BIOLOGY FORM 4 NOTES CHAPTER 8 : DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

8.1 THE ABIOTIC AND BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Ecology = the scientific study of the interactions of living organisms with other living organisms
and with physical environment

Producers

autotrophs- green plants

synthesis organic substances / food from nutrients & sunlight

Consumers

heterotrophs
acquire energy & nutrient by feeding on other organisms
primary consumers
secondary consumers
tertiary consumers

Decomposers

microorganisms-bacteria / fungi
break down waste products and dead bodies of other organisms into simple substances

affects the distribution of organisms

pH

Light intensity

affects the distribution and growths of plants and distribution of animals

Humidity

affects the rate of water loss by plants and animals

Temperature

affects the physiological activities of plants and animals

Topography

altitude- the height

gradient- steepness of a slope
aspect- windward / leeward slope

Microclimate

climate in microhabitat
affects the number and distribution of organisms

FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB AND TROPHIC LEVELS

Food chain = a sequences of organisms through which energy is transferred.

starts with a producer and ends with a top consumer.

Grass

Frogs
(secondary

Grasshoppers

Snakes
(producers)
(tertiary

(primary
consumers)

consumers)
3rd

consumers)
1st
4th

2nd
trophic level

level

trophic level

trophic

trophic level

Food web = Different food chains link up to form a food web.

Tropics Level
The tropics level of an organism is its position in a food chain.
When a primary consumer feeds on a producer, only 10% of the original energy in
producer is incorporated into the primary consumer and 90% of it is lost as heat.
Similarly, when a primary consumer is eaten by a secondary consumer, only 10% of the
original energy in producer is incorporated into the secondary consumer and 90% of it is
lost as heat.

THE INTERACTION BETWEEN BIOTIC COMPONENTS IN REACTION TO FEEDING

(i)

Symbiosis

(ii)

Saprophytism

(iii)

Prey-predators

(ii) Saprophytism = a type of interaction in which living organisms obtain food from dead and
decaying organic matter

the organisms secretes enzymes to digest dead organisms before absorbing the digested
compound.
Examples:

(a) Saprophyte

any plants that depends fully on dead organisms for food

mushroom, fungi

(b) Saprozoite

any animal that obtains food from dead organisms

Earthworm, paramecium, saprophytic bacteria

(iii) Prey-predator = an interaction between two organisms in which an organism (the prey)
is huntedand killed by the other (the predator) for food.

helps to control the population of organisms in an ecosystem and maintain the balance of
the nature

a) At the beginning, the rats (prey) have plenty of food, and they survive to breed and their
population rises.
b) Increases in the population of rats means more food for owls (predator), so they survive to
breed and their population rises.
c) With more owls, the population of rats goes down because the rats are eaten by the owls.
d) With less rats, fewer owls survive to breed and their population declines. Some of the owls
migrate to other places.
e) With fewer owls, more rats will survive to breed and their population rises, so the cycle
repeats itself.
f) The predator-prey cycles are self regulating and keep the populations of both predator and
prey in a dynamic equilibrium.
INTERACTION BETWEEN BIOTIC COMPONENTS IN REACTION TO COMPETITION
Competition = an interaction between organisms living together in a habitat and competing for
limited resources
a.
b.
c.
d.

food
shelter
breeding mates
light

e. nutrients
f. water
g. space

h.
Two type of competition:
i.

(i) Intraspecific Competition

a competiton between individuals of the same species

The two species of paramecium aurelia and paramecium caudatum are cultured in two
separate culture dishes but given the same amount of food.
The population of paramecium aurelia and paramecium caudatum in each culture dish
increased and then reached a maximum.

j.

(ii) Interspecific Competition

k.
l.

a competiton between individuals of two or more different species

in this type of competition, the species that
loses: either dies, or is forced to move out of the habitat
wins : stays and become dominant in that habitat

Example :
When paramecium aurelia and paramecium caudatum are cultured in a same culture dish
with the fixed amount of food and space, paramecium caudatum lost out to paramecium
aurelia in this competition for food and space.
The population of paramecium caudatum initially rose and then decreased while the
population of paramecium aurelia rose and finally became the dominant species.

m.
n. 8.2 COLONISATION AND SUCCESSION IN AN ECOSYSTEM
o. 8.2.1

Ecosystem

p. An ecosystem = a system formed by the interactions of a community of organisms with

their non-living environment and function as a unit. It is a dynamic system where all the
biotic components are in balance with one another and with the abiotic components.
q. 8.2.2

Niche, Habitat, Community And Population Of An Ecosystem

r.

1.

A niche is the role that an organism plays in the ecosystem.

Is the way of life of an organism in its natural surrounding
Example: the niche of a grasshopper it hops and flies around the grass field, feeds on
grass, mates and becomes food for others.

s. 2.

Community

A community consists of all the different populations of plants and animals living together
and interacting within a defined area of habitat.

u. 4.

Habitat

A habitat is a place where an organism lives.

t. 3.

Niche

Population

A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same habitat at the
same time.

v. 8.2.3

Colonization and Succession

w. 1. Colonization is a process whereby living organisms move into the newly formed area
which is completely devoid of life.
x. 2.

The species organisms that colonize the newly formed area called pioneer species.

y. 3.

Characteristics of pioneer species:

usually hardy plants

Able to survive on dry or nutrient-poor soil or sand.

z. 4. Succession of a habitat take places when species move into the modified
environment, compete and gradually replace the pioneer species.
aa.5. Successor species grow larger than the pioneer species, thus cutting off light,
nutrients and space of pioneer species and finally eliminating the pioneers.
ab.6. The succession process continues gradually. Finally after many levels of succession, a
climax community (a balanced and stable community) forms.
ac. 8.2.1.1 Colonisation and Succession In A Pond
ad.Pioneer Stage
ae.a. Phytoplankton, zooplankton and submerged aquatic plants
(Hydrilla, Utricularia and Cabomba) are the pioneers.
af. b. These submerged aquatic plants have long fibrous roots to
penetrate the soil and to absorb nutrients.
ag.c. When the pioneer plants die and decompose, the organic matter
settles to the bottom of the pond. This organic matter, together with
the eroded soil from the bank of the pond gradually settles to the
bottom, making the pond shallower and more suitable for floating
plants.
ah.Succession by aquatic floating plants

am.

ai. d. Floating plants (Pistia, Eichornia and Lemna) gradually multiply

and cover the surface of the pond and prevent sunlight from entering
it.
aj. e. This causes the submerged aquatic plants to die as they cannot
carry out photosynthesis.
ak. f.
The dead plants decompose and add on to the layer of organic
matter at the bottom of the pond.
al. g. The dead plants together with the eroded soil from the bank of
the pond gradually raise the floor of the pond, making it too swallow
for the floating plants.
an.Succession by emergent (amphibious) plants
ao. h. Emergent plants (Firmbristylis sp, Scirpus sp and Cyperus sp)
which can live in water and on dry land succeed the floating plants.
ap.i.

The emergent plants multiply and change the habitat of the

ar.

pond.
aq.j.
Some of the emergent plants die, their decomposed remains
add on to the sediment making the pond even swallower and
eventually dry it up.
as. Succession by land plants

au.

at. k. Land plants (creepers, herbaceous and woody plants) replace

the emergent plants and gradually from a jungle
av. Climax community

ay.

aw.
l.
The process of succession will stop when a level of
balance is achieved.
ax. m. The climax community takes a few hundred years to form.
az.
ba.
bb.
bc.
8.2.3.2 Colonisation and Succession In Mangrove Swamp
bd.
be.Avicennia sp.
and Sonneratia
sp. Zone

bf. Rhizophora sp.

zone

bg.Bruguiera sp.
zone

bh.Pionner stage:

bo.Succession by
Rhizophora sp.:

br. Succession by
Bruguiera sp.:

bp.Pneumatophores
trap mud and
organic sediment
and the amount
of soil increases
and becomes
more compact
and firm as time
passes, making
the habitat more
suitable for
Rhizophora sp.

bs. The stilt roots of

Rhizophora sp.
trap the deposit
floating debris,
wood, sand and
mud brought in
by the tide.

bi.
bj. Avicennia sp.
and Sonneratia
sp. are
pioneers.
bk. Adaptations:
a) The pioneer
plants have
vertical aerial
roots known as
pneumatophore
s.
b) At the end of
the
pneumatophore
s are
aerenchyma
tissues for
gaseous
exchange.

bq.Adaptations:
a) Rhizophora sp.
has stilt roots
(prop roots) for
support in the
soft and unstable
mud.
b) The stilt roots

bt. Over time, these

deposition
creates firmer
soil, raises the
ground level and
makes it drier,
making the
habitat more
suitable for
Bruguiera sp.
bu.Adaptations:
a) Bruguiera sp. has
buttress roots

bl.
bm.
bn.

c)

d)

e)

f)

help the plants to

breathe as they
are permeable to
gas.
Have viviparous
seedling that
start to
germinate while
still being
attached to the
parent on the
tree branch.
Hydathodes
(found on the
edges of the
leaves to get rid
of excess salt
from the tree
through
guttation)
Thick and fleshy
leaves (to store
water)
Waxy cuticle
(protects the
epidermis from
excessive losing
of water)

and
pneumatophores
that are kneeshaped.
b) The buttress
roots form loops
that protrude the
soil, providing
strong support
and trapping
more silt.
c) Other
adaptations:
viviparous
seedling
Hydathodes
Thick and fleshy
leaves
Waxy cuticles

bv.
bw.

8.2

bx.8.2.1

POPULATION ECOLOGY

What is population ecology?

by. 1. Population ecology:

bz.

= the study of the relationship between

ca. (a) different populations

cb. (b) populations and the environment
cc.
cd. 2. Measuring the population size:
ce.

(a) plants by quadrat sampling technique

cf.

(b) animals by the capture, mark, release and recapture technique.

cg.
ch. 8.2.2

Quadrat Sampling Technique

ci.
cj. 1.

Procedure:

ck.
cl.
cm.
cn.
co.
cp.
cq.
cr.
cs.
ct.
cu.
cv.
cw.
cx.
cy.
cz.
da.
db.
dc.
dd.
de.
df.
dg.
dh.
di.
dj.
dk.
dl.
dm.
dn.
do.
dp.1.
dq.

The distribution of organisms can be determined by:

dr.
ds.
dt. 8.2.1

Capture, Mark, Release And Recapture Technique

du.
dv. 1.

Procedure:

dw.
dx.
dy.
dz.
ea.
eb.
ec.
ed.
ee.
ef.
eg.
eh.
ei.
ej.
ek.
el.

em.
en.
eo.
ep.
eq.1.

Populaton size:

er.
es. Formula:_____________________________________________________
et.
eu.1.

Assumptions:

ev. (a) The marked individuals can mix randomly in the population before the second sample
is taken;
ew.

(b) Marked and unmarked animals in the sample are caught at random.

ex. (c) The marks on the animals of the first sample cannot be deleted easily and are no
danger on the sampled animals.
ey. (d) There are no predators of the sampled animals in the area surveryed.
ez. (e) The population sampled is stable and does not experience any sudden changes.
fa. (f) The mortility rate and the birth rate are about the same.
fb.
fc. 8.2.1

The abiotic factors which influence the distribution of an organism.

fd.
fe. a.

The distribution of an organism is influenced by abiotic factors such as:

ff. (a) light intensity

(b) temperature

fg. (c) humidity

(d) pH

fh. (e) aspect

fi.
fj.

Experiment: To study the effect of change pH on a plant population.

fk.
fl. Objective: To study the effect of change pH on the population
growth rate of Lemnasp.
fm.
fn. Problem statement: What is the effect of change pH on the
population growth rate ofLemna sp?
fo.
fp. Hypothesis: In a neutral medium the population growth rate

of Lemna sp. is the fastest.

fq.
fr. Variables:
fs. Manipulated variable: pH of water
ft. Responding variable: Number of Lemna sp.
fu. Fixed variable: Light intensity
fv.
fw. Materials: Dilute hydrochloric acid, dilute sodium hydroxide solution,
pond water, distilled water and Lemna sp.
fx.
fy. Apparatus: Beakers
fz.
ga.Procedure:
gb.1.
C3..

Nine beakers are labelled as A1,A2,A3,B1,B2,B3 and C1, C2,

gc. 2.

Each beaker is filled with 200 ml of pond water.

gd.3.
10 ml of dilute hydrochloric acid is poured into beaker A1,A2
and A3.
ge.4.
10 ml of dilute sodium hydroxide solution is poured into
beaker B1,B2 and B3.
gf. 5.

10 ml of distilled water is poured into beaker C1,C2 and C3.

gg.6.

20 Lemna sp. plants are put into each beaker.

gh.7.

Each beaker is placed in an area of evenly distributed light.

gi. 8.
After 5 days, the number of Lemna sp. plant in each beaker is
counted.
gj. 9.

The result is recorded in a table.

gk. 10. The average reading of number of plants at the end of

experiment is taken.
gl.
gm.

Precautional step:

gn.1.
Make sure all the beakers are exposed to the same light
intensity.
go.
gp.Presentation of data
gq.

gr. B
e
a
k
er

gs. Conditio
n (pH)

gt. Number of plants

gw.
Beginning
of experiment

gx.End of
experimen
t

gy. A
1

gz.

hb.

hc.

hd.A
2

hf.

hg.

hh.A
3

hj.

hk.

ho.

hp.

hq.B
2

hs.

ht.

hu.B
3

hw.

hx.

ib.

ic.

id. C
2

if.

ig.

ih. C
3

ij.

ik.

hl. B
1

hy. C
1

ha.Acidic

hm.
hn.Alkaline

hz.
ia. Neutral

il.
im.Conclusion:
in. The population growth rate of Lemna sp. is affected by a change in
pH. Lemna sp. grows best in a neutral environment. The hypothesis
is accepted.
io.
ip.
iq.
ir. 8.2

BIODIVERSITY

is.
it. 8.2.1

What is biodiversity?

iu.
iv. 1.

Biodiversity:

iw. = the diverse variety of plants and animals in the different ecosystem on the earth.
ix.

iy. 8.2.2

Classification of organisms

iz.
ja. King
dom

jb. Characteristics

jc. Exam
ples

jd. Mon
era
/
Prok
aryo
tae

js.

jw.

jt.
ju.
jv.

je.
jf.
jg.
jh.
ji.
jj.
jk.
jl.
jm.
jn.
jo.
jp.
jq.
jr.
jx. Proti
sta
jy.
jz.
ka.
kb.
kc.
kd.
ke.
kf.
kg.

kl.

km.

kh.
ki.
kj.
kk.
kn. Fun
gi

lb.

lc.

ls.

lt.

ko.
kp.
kq.
kr.
ks.
kt.
ku.
kv.
kw.
kx.
ky.
kz.
la.
ld. Plan
tae
le.
lf.
lg.
lh.
li.
lj.
lk.
ll.
lm.
ln.
lo.
lp.

lq.
lr.
lu. Ani
mali
a

mk.

lv.
lw.
lx.
ly.
lz.
ma.
mb.
mc.
md.
me.
mf.
mg.
mh.
mi.
mj.
mm.
The hierarchy in the classification of organism
mn.

ml.

mo.
mp.
mq.
The naming of organisms or biological nomenclature is based on the Linnaeus
binomial system.
mr.
ms.

In this system, each organism has two names in Latin.

mt.

The first name: begins with capital letter, refers to the name of genus

mu.

The second name: begins with small letter, refers to the name of species.

mv.
mw.

Example: the scientific name of humans is Homo sapiens or Homo sapiens.

mx.
my.

Scientific names of some animals and plants:

mz.

nl. 8.2.1

Common name

na.Scientific name

nb.Durian

nc.

nd.Hibiscus

ne.

nf. Maize

ng.

nh.Frog

ni.

nj. Fruit fly

nk.

The importance of biodiversity

nm.
nn.1.

Source of medicine

no.a. Plants in tropical provides raw material for medicine, for example, in the treatment of
cancer.
np.
nq.2.

Shelter and food

nr. b.

People and animals depend on their ecosystem for shelter, food and basic needs.

ns.
nt. 3.

Environmental services

nu.c. Environmental services, such as nitrogen cycle, pollination, and regulation of

atmospheric temperature are provided due to the diversity of plants and animals, and the
interactions between various organisms.
nv.
nw.

4.

Economic resources

nx.d.

Eco-tourism contributes to the economy.

ny. e.

Timber, rubber and organic oils plays important roles in economy.

nz.
oa.8.2

THE IMPACT OF MICROORGANISMS

ob.
oc. 8.2.1

Types of microorganisms

od.
oe.1. A microorganism (or microbe) is an organism (unicellular animal or plant) that is very
small and cannot be seen by unaided eye. It can only be seen with the help of a
microscope.
of.
og.2.

The various type of microorganisms

oh.
oi. Types
of
microo
rganis
ms

ok. Characteristics

ol. Exam
ples

oo.

Unicellular organisms

op.

Have cell wall

pp.Lacto
bacillu
s

oj.
om.
B
acteria
on.

oq.
Do not have nuclear
membrane
or.
Asexual reproduction
through binary fusion
os.
Form spores in
unfavorable condition
ot.
ou.(a)

4 ways of nutrition:
Photosynthesis

pq.Strept
ococc
us
pr. E. coli

ov. (b)

Chemosynthesis

ow.

(c)

ox. (d)

Parasitic

Saprophytic

oy.
oz.
pa.
pb.
pc.
pd.
pe.
pf.
pg.
ph.
pi.
pj.
pk.
pl.
pm.
pn.
po.
ps. Algae

pt.
Semi-aquatic plant,
autotrophs.
pu.
Have chlorophyll and
chloroplast
pv.
No leaves, stems or
roots.
pw.

The cell walls

are made of cellulose
px.
Live in moist and
extremely low light area
py.
Sexual and asexual
reproduction through
spores or separation of
vegetative cell.
pz.
Carry out aerobic
respiration.

qb.Phyto
plankt
on,
qc. Spirog
yra
sp.

qa.
qd.Types
of
microo
rganis
ms

qf. Characteristics

qg.Exam
ples

qi.
Unicellular or
multicellular plant.

qp.Mucor
sp.

qj.

qq.Yeast

qe.
qh.Fungi

Heterotrophs

qk.
Do not have
chlorophyll, leaves, stems
or roots.
ql.
The cell walls are
made of chitin
qm.

Sexual and
asexual reproduction
through spores and
budding
qn.
Live in dark and moist
area or upon the death or
decaying organism.
qo.
qr. Protozo
a

qs.
Aquatic unicellular
organism
qt.
Have a nucleus,
cytoplasm, and a plasma
membrane
qu.
Carry out life
processes, such as
respiration, reproduction
and excretion.

qx.Param
ecium
,
qy. Amoe
ba,
qz. Eugle
na

qv.
Sexual and asexual
reproduction through
spores and budding or
binary fusion
qw.
ra. Virus

rb.
Smallest
microorganism, can only
be seen under electronic
microscope
rc.

Non-living cell

rj. Influe
nza
virus,
rk. Poliom
yelitis

because it cannot survive

or reproduce on its own
outside the cells of its
host.
rd.
Depend on host for
nutrition, reproduction
and respiration.
re.

virus,
rl. Tobac
co
mosai
c virus

Have two parts:

rf. (a) Inner core composed

of nucleic acid: DNA or
RNA
rg. (b) Outer capsid of
protein
rh.
Can be purified or
crytallised
ri.
rm.

8.2.1

The effects of abiotic components on the activity of microorganisms

rn.
ro. 1.

The activity of microorganisms are affected by:

rp.
rq. (a) Nutrients and water
rr. a.

Microorganisms need water and nutrient for reproduction and grow.

rs. b.

Without water, the microorganisms will die or form spores.

rt.
ru. (b) pH
rv. c.

Each species of microorganisms has its own optimum pH.

rw. d. Most bacteria prefer slightly alkaline conditions (pH 7.4), while yeast and protozoa
prefer acidic conditions (pH 4.5 4.0).
rx.
ry. (c) Temperature
rz. e.

Most a microorganisms are inactive in low temperature.

sa. f.

The optimum temperature for microorganisms is between

sb. g.

Beyond 60 0C, the growth of the microorganisms is inhibited.

35 0C 40 0C

sc. h. Microorganisms and their spores can only be destroyed when they are sterilized at
121 0C.
sd.
se. (d) Light intensity

sf. i.

Microorganisms prefer dark or low light intensities.

sg. j.

High intensities of sun light or ultraviolet rays can kill microorganisms.

sh. k. Photosynthetic algae and bacteria are more active under high light intensities to carry
out photosynthesis.
si.
sj. (e) Presence or absence of oxygen
sk.
sl. l.

most microorganism (aerobes) require oxygen for respiration and metabolism.

sm.
m. Certain bacteria and fungi are facultative anaerobes, they are able to grow in
either presence or absence of oxygen.
sn. n.

Obligate anaerobes can only survive in the absence of oxygen.

so.
sp.
sq. The role of Useful Microorganisms in the Ecosystem
sr.
ss. Area

st. Usage / Examples

su. Dige
stion

sv. The alimentary canal of herbivores, contain bacteria

which produces cellulose enzyme to digest cellulose.
sw.The digestion of cellulose in termite is done by
protozoa that produces cellulose enzyme to digest
cellulose.
sx. In human colon, some mutualistic bacteria can
synthesis Vitamin B 12 (to prevent anaemia and
Vitamin K for blood clotting)
sy.

sz. Medi
cine

ta. Fungi are used in the production of antibiotics.

tb. o Example: Penicillin produced by fungus Penicillium
natotum is used to treat diseases such as gonorrhoea,
syphlilis and lung infection.
tc. Vaccines which formed by weakened or dead bacteria
or viruses are used to stimulate the bodys immunity
agaist diseases.
td. o Example: B.C.G. vaccine is used to produce
immunity agaist TB.
te.

tf. Deco
mpo
sitio

tg. Bacteria and saprophytic fungi decompose the dead

animals and plants into simple compounds and
elements.

th. Microorganisms are used to treat waste from

industries.
ti. Decomposers play an importance role in natural
cycles of elements such as carbon cycle and nitrogen
cycle.
tj. a. the decaying process returns elements such as
carbon, nitrogen and sulphur back to the soil.
tk. b. These substances are then reabsorbed by plants
and move through the ecosystem again.
tl.

tm.
Industry

tn. 1.

Production of alcohol

to. a. Yeast is used to produce alcohol through

fermentation of sugar, starch or grains.
tp.
tq. 2.

Production of vinegar

tr. a. The bacterium, Acetobector, acts on the alcohol

to produce vinegar.
ts.
tt. 3.

Making of bread

tu. a.

Yeast is used to raise the dough.

tv.
tw. 4.

Production of butter

tx. a. The bacteria split the proteins from the fat of the
cream to enable the fat molecules to stick together
when the mixture is stirred strongly.
ty.
tz. 5.

Production of fermented milk

ua.a. The bacteria, Lactobacillus sp.

and Streptococcus sp. together with yeast act on thick
milk to produce fermented milk.
ub.
uc. 6.

Production of vitamins

ud.a. Microorganisms such as yeast can be used to

produce vitamin B2 and vitamin D.
ue.
uf. 7.

Textile industry

ug.a.

Bacteria are used to decompose the soft plant

tissues leaving the plant fibres.

uh.
ui. The
Nitro
gen
Cycl
e

uj. Nitrosomonas sp. and Nitrococcus sp. convert

ammonia into nitrites.
uk. Nitrobacter sp. converts nitrites into nitrates that go
into the soil, which are absorbed by the roots of
plants.
ul. Rhizobium and Azotobacter sp. converts nitrogen into
nitrates.
um.

un.
uo.There are three main processes which involve the activity of microorganism in nitrogen
cycle.
up.(a) decomposition
uq.(b) nitrogen fixation
ur. (c) denitrification
us.
ut. Decomposition
uu.a. organic matter such as animal carcasses, dead plants and animal wastes are
converted by the saprophytic organism (bacteria and fungi) into ammonia.
uv. b.

Ammonia is converted into nitrites by Nitrosomonas sp. and Nitrococcus sp.

uw.
c. Nitrobacter sp. then converts nitrites into nitrates that go into the soil, which
are absorbed by the roots of plants and converted into proteins.
ux.
uy. Nitrogen fixation
uz. d.

Nitrogen fixation is a process whereby atmospheric nitrogen is converted into nitrates.

va. e.

It can be carried out by:

vb.(a) industry fixation

vc. (b) biological fixation
vd.(c) atmospheric fixation
ve.
vf. f.

Industry fixation

vg.a.

Ammonia nitrate is produced through nitrogen-based fertilizer

vh.
vi. g.

Biological fixation

vj. a.

Biological fixation is carried out by nitrogen-fixing bacteria and blue-green algae

vk. b. Azotobacter sp. and Clostridium sp. (free-living bacteria in the soil) convert nitrogen
into nitrates.
vl. c. Rhizobium that lives in the root nodules of leguminous plants, also converting nitrogen
gas into nitrates.
vm.

d.

Noctoc sp. is a blue-green algae in the soil that fixes nitrogen gas into nitrates.

vn.
vo. h.

Atmospheric fixation

vp.a. During thunderstorm, lightning causes nitrogen gas and oxygen gas to combine to
produce nitrogen dioxide.
vq.b.

The nitrogen dioxide gas dissolves in rain water to form nitrous acid and nitric acid.

vr. c.

These acids react with bases found in the soil to form nitrates.

vs.
vt. Denitrification
vu.i.

The denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrates to free nitrogen and oxygen gas.

vv. j.
The nitrogen gas returns to atmosphere while oxygen is used by the denitrifying
bacteria for respiration.
vw.
vx. 8.2.1
vy. k.

The effects of harmful microorganisms

There are many microorganisms that cause harmful effects. These include:

vz. (a) causing infections and diseases

wa.

(b) spoilage of food, clothing and other sustances

wb.
wc.
l.
Pathogens are organisms or viruses that can invade the body of living hosts
and cause diseases.
wd.
we.

8.2.2

How diseases spread

wf.
wg.

m.

Diseases are transmitted in five ways, through

wh.

(a)

Air

wi.

Through cough, sneezes, talk or breathe

wj.
Examples of diseases: TB, diphtheria and viral diseases such as pneumonia,
influenza, cold and mumps
wk.
wl. (i)

Ways to prevent:

refrain from spitting

wm.

(ii) refrain from coughing near other people

wn.

(iii) use handkerchief or tissue paper when sneezing

wo.
wp.

(b)

wq.

wr.

Examples of diseases: typhoid, amoebic dysentery, cholera, worm infection

ws.

wt. (i)

Food
Through dirty hands, exposed food, pests, raw food

Ways to prevent:

Cooking food

wu.

(ii) Covering food

wv.

(iii) Keeping food in refrigerator

ww.
wx.

(c)

wy.

Through contaminated water

wz.

xa.

Ways to prevent:

xb.(i)

Water

Examples of diseases: typhoid, amoebic dysentery, cholera

Boiling the drinking water

xc. (ii) Chlorinating the water in the reservoirs

xd.
xe. (d)
xf.

Physical contact
Through direct contact, indirect contact, sexual intercourse and cuts

xg.
Examples of diseases: ringworm, TB, measles, chickenpox, sexually transmitted
diseases (gonorrhoea, syphilis and AIDS)
xh.
xi. (i)

Ways to prevent:
Do not share personal belongings

xj. (ii) Adopt hygienic habits

xk. (iii) Abstain from immoral activities and drug abuse
xl. (iv) Abstain from immoral sexual relationships
xm.
xn.(e)
xo.

Vectors
Through insects (mosquito, housefly and lice), through animals (rats, dogs)

xp.
Examples of diseases: Malaria (by Anopheles sp. mosquito), Dengue fever
(by Aedes sp. mosquito), Cholera (by housefly)
xq.
xr.

xs.
xt.
xu.
xv. 8.2.3

Methods of controlling pathogens

xw.
xx. 1.

Antibiotics

xy. n.

Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by certain microorganisms.

xz. o.

Function: To kill and inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi.

ya. p.

Examples:

yb.(i)

Penicillin is used to treat diseases caused by bacteria, such as syphilis

yc. (ii) Streptomycin is used to treat diseases such as TB.

yd.
ye. 2. Antiseptics
yf. Antiseptics are chemical used to kill and inhibit the growth of microorganisms on cuts
or wound.
yg.-

Examples:

yh.

iodine solution, potassium permanganate solution, acriflavin, alcohol

yi.
yj. 3. Disinfectants
yk. Disinfectants are chemical solution used to kill microorganisms on the surface of
floors, buildings, furniture, toilet bowls and clothing.
yl. -

Examples:

ym.

Phenol, carbolic acid, creasol, and formaldehyde

yn.
yo. 2.

Vaccines

yp.q. Vaccines are weakened or killed viruses and bacteria which injected to the body to
stimulate the production of antibodies.
yq.r.

Examples:

yr. BCG vaccine is used to immunize a person against TB.

ys.
yt. 8.2.1

The use of microorganism in biotechnology

yu.
yv. 1. Cleanin
g of oil
spills

yx. b. Genetically engineered bacteria are used in

cleaning oil spills.

yw.

yy. c. The bacteria together with a nutrient

solution are sprayed onto the oil.
yz. d. The bacteria break down the oil into less
harmful substances such as carbon dioxide and
water.
za.

zb. 2.
Manageme
nt of waste

zd. e. Toxic and non-toxic industrial wastes are

converted by microorganisms into safe
substances for the environment.

zc.

ze. f.
Certain species of bacteria are used to
decompose compounds of hydrocarbons and
sulphur in toxic solution and in septic tanks.
zf. g. Degrading fungi are used to convert wood
pulp and other useful products.
zg.

zh. 3.
Processing
of food
zi.

zj. h. Yeast is used in the making of bread and

wine.
zk. i.
Yogurt is made from the fermentation of
milk, using bacteria such as Lactobacillussp.
ad Streptococcus sp.
zl.

zm.
4.
Production
of
bioplastics
zn.

zo. j.
Bioplastic is biodegradable plastic which
can be easily decomposed.
zp. k. Bioplastic is produced by culturing bacteria
in a nutrient-rich medium. Bacteria in the
nutrient medium react by synthesizing a
natural plastic.
zq. l.
The bioplastic is extracted from the
bacteria to make bags, bottles, spoons and
forks.
zr.

zs. 5.
Production
of energy
from
biomass
zt.
zw.

zu. m. Anaerobic bacteria are used to break down

organic waste to produce biogas and gasohol.
zv. n. The biogas produced can be used as
domestic fuel or fuel for vehicles.