river systems
o Recent images show gullies apparently carved by water flowing down walls of pits of craters
Gullies appear geologically young, so possible that liquid water survives below surface
Gully landform created by running water, eroding sharply into soil, resemble large ditches/small
velleys
Craters
o Show range of definition from very sharp to almost invisible
o Interpreted as impacts into softened earth, likely permafrost that wasnt able to support pressure of crater
topography
o Streamlines made by flash floods carrying sand that flowed around older craters in Northern Plains
o Athabasca Valley tear-drop shaped islands in valley looked as though they were carved by river floodwaters
o Sand dunes evidence for atmosphere and for winds

39

Debate as to whether features are magmatic/from wind erosion/from water

o Accepted that some are carved by water
o Evidence of old drainage channels that may have collected water like rivers
o Evidence of common outflow channels
Melting of permafrost results in small/massive flood
o New interpretations of large-scale active glaciers moving beneath rocky cover
El Capitan found visual and geochemical evidence of sedimentary rock that formed in water-rich environment
Life on Mars
o Evidence for life on Earth primarily based on chemical changes in rocks that require an increase in O2 in atmosphere
o Current life needs liquid water
Lots of frozen water in polar ice caps/deposits in craters
Should be more water in crust (but frozen in permafrost)
But increase in heat with depth, so liquid could be deeper in crust
Geothermal heating and volcanism still active
Possible for hydrothermal convection systems, and chemosynthetic life
Loss of atmosphere current theory
o Initially had atmosphere + plate tectonics
Evidence says it was wet/warm planet
Strong magnetic field early in history, planet rotates, large metal core
o Triggers to lose magnetic field
Small planet, cools quicker
Perhaps not enough liquid metal in outer core, not high enough temp so convection in outer core too slow
Shifted to stagnant lid tectonics limits heat loss, decreases temp = little convection in outer core
o Transition to stagnant lid
Shut down magnetic field
Like Venus no plate tectonics = no mountain = no erosion
No subduction = no return of water to mantle
No magnetic field = atmosphere strips away
Diff from Venus
Cooler, has lots of surface water (oceans)
o Water can absorb CO2 and precipitate CaCO3
CO2 come out of atmosphere and return to surface of crust
No runaway greenhouse effect
Mantle convection not as active
o Unlike Venus, no major resurfacing observed on Mars
o Probably because Mars is smaller, cooled more quickly
o Without magnetic field, gradually water/other gases in atmosphere dissociated, stripped away
Slow, gradual process that may have taken 1-2 billion years
o Now, Mars has CO2 rich atmosphere like Venus, but extremely thin
Greenhouse effect warming surface is very weak
Temp with no atmosphere = -63C
Current surface temp = -53C (no liquid water on surface)

4.1 C Europa

One of 4 Galilean moons of Jupiter, only slightly smaller than Earths moon
Reflected light indicates surface is covered by water ice
o Liquid water lies beneath
3.01 gm/cm3 density, 3198km diameter, -173C surface temp

40

o
o
o
o

Density indicates terrestrial planet composition, dominated by silicate rock

Extremely smooth surface = actively resurfaced
Deformation patterns on ice surface = deformation + movement, so soft ice/liquid water below
Heating could result from tidal forces from Jupiter/other moons or normal convection processes (e.g. radioactive decay)
Both generate volcanism/hydrothermal convection
Tidally generated volcanism beneath the ice attributed to deforming the ice

Ice layer too thick for sunlight to penetrate, life in the water needs to be chemosynthetic
Dont need sun, bacteria use toxic H2S to power growth
H2O + CO2 + H2S + O2 CxHxOx (organics) + SO2 (sulphates)
Very thin atmosphere

o
Interior
o Ice (3-10km), liquid ocean under ice (90-100km), rocky interior, metallic core
Life on Europa
o Liquid water, geothermal heat + hydrothermal circulation (chemosynthetic ecosystem) present
o Comparables on Earth
Many subglacial lakes found beneath Antarctic /Greenland icecaps
Lake Vostok Antarctica
o Liquid water under 3710m of ice
o Possible geothermal (heat source)
o Lake isolated for at least 440,000 years
o Appears to be tectonically controlled, perhaps reactivated extension zone
o Microbial life found in accreted lake ice above the water

4.1 D Io

One of 4 Galilean moons of Jupiter

1820km diameter, 3570kg/m3 density
Galileo Probe (1996-97)
o Detected iron core of 896km radius
o Detected local distortion in Jupiters magnetic field, Io generates own
Most volcanically active planet/moon 80 active, plumes rise 75-300km
Thin atmosphere
Surface temp -140C, volcanic centres measure 900-1200C
Volcanoes erupt silicate magmas, with much higher sulphur content (i.e. SO2)
Heating is thought to be generated by enormous tidal forces from Jupiter/moons
o Regular deformation (twisting, stretching) of moon is friction, which results in heating

4.1 E Titan

First of Saturns 34 moons to be discovered

2575km radius, second largest moon (larger than Mercury), 3000kg/m3 density
Unknown if metallic core
Estimated 1700km radius mantle
Thick ice exterior almost equal in thickness to silicate mantle
No magnetic field
Only moon in solar system to have clouds and thick atmosphere
o Composition 92.5% N, 3% methane, ethane, CO2 (hydrocarbon compounds)
Hydrocarbon compounds produced by atmosphere interactions with solar wind and Saturns magnetosphere
o Surface temp -179C

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Methane solid, but ethane would be liquid and could contain dissolved methane
o Methane/ethane clouds, with possible rain
o Atmosphere may resemble Earths before O2 started being produced
ESA Huygens Probe clouds obscured images of surface prior to landing
o When it descended, returned images of drainage systems and possible shorelines
o Images of orange methane/ethane haze + icy boulders
o Landing generated liquid and gaseous methane
o Data may indicate water ice and NH3 volcanism
o Moon with lakes/seas of flammable hydrocarbons resting on bedrock of water ice

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