Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a nondestructive testing method used for defect
detection. MPI is fast and relatively easy to apply, and part surface preparation is not
as critical as it is for some other NDT methods. These characteristics make MPI one
of the most widely utilized nondestructive testing methods.
MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles (i.e.iron filings) to detect flaws
in components. The only requirement from an inspectability standpoint is that the
component being inspected must be made of a ferromagnetic material such as iron,
nickel, cobalt, or some of their alloys. Ferromagnetic materials are materials that can
be magnetized to a level that will allow the inspection to be effective.
The method is used to inspect a variety of product forms including castings, forgings,
and weldments. Many different industries use magnetic particle inspection for
determining a component's fitness-for-use. Some examples of industries that use
magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power
generation, and aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another area where
magnetic particle inspection may be used to test items such as offshore structures and
underwater pipelines.

Basic Principles
In theory, magnetic particle inspection (MPI) is a relatively simple concept. It can be
considered as a combination of two
nondestructive testing methods: magnetic
flux leakage testing and visual testing.
Consider the case of a bar magnet. It has a
magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any
place that a magnetic line of force exits or
enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole
where a magnetic line of force exits the magnet is called a north pole and a pole
where a line of force enters the magnet is called a south pole.
When a bar magnet is broken in the center of its length, two complete bar magnets
with magnetic poles on each end of each piece will result. If the magnet is just
cracked but not broken completely in two, a north and south pole will form at each
edge of the crack. The magnetic field exits the north pole and reenters at the south
pole. The magnetic field spreads out when it
encounters the small air gap created by the
crack because the air cannot support as much
magnetic field per unit volume as the magnet
can. When the field spreads out, it appears to
leak out of the material and, thus is called a
flux leakage field.
If iron particles are sprinkled on a cracked magnet, the particles will be attracted to
and cluster not only at the poles at the ends of the magnet, but also at the poles at the
edges of the crack. This cluster of particles is much easier to see than the actual crack
and this is the basis for magnetic particle inspection.

The first step in a magnetic particle inspection is to magnetize the component that is
to be inspected. If any defects on or near the surface are present, the defects will
create a leakage field. After the component has been magnetized, iron particles, either
in a dry or wet suspended form, are applied to the surface of the magnetized part. The
particles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visible
indication that the inspector can detect.

History of Magnetic Particle Inspection

Magnetism is the ability of matter to attract other matter to itself. The ancient Greeks
were the first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. Later
on Bergmann, Becquerel, and Faraday discovered that all matter including liquids and
gasses were affected by magnetism, but only a few responded to a noticeable extent.
The earliest known use of magnetism to inspect an object took place as early as 1868.
Cannon barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then sliding a
magnetic compass along the barrel's length. These early inspectors were able to locate
flaws in the barrels by monitoring the needle of the compass. This was a form of
nondestructive testing but the term was not commonly used until some time after
World War I.
In the early 1920s, William Hoke
realized that magnetic particles
(colored metal shavings) could be used
with magnetism as a means of locating
defects. Hoke discovered that a surface
or subsurface flaw in a magnetized
material caused the magnetic field to
distort and extend beyond the part.
This discovery was brought to his
attention in the machine shop. He
noticed that the metallic grindings from
hard steel parts (held by a magnetic
chuck while being ground) formed
patterns on the face of the parts which
corresponded to the cracks in the
surface. Applying a fine ferromagnetic
powder to the parts caused a build up of powder over flaws and formed a visible
indication. The image shows a 1928 Electyro-Magnetic Steel Testing Device (MPI)
made by the Equipment and Engineering Company Ltd. (ECO) of Strand, England.
In the early 1930s, magnetic particle inspection was quickly replacing the oil-andwhiting method (an early form of the liquid penetrant inspection) as the method of
choice by the railroad industry to inspect steam engine boilers, wheels, axles, and
tracks. Today, the MPI inspection method is used extensively to check for flaws in a
large variety of manufactured materials and components. MPI is used to check
materials such as steel bar stock for seams and other flaws prior to investing
machining time during the manufacturing of a component. Critical automotive
components are inspected for flaws after fabrication to ensure that defective parts are
not placed into service. MPI is used to inspect some highly loaded components that
have been in-service for a period of time. For example, many components of high
performance racecars are inspected whenever the engine, drive train or another system
undergoes an overhaul. MPI is also used to evaluate the integrity of structural welds
on bridges, storage tanks, and other safety critical structures.

Magnetism
Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. Uses of magnets
range from holding pictures on the refrigerator to causing torque in electric motors.
Most people are familiar with the general properties of magnets but are less familiar
with the source of magnetism. The traditional concept of magnetism centers around
the magnetic field and what is know as a dipole. The term "magnetic field" simply
describes a volume of space where there is a change in energy within that volume.
This change in energy can be detected and measured. The location where a magnetic
field can be detected exiting or entering a material is called a magnetic pole. Magnetic
poles have never been detected in isolation but always occur in pairs, hence the name
dipole. Therefore, a dipole is an object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a
second, equal but opposite, magnetic pole on the other.
A bar magnet can be considered a dipole with a north pole at one end and south pole
at the other. A magnetic field can be measured leaving the dipole at the north pole and
returning the magnet at the south pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or
dipoles are created out of one. This sectioning and creation of dipoles can continue to
the atomic level. Therefore, the source of magnetism lies in the basic building block
of all matter...the atom.
The Source of Magnetism
All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are
composed of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons
and neutrons are located in the atom's nucleus and the
electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus.
Electrons carry a negative electrical charge and produce a
magnetic field as they move through space. A magnetic
field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in
motion. The strength of this field is called the magnetic
moment.
This may be hard to visualize on a subatomic scale but
consider electric current flowing through a conductor.
When the electrons (electric current) are flowing through the conductor, a magnetic
field forms around the conductor. The magnetic field can be detected using a
compass. The magnetic field will place a force on the compass needle, which is
another example of a dipole.
Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a
magnetic field. However, not all materials react the same way. This will be explored
more in the next section.

Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic, and Ferromagnetic

Materials
When a material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic forces of the
material's electrons will be affected. This effect is known as Faraday's Law of
Magnetic Induction. However, materials can react quite differently to the presence of
an external magnetic field. This reaction is dependent on a number of factors, such as
the atomic and molecular structure of the material, and the net magnetic field
associated with the atoms. The magnetic moments associated with atoms have three
origins. These are the electron orbital motion, the change in orbital motion caused by
an external magnetic field, and the spin of the electrons.
In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs.
Electrons in a pair spin in opposite directions.
So, when electrons are paired together, their
opposite spins cause their magnetic fields to
cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic
field exists. Alternately, materials with some
unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic
field and will react more to an external field.
Most materials can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic or .ferromagnetic.
Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields.
Diamagnetic materials are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does
not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Diamagnetic
materials are solids with all paired electron resulting in no permanent net magnetic
moment per atom. Diamagnetic properties arise from the realignment of the electron
orbits under the influence of an external magnetic field. Most elements in the periodic
table, including copper, silver, and gold, are diamagnetic.
Paramagnetic metals have a small and positive susceptibility to magnetic fields.
These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not
retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic
properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the
realignment of the electron orbits caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnetic
materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum.
Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field. They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to
retain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed.
Ferromagnetic materials have some unpaired electrons so their atoms have a net
magnetic moment. They get their strong magnetic properties due to the presence of
magnetic domains. In these domains, large numbers of atom's moments (1012 to 1015)
are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strong. When a
ferromagnetic material is in the unmagnitized state, the domains are nearly randomly
organized and the net magnetic field for the part as a whole is zero. When a
magnetizing force is applied, the domains become aligned to produce a strong
magnetic field within the part. Iron, nickel, and cobalt are examples of ferromagnetic
materials. Components with these materials are commonly inspected using the
magnetic particle method.

Magnetic Domains
Ferromagnetic materials get their magnetic properties not only because their atoms
carry a magnetic moment but also because the material is made up of small regions
known as magnetic domains. In each domain, all of the atomic dipoles are coupled
together in a preferential direction. This alignment develops as the material develops
its crystalline structure during solidification from the molten state. Magnetic domains
can be detected using Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) and images of the domains
like the one shown below can be constructed.

Magnetic Force
Microscopy (MFM)
image showing the
magnetic domains in a
piece of heat treated
carbon steel.

During solidification, a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the
magnetic force within the domain is strong in one direction. Ferromagnetic materials
are said to be characterized by "spontaneous magnetization" since they obtain
saturation magnetization in each of the domains without an external magnetic field
being applied. Even though the domains are magnetically saturated, the bulk material
may not show any signs of magnetism because the domains develop themselves and
are randomly oriented relative to each other.
Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the
material are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external
magnetic field or by passing electrical current through the material. Some or all of the
domains can become aligned. The more domains that are aligned, the stronger the
magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are aligned, the material is
said to be magnetically saturated. When a material is magnetically saturated, no
additional amount of external magnetization force will cause an increase in its internal
level of magnetization.

Unmagnetized Material

Magnetized Material

Magnetic Field Characteristics

Magnetic Field In and Around a Bar Magnet
As discussed previously, a magnetic field is a change in energy within a volume of
space. The magnetic field surrounding a bar magnet can be seen in the magnetograph
below. A magnetograph can be created by placing a piece of paper over a magnet and
sprinkling the paper with iron filings. The particles align themselves with the lines of
magnetic force produced by the magnet. The magnetic lines of force show where the
magnetic field exits the material at one pole and reenters the material at another pole
along the length of the magnet. It should be noted that the magnetic lines of force
exist in three dimensions but are only seen in two dimensions in the image.

It can be seen in the magnetograph that there are poles all along the length of the
magnet but that the poles are concentrated at the ends of the magnet. The area where
the exit poles are concentrated is called the magnet's north pole and the area where the
entrance poles are concentrated is called the magnet's south pole.
Magnetic Fields in and around Horseshoe and Ring Magnets
Magnets come in a variety of shapes and one of the more
common is the horseshoe (U) magnet. The horseshoe magnet
has north and south poles just like a bar magnet but the magnet
is curved so the poles lie in the same plane. The magnetic lines
of force flow from pole to pole just like in the bar magnet.
However, since the poles are located closer together and a
more direct path exists for the lines of flux to travel between
the poles, the magnetic field is concentrated between the
poles.

If a bar magnet was placed across the end of a

horseshoe magnet or if a magnet was formed in the
shape of a ring, the lines of magnetic force would not
even need to enter the air. The value of such a magnet
where the magnetic field is completely contained with
the material probably has limited use. However, it is
important to understand that the magnetic field can

flow in loop within a material. (See section on circular magnetism for more
information).

General Properties of Magnetic Lines of Force

Magnetic lines of force have a number
of important properties, which include:
They seek the path of least
resistance between opposite magnetic
poles. In a single bar magnet as shown
to the right, they attempt to form
closed loops from pole to pole.
They never cross one another.
They all have the same
strength.
Their density decreases (they
spread out) when they move from an
area of higher permeability to an area
of lower permeability.
Their density decreases with
increasing distance from the poles.
They are considered to have
direction as if flowing, though no
actual movement occurs.
They flow from the south pole
to the north pole within a material and
north pole to south pole in air.

Electromagnetic Fields
Magnets are not the only source of magnetic fields. In
1820, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric
current flowing through a wire caused a nearby compass
to deflect. This indicated that the current in the wire was
generating a magnetic field. Oersted studied the nature of
the magnetic field around the long straight wire. He found
that the magnetic field existed in circular form around the
wire and that the intensity of the field was directly
proportional to the amount of current carried by the wire.
He also found that the strength of the field was strongest
next to the wire and diminished with distance from the
conductor until it could no longer be detected. In most
conductors, the magnetic field exists only as long as the
current is flowing (i.e. an electrical charge is in motion).
However, in ferromagnetic materials the electric current
will cause some or all of the magnetic domains to align
and a residual magnetic field will remain.
Oersted also noticed that
the direction of the
magnetic field was
dependent on the direction
of the electrical current in
the wire. A three-dimensional representation of the
magnetic field is shown below. There is a simple rule
for remembering the direction of the magnetic field
around a conductor. It is called the right-hand rule. If
a person grasps a conductor in one's right hand with
the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the
fingers will circle the conductor in the direction of the
magnetic field.
A word of caution about the right-hand rule
For the right-hand rule to work, one important thing that must be remembered about
the direction of current flow. Standard convention has current flowing from the
positive terminal to the negative terminal. This convention is credited to Benjamin
Franklin who theorized that electric current was due to a positive charge moving from
the positive terminal to the negative terminal. However, it was later discovered that it
is the movement of the negatively charged electron that is responsible for electrical
current. Rather than changing several centuries of theory and equations, Franklin's
convention is still used today.

Magnetic Field Produced by a Coil

When a current carrying conductor is formed into a loop or several loops to form a
coil, a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along
its longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil. The
magnetic field circling each loop of wire combines with the fields from the other
loops to produce a concentrated field down the center of the coil. A loosely wound
coil is illustrated below to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The magnetic
field is essentially uniform down the length of the coil when it is wound tighter.

The strength of a coil's magnetic field increases not only with increasing current but
also with each loop that is added to the coil. A long, straight coil of wire is called a
solenoid and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of
a bar magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in
magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the magnetic particle testing
method. Please be aware that the field outside the coil is weak and is not suitable for
magnetizing ferromagnetic materials.

Quantifying Magnetic Properties

(Magnetic Field Strength, Flux Density, Total Flux and
Magnetization)
Until now, only the qualitative features of the magnetic field have been discussed.
However, it is necessary to be able to measure and express quantitatively the various
characteristics of magnetism. Unfortunately, a number of unit conventions are used
(as shown in the table below). SI units will be used in this material. The advantage of
using SI units is that they are traceable back to an agreed set of four base units meter, kilogram, second, and Ampere.
Quantity

SI Units
(Somerfield)
A/m
H

Field
Flux Density
(Magnetic Induction)
Flux

Magnetization

SI Units
(Kennelly)
A/m

CGS Units
(Gaussian)
oersteds

tesla

tesla

gauss

Weber

Weber

Maxwell

A/m

erg/Oe-cm3

The units for magnetic field strength H are ampere/meter. A magnetic field strength
of 1 ampere/meter is produced at the center of a single circular conductor with a one
meter diameter carrying a steady current of 1 ampere.
The number of magnetic lines of force cutting through a plane of a given area at a
right angle is known as the magnetic flux density, B. The flux density or magnetic
induction has the tesla as its unit. One tesla is equal to 1 Newton/(A/m). From these
units, it can be seen that the flux density is a measure of the force applied to a particle
by the magnetic field. The Gauss is the CGS unit for flux density and is commonly
used by US industry. One gauss represents one line of flux passing through one
square centimeter of air oriented 90 degrees to the flux flow.
The total number of lines of magnetic force in a material is called magnetic flux, .

The strength of the flux is determined by the number of magnetic domains that are
aligned within a material. The total flux is simply the flux density applied over an
area. Flux carries the unit of a weber, which is simply a tesla- meter2.
The magnetization is a measure of the extent to which an object is magnetized. It is a
measure of the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of the object. Magnetization
carries the same units as a magnetic field: amperes/meter.

Conversion between CGS and SI magnetic units.

The Hysteresis Loop and Magnetic Properties

A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic properties of a material
by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the
induced magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H). It is often referred
to as the B-H loop. An example hysteresis loop is shown below.

The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux of a ferromagnetic material

while the magnetizing force is changed. A ferromagnetic material that has never been
previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed
line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amount of current
applied (H+), the stronger the magnetic field in the component (B+). At point "a"
almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned and an additional increase in the
magnetizing force will produce very little increase in magnetic flux. The material has

reached the point of magnetic saturation. When H is reduced to zero, the curve will
move from point "a" to point "b." At this point, it can be seen that some magnetic flux
remains in the material even though the magnetizing force is zero. This is referred to
as the point of retentivity on the graph and indicates the remanence or level of
residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned
but some have lost their alignment.) As the magnetizing force is reversed, the curve
moves to point "c", where the flux has been reduced to zero. This is called the point of
coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the
domains so that the net flux within the material is zero.) The force required to remove
the residual magnetism from the material is called the coercive force or coercivity of
the material.
As the magnetizing force is increased in the negative direction, the material will again
become magnetically saturated but in the opposite direction (point "d"). Reducing H
to zero brings the curve to point "e." It will have a level of residual magnetism equal
to that achieved in the other direction. Increasing H back in the positive direction will
return B to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because
some force is required to remove the residual magnetism. The curve will take a
different path from point "f" back to the saturation point where it with complete the
loop.
From the hysteresis loop, a number of primary magnetic properties of a material can
be determined.
1. Retentivity - A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the
saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's
ability to retain a certain amount of residual magnetic field when the
magnetizing force is removed after achieving saturation. (The value of B at
point b on the hysteresis curve.)
2. Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux - the magnetic flux density that
remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual
magnetism and retentivity are the same when the material has been
magnetized to the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism
may be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did not
reach the saturation level.
3. Coercive Force - The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied
to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux return to zero. (The value of
H at point c on the hysteresis curve.)
4. Permeability, - A property of a material that describes the ease with which
a magnetic flux is established in the component.
5. Reluctance - Is the opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to the
establishment of a magnetic field. Reluctance is analogous to the resistance in
an electrical circuit.

Permeability
As previously mentioned, permeability is a material property that describes the ease
with which a magnetic flux is established in a component. It is the ratio of the flux
density to the magnetizing force and is represented by the following equation:

= /
It is clear that this equation describes
the slope of the curve at any point on
the hysteresis loop. The permeability
value given in papers and reference
materials is usually the maximum
permeability or the maximum
relative permeability. The maximum
permeability is the point where the
slope of the B/H curve for the
unmagnetized material is the
greatest. This point is often taken as
the point where a straight line from
the origin is tangent to the B/H curve.
The relative permeability is arrived at by taking the ratio of the material's permeability
to the permeability in free space (air).

(relative) = (material) / (air)

where:

(air) = 1.256 x 10-6 H/m

The shape of the hysteresis loop tells a great deal about the material being
magnetized. The hysteresis curves of two different materials are shown in the graph.
Relative to other materials, a material with a wider
hysteresis loop has:

Lower Permeability
Higher Retentivity
Higher Coercivity
Higher Reluctance
Higher Residual Magnetism

Relative to other materials, a material with the

narrower hysteresis loop has:

Higher Permeability
Lower Retentivity
Lower Coercivity

Lower Reluctance
Lower Residual Magnetism.

In magnetic particle testing, the level of residual magnetism is important. Residual

magnetic fields are affected by the permeability, which can be related to the carbon
content and alloying of the material. A component with high carbon content will have
low permeability and will retain more magnetic flux than a material with low carbon
content.
In the two B-H loops above, which one would indicative of a low carbon steel?
Answer

Magnetic Field Orientation and Flaw Detectability

To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to
understand that the orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is
very important. There are two general types of magnetic fields that can be established
within a component.
A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force
that run parallel to the long axis of the part. Longitudinal
magnetization of a component can be accomplished using
the longitudinal field set up by a coil or solenoid. It can
also be accomplished using permanent magnets or
electromagnets.
A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that
run circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. A
circular magnetic field is induced in an article by either
passing current through the component or by passing
current through a conductor surrounded by the
component.
The type of magnetic field established is determined by the method used to magnetize
the specimen. Being able to magnetize the part in two directions is important because
the best detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at
right angles to the longest dimension of the defect. This orientation creates the largest
disruption of the magnetic field within the part and the greatest flux leakage at the
surface of the part. As can be seen in the image below, if the magnetic field is parallel
to the defect, the field will see little disruption and no flux leakage field will be
produced.

An orientation of 45 to 90 degrees between the magnetic field and the defect is

necessary to form an indication. Since defects may occur in various and unknown
directions, each part is normally magnetized in two directions at right angles to each
other. If the component below is considered, it is known that passing current through
the part from end to end will establish a circular magnetic field that will be 90 degrees
to the direction of the current. Therefore, defects that have a significant dimension in
the direction of the current (longitudinal defects) should be detectable. Alternately,
transverse-type defects will not be detectable with circular magnetization.

Watch this short movie showing the effect of field direction on indication visibility.
(775 KB mov)

Magnetization of Ferromagnetic Materials

There are a variety of methods that can be used to establish a magnetic field in a
component for evaluation using magnetic particle inspection. It is common to classify
the magnetizing methods as either direct or indirect.
Magnetization Using Direct Induction (Direct Magnetization)
With direct magnetization, current is passed directly through the component. Recall
that whenever current flows, a magnetic field is produced. Using the right-hand rule,
which was introduced earlier, it is known that the magnetic lines of flux form normal
to the direction of the current and form a circular field in and around the conductor.
When using the direct magnetization method, care must be taken to ensure that good
electrical contact is established and maintained between the test equipment and the
test component. Improper contact can result in arcing that may damage the
component. It is also possible to overheat components in areas of high resistance such
as the contact points and in areas of small cross-sectional area.
There are several ways that direct
magnetization is commonly
accomplished. One way involves
clamping the component between two
electrical contacts in a special piece of
equipment. Current is passed through

the component and a circular magnetic field is

established in and around the component.
When the magnetizing current is stopped, a
residual magnetic field will remain within the
component. The strength of the induced
magnetic field is proportional to the amount of
current passed through the component.

A second technique involves using clamps or prods, which are attached or placed in
contact with the component. Electrical current flows through the component from
contact to contact. The current sets up a circular magnetic field around the path of the
current.

Magnetization Using Indirect Induction (Indirect Magnetization)

Indirect magnetization is accomplished by using a strong external magnetic field to
establish a magnetic field within the component. As with direct magnetization, there
are several ways that indirect magnetization can be accomplished.
The use of permanent magnets is a low cost method of establishing a magnetic field.
However, their use is limited due to lack of control of the field strength and the
difficulty of placing and removing strong permanent magnets from the component.
Electromagnets in the form of an
adjustable horseshoe magnet
(called a yoke) eliminate the
problems associated with
permanent magnets and are used
extensively in industry.
Electromagnets only exhibit a
magnetic flux when electric
current is flowing around the soft
iron core. When the magnet is
placed on the component, a
magnetic field is established
between the north and south poles
of the magnet.
Another way of indirectly inducting a magnetic field in a material is by using the
magnetic field of a current carrying conductor. A circular magnetic field can be
established in cylindrical components by using a central conductor. Typically, one
or more cylindrical components are hung from a solid copper bar running through the
inside diameter. Current is passed through the copper bar and the resulting circular
magnetic field establishes a magnetic
field within the test components.
The use of coils and solenoids is a
third method of indirect magnetization.
When the length of a component is
several times larger than its diameter, a
longitudinal magnetic field can be
established in the component. The
component is placed longitudinally in
the concentrated magnetic field that
fills the center of a coil or solenoid. This magnetization technique is often referred to
as a "coil shot."

Magnetizing Current
As seen in the previous pages, electric current is often used to establish the magnetic
field in components during magnetic particle inspection. Alternating current and
direct current are the two basic types of current commonly used. Current from single
phase 110 volts, to three phase 440 volts, are used when generating an electric field in
a component. Current flow is often modified to provide the appropriate field within
the part. The type of current used can have an effect on the inspection results, so the
types of currents commonly used will be briefly reviewed.
Direct Current
Direct current (DC) flows continuously in one direction at a constant voltage. A
battery is the most common source of direct current. As previously mentioned, current
is said to flow from the positive to the negative terminal. In actuality, the electrons
flow in the opposite direction. DC is very desirable when inspecting for subsurface
defects because DC generates a magnetic field that penetrates deeper into the
material. In ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field produced by DC generally
penetrates the entire cross-section of the component. Conversely, the field produced
using alternating current is concentrated in a thin layer at the surface of the
component.
Alternating Current
Alternating current (AC) reverses in direction at a rate of 50 or 60 cycles per second.
In the United States, 60 cycle current is the commercial norm but 50 cycle current is
common in many countries. Since AC is readily available in most facilities, it is
convenient to make use of it for magnetic particle inspection. However, when AC is
used to induce a magnetic field in ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic field will be
limited to narrow region at the surface of the component. This phenomenon is known
as the "skin effect" and occurs because induction is not a spontaneous reaction and the
rapidly reversing current does not allow the domains below the surface time to align.
Therefore, it is recommended that AC be used only when the inspection is limited to
surface defects.
View a short video on the AC versus DC. (195 KB mov)
Rectified Alternating Current
Clearly, the skin effect limits the use of AC since many inspection applications call
for the detection of subsurface defects. However, the convenient access to AC, drives
its use beyond surface flaw inspections. Luckily, AC can be converted to current that
is very much like DC through the process of rectification. With the use of rectifiers,
the reversing AC can be converted to a one directional current. The three commonly
used types of rectified current are described below.

Half Wave Rectified Alternating Current (HWAC)

When single phase alternating current is passed through a rectifier, current is allowed
to flow in only one direction. The reverse half of each cycle is blocked out so that a
one directional, pulsating current is produced. The current rises from zero to a
maximum and then returns to zero. No current flows during the time when the reverse
cycle is blocked out. The HWAC repeats at same rate as the unrectified current (60
hertz typical). Since half of the current is blocked out, the amperage is half of the
unaltered AC.
This type of current is often referred to as half wave DC or pulsating DC. The
pulsation of the HWAC helps magnetic particle indications form by vibrating the
particles and giving them added mobility. This added mobility is especially important
when using dry particles. The pulsation is reported to significantly improve inspection
sensitivity. HWAC is most often used to power electromagnetic yokes.
Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current (FWAC) (Single Phase)
Full wave rectification inverts the negative current to positive current rather than
blocking it out. This produces a pulsating DC with no interval between the pulses.
Filtering is usually performed to soften the sharp polarity switching in the rectified
current. While particle mobility is not as good as half-wave AC due to the reduction
in pulsation, the depth of the subsurface magnetic field is improved.
Three Phase Full Wave Rectified Alternating Current
Three phase current is often used to power industrial equipment because it has more
favorable power transmission and line loading characteristics. This type of electrical
current is also highly desirable for magnetic particle testing because when it is
rectified and filtered, the resulting current very closely resembles direct current.

Stationary magnetic particle equipment wired with three phase AC will usually have
the ability to magnetize with AC or DC (three phase full wave rectified), providing
the inspector with the advantages of each current form.

Longitudinal Magnetic Fields

Distribution and Intensity
When the length of a component is several
times larger than its diameter, a longitudinal
magnetic field can be established in the
component. The component is often placed
longitudinally in the concentrated magnetic
field that fills the center of a coil or
solenoid. This magnetization technique is
often referred to as a "coil shot."
The magnetic field travels through the
component from end to end with some flux
loss along its length as shown in the image to
the right. Keep in mind that the magnetic lines
of flux occur in three dimensions and are only
shown in 2D in the image. The magnetic lines
of flux are much denser inside the
ferromagnetic material than in air because
ferromagnetic materials have much higher
permeability than does air. When the
concentrated flux within the material comes to
the air at the end of the component, it must
spread out since the air can not support as
many lines of flux per unit volume. To keep
from crossing as they spread out, some of the magnetic lines of flux are forced out the
side of the component.
When a component is magnetized along its complete length, the flux loss is small
along its length. Therefore, when a component is uniform in cross section and
magnetic permeability, the flux density will be relatively uniform throughout the
component. Flaws that run normal to the magnetic lines of flux will disturb the flux
lines and often cause a leakage field at the surface of the component.

When a component with considerable length is magnetized using a solenoid, it is

possible to magnetize only a portion of the component. Only the material within the
solenoid and about the same width on each side of the solenoid will be strongly
magnetized. At some distance from the solenoid, the magnetic lines of force will
abandon their longitudinal direction, leave the part at a pole on one side of the
solenoid and return to the part at a opposite pole on the other side of the solenoid.
This occurs because the magnetizing force diminishes with increasing distance from
the solenoid. As a result, the magnetizing force may only be strong enough to align
the magnetic domains within and very near the solenoid. The unmagnetized portion of
the component will not support as much magnetic flux as the magnetized portion and
some of the flux will be forced out of the part as illustrated in the image below.
Therefore, a long component must be magnetized and inspected at several locations
along its length for complete inspection coverage.

Solenoid - An electrically energized coil of insulated wire, which produces a

magnetic field within the coil.

Circular Magnetic Fields

Distribution and Intensity
As discussed previously, when current is passed through a solid conductor, a magnetic
field forms in and around the conductor. The following statements can be made about
the distribution and intensity of the magnetic field.

The field strength varies from zero at the center of the component to a
maximum at the surface.
The field strength at the surface of the conductor decreases as the radius of the
conductor increases when the current strength is held constant. (However, a
larger conductor is capable of carrying more current.)
The field strength outside the conductor is directly proportional to the current
strength. Inside the conductor, the field strength is dependent on the current
strength, magnetic permeability of the material, and if magnetic, the location
on the B-H curve.
The field strength outside the conductor decreases with distance from the
conductor.

In the images below, the magnetic field strength is graphed versus distance from the
center of the conductor. It can be seen that in a nonmagnetic conductor carrying DC,
the internal field strength rises from zero at the center to a maximum value at the
surface of the conductor. The external field strength decrease with distance from the
surface of the conductor. When the conductor is a magnetic material, the field
strength within the conductor is much greater than it was in the nonmagnetic
conductor. This is due to the permeability of the magnetic material. The external field
is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current level and conductor
radius are the same.

The magnetic field distribution in and

The magnetic field distribution in and
around a solid conductor of a
around a solid conductor of a magnetic
nonmagnetic material carrying direct
material carrying direct current.
current.

When the conductor is carrying alternating

current, the internal magnetic field strength
rises from zero at the center to a maximum at
the surface. However, the field is
concentrated in a thin layer near the surface
of the conductor. This is known as the "skin
effect." The skin effect is evident in the field
strength versus distance graph for a magnetic
conductor shown to the right. The external
field decreases with increasing distance from
the surface as it does with DC. It should be
remembered that with AC the field is
constantly varying in strength and direction.
The magnetic field distribution in and
around a solid conductor of a magnetic
material carrying alternating current.

In a hollow circular conductor there is no magnetic field in the void area. The
magnetic field is zero at the inside wall surface and rises until it reaches a maximum
at the outside wall surface. As with a solid conductor, when the conductor is a
magnetic material, the field strength within the conductor is much greater than it was
in the nonmagnetic conductor due to the permeability of the magnetic material. The
external field strength decreases with distance from the surface of the conductor. The
external field is exactly the same for the two materials provided the current level and
conductor radius are the same.

The magnetic field distribution in and

around a hollow conductor of a
nonmagnetic material carrying direct
current.

The magnetic field distribution in and

around a hollow conductor of a
magnetic material carrying direct
current.

When AC is passed through a hollow circular

conductor, the skin effect concentrates the
magnetic field at the outside diameter of the
component.

The magnetic field distribution in and

around a hollow conductor of a
magnetic material carrying alternating
current.
As can be seen in the field distribution
images, the field strength at the inside surface
of hollow conductor carrying a circular
magnetic field produced by direct
magnetization is very low. Therefore, the
direct method of magnetization is not
recommended when inspecting the inside
diameter wall of a hollow component for
shallow defects. The field strength increases
rather rapidly as one moves in from the ID, so
if the defect has significant depth, it may be
detectable. However, a much better method
The magnetic field distribution in and
of magnetizing hollow components for
inspection of the ID and OD surfaces is with around a nonmagnetic central
the use of a central conductor. As can be seen conductor carrying DC inside a hollow
conductor of a magnetic material .
in the field distribution image to the right,
when current is passed through a
nonmagnetic central conductor (copper bar), the magnetic field produced on the inside
diameter surface of a magnetic tube is much greater and the field is still strong enough
for defect detection on the OD surface.

Demagnetization
After conducting a magnetic particle inspection, it is usually necessary to demagnetize
the component. Remanent magnetic fields can:

affect machining by causing cuttings to cling to a component.

interfere with electronic equipment such as a compass.
create a condition known as "arc blow" in the welding process. Arc blow may
cause the weld arc to wonder or filler metal to be repelled from the weld.
cause abrasive particles to cling to bearing or faying surfaces and increase
wear.

Removal of a field may be accomplished in several ways. This random orientation of

the magnetic domains can be achieved most effectively by heating the material above
its curie temperature. The curie temperature for a low carbon steel is 770oC or 1390oF.
When steel is heated above its curie temperature, it will become austenitic and loses
its magnetic properties. When it is cooled back down, it will go through a reverse
transformation and will contain no residual magnetic field. The material should also
be placed with it long axis in an east-west orientation to avoid any influence of the
Earth's magnetic field.
It is often inconvenient to heat a material above it
curie temperature to demagnetize it, so another
method that returns the material to a nearly
unmagnetized state is commonly used. Subjecting
the component to a reversing and decreasing
magnetic field will return the dipoles to a nearly
random orientation throughout the material. This
can be accomplished by pulling a component out
and away from a coil with AC passing through it.
The same can also be accomplished using an
electromagnetic yoke with AC selected. Also,
many stationary magnetic particle inspection units
come with a demagnetization feature that slowly
reduces the AC in a coil in which the component
is placed.
A field meter is often used to verify that the residual flux has been removed from a
component. Industry standards usually require that the magnetic flux be reduced to
less than 3 gauss after completing a magnetic particle inspection.

Measuring Magnetic Fields

When performing a magnetic particle inspection, it is very important to be able to
determine the direction and intensity of the magnetic field. As discussed previously,
the direction of the magnetic field should be between 45 and 90 degrees to the longest
dimension of the flaw for best detectability. The field intensity must be high enough
to cause an indication to form, but not too high to cause nonrelevant indications to
mask relevant indications. To cause an indication to form, the field strength in the
object must produce a flux leakage field that is strong enough to hold the magnetic
particles in place over a discontinuity. Flux measurement devices can provide
important information about the field strength.
Since it is impractical to measure the actual field strength within the material, all the
devices measure the magnetic field that is outside of the material. There are a number
of different devices that can be used to detect and measure an external magnetic field.
The two devices commonly used in magnetic particle inspection are the field indicator
and the Hall-effect meter, which is also called a gauss meter. Pie gauges and shims
are devices that are often used to provide an indication of the field direction and
strength but do not actually yield a quantitative measure. They will be discussed in a
later section.
Field Indicators
Field indicators are small mechanical devices that utilize a soft iron vane
that is deflected by a magnetic field. The X-ray image below shows the
inside working of a field meter looking in from the side. The vane is
attached to a needle that rotates and moves the pointer for the scale. Field
indicators can be adjusted and calibrated so that quantitative information
can be obtained. However, the measurement range of field indicators is
usually small due to the mechanics of the device. The one shown to the
right has a range from plus 20 gauss to minus 20 gauss. This limited range
makes them best suited for measuring the residual magnetic
field after demagnetization.
A field indicator is shown checking for residual magnetism in
this movie. (194 MB mov)

Hall-Effect (Gauss/Tesla) Meter

A Hall-effect meter is an electronic device that
provides a digital readout of the magnetic field
strength in gauss or tesla units. The meters use a
very small conductor or semiconductor element
at the tip of the probe. Electric current is passed
through the conductor. In a magnetic field, a
force is exerted on the moving electrons which
tends to push them to one side of the conductor.
A buildup of charge at the sides of the
conductors will balance this magnetic influence,

producing a measurable voltage between the two sides of the conductor. The presence
of this measurable transverse voltage is called the Hall-effect after Edwin H. Hall,
who discovered it in 1879.

The voltage generated Vh can be related to the

external magnetic field by the following equation.
Vh = I B Rh / b
Where:
Vh is the voltage generated.
I is the applied direct current.
B is the component of the magnetic field that is at
a right angle to the direct current in the Hall
element.
Rh is the Hall Coefficient of the Hall element.
b is the thickness of the Hall element.
Probes are available with either tangential
(transverse) or axial sensing elements. Probes can
be purchased in a wide variety of sizes and
configurations and with different measurement
ranges. The probe is placed in the magnetic field such that the magnetic lines of force
intersect the major dimensions of the sensing element at a right angle. Placement and
orientation of the probe is very important and will be discussed in a later section.

Portable Magnetizing Equipment for

Magnetic Particle Inspection
To properly inspect a part for cracks or other defects, it is important to become
familiar with the different types of magnetic fields and the equipment used to generate
them. As discussed previously, one of the primary requirements for detecting a defect
in a ferromagnetic material is that the magnetic field induced in the part must
intercept the defect at a 45 to 90 degree angle. Flaws that are normal (90 degrees) to
the magnetic field will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of
the magnet flux.
Magnetic Fields:
A field of force that exists around a magnetic body or a current carrying
conductor.

Therefore, for proper inspection of a component, it is important to be able to establish

a magnetic field in at least two directions. A variety of equipment exists to establish
the magnetic field for MPI. One way to classify equipment is based on its portability.
Some equipment is designed to be portable so that inspections can be made in the
field and some is designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory or
manufacturing facility. Portable equipment will be discussed first.
Permanent magnets
Permanent magnets are sometimes used for
magnetic particle inspection as the source of
magnetism. The two primary types of
permanent magnets are bar magnets and
horseshoe (yoke) magnets. These industrial
magnets are usually very strong and may
require significant strength to remove them
from a piece of metal. Some permanent
magnets require over 50 pounds of force to
remove them from the surface. Because it is
difficult to remove the magnets from the
component being inspected, and sometimes
difficult and dangerous to place the magnets,
their use is not particularly popular. However,
permanent magnets are sometimes used by
divers for inspection in underwater
environments or other areas, such as explosive
environments, where electromagnets cannot be

used. Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight areas where
electromagnets might not fit.
Electromagnets
Today, most of the equipment used to
create the magnetic field used in MPI
is based on electromagnetism. That
is, using an electrical current to
produce the magnetic field. An
electromagnetic yoke is a very
common piece of equipment that is
used to establish a magnetic field. It
is basically made by wrapping an
electrical coil around a piece of soft
ferromagnetic steel. A switch is
included in the electrical circuit so
that the current and, therefore, the
magnetic field can be turned on and off. They can be powered with alternating current
from a wall socket or by direct current from a battery pack. This type of magnet
generates a very strong magnetic field in a local area where the poles of the magnet
touch the part being inspected. Some yokes can lift weights in excess of 40 pounds.

Portable yoke with battery pack

Portable magnetic particle kit

View a short movie on portable magnetic yokes. (716 KB mov)

Prods
Prods are handheld electrodes that are pressed
against the surface of the component being
inspected to make contact for passing electrical
current through the metal. The current passing
between the prods creates a circular magnetic
field around the prods that can be used in
magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically
made from copper and have an insulated handle
to help protect the operator. One of the prods has
a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly
and easily turned on and off. Sometimes the two

prods are connected by any insulator (as shown in the image) to facilitate one hand
operation. This is referred to as a dual prod and is commonly used for weld
inspections.
If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface,
electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. For this reason, the
use of prods are not allowed when inspecting aerospace and other critical
components. To help prevent arcing, the prod tips should be inspected frequently to
ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with scale or other contaminant, or
damaged.
The following applet shows two prods used to create a current through a conducting
part. The resultant magnetic field roughly depicts the patterns expected from an
magnetic particle inspection of an unflawed surface. The user is encouraged to
manipulate the prods to orient the magnetic field to "cut across" suspected defects.

Portable Coils and Conductive Cables

Coils and conductive cables are used to establish a longitudinal magnetic field within
a component. When a preformed coil is used, the component is placed against the
inside surface on the coil. Coils typically have three or five turns of a copper cable
within the molded frame. A foot switch is often used to energize the coil. Conductive
cables are wrapped around the component. The cable used is typically 00 extra
flexible or 0000 extra flexible. The number of wraps is determined by the magnetizing
force needed and of course, the length of the cable. Normally, the wraps are kept as
close together as possible. When using a coil or cable wrapped into a coil, amperage
is usually expressed in ampere-turns. Ampere-turns is the amperage shown on the
amp meter times the number of turns in the coil.

Portable Coil

Conductive Cable

Watch these short movies showing a cable being used to establish magnetic fields in
parts. Cable wrapped around part (690 KB mov). Cable wrapped through the part
(425 KB mov).
Portable Power Supplies
Portable power supplies are used to provide the necessary electricity to the prods,
coils or cables. Power supplies are commercially available in a variety of sizes. Small
power supplies generally provide up to 1,500A of half-wave direct current or
alternating current when used with a 4.5 meter 0000 cable. They are small and light
enough to be carried and operate on either 120V or 240V electrical service. When
more power is necessary, mobile power supplies can be used. These units come with
wheels so that they can be rolled where needed. These units also operate on 120V or
240V electrical service and can provide up to 6,000A of AC or half-wave DC when 9
meters or less of 0000 cable is used.
The features of a portable power supply are explained in this short movie (800KB
mov).

Stationary Equipment for

Magnetic Particle Inspection
Stationary magnetic particle inspection
equipment is designed for use in
laboratory or production environment.
The most common stationary system is
the wet horizontal (bench) unit. Wet
horizontal units are designed to allow for
batch inspections of a variety of
components. The units have head and
tail stocks (similar to a lathe) with
electrical contact that the part can be
clamped between. A circular magnetic
field is produced with direct
magnetization. The tail stock can be moved and locked into place to accommodate
parts of various lengths. To assist the operator in clamping the parts, the contact on
the headstock can be moved pneumatically via a foot switch.
Most units also have a movable coil that can be moved into place so the indirect
magnetization can be used to produce a longitudinal magnetic field. Most coils have
five turns and can be obtained in a variety of sizes. The wet magnetic particle solution
is collected and held in a tank. A pump and hose system is used to apply the particle
solution to the components being inspected. Either the visible or fluorescent particles
can be used. Some of the systems offer a variety of options in electrical current used
for magnetizing the component. The operator has the option to use AC, half wave DC,
or full wave DC. In some units, a demagnetization feature is built in, which uses the
coil and decaying AC.

To inspect a part using a head-shot, the part is

clamped between two electrical contact pads.
The magnetic solution, called a bath, is then
flowed over the surface of the part. The bath is
then interrupted and a magnetizing current is
applied to the part for a short duration,
typically 0.5 to 1.5 seconds. (Precautions
should be taken to prevent burning or
overheating of the part.) A circular field
flowing around the circumference of the part is
created. Leakage fields from defects then
attract the particles to form indications.

When the coil is used to establish a

longitudinal magnetic field within the part, the
part is placed on the inside surface of the coil.
Just as done with a head shot, the bath is then
flowed over the surface of the part. A
magnetizing current is applied to the part for a
short duration, typically 0.5 to 1.5 seconds, just
after coverage with the bath is interrupted.
(Precautions should be taken to prevent
burning or overheating of the part.) Leakage
fields from defects attract the particles to form
visible indications.

The wet horizontal unit can also be used to

establish a circular magnetic field using a
central conductor. This type of a setup is used
to inspect parts that have an open center, such
as gears, tubes, and other ring-shaped objects.
A central conductor is an electrically
conductive bar that is usually made of copper
or aluminum. The bar is inserted through the
opening and the bar is then clamped between
the contact pads. When current is passed
through the central conductor, a circular magnetic field flows around the bar and
enters into the part or parts being inspected.

Lights for
Magnetic Particle Inspection
Magnetic particle inspection can be
performed using particles that are
highly visible under white light
conditions or particles that are highly
visible under ultraviolet light
conditions. When an inspection is
being performed using the visible color
contrast particles, no special lighting is
required as long as the area of
inspection is well lit. A light intensity
of at least 1000 lux (100 fc) is
recommended when visible particles
are used, but a variety of light sources
can be used.
When fluorescent particles are used,
special ultraviolet light must be used. Fluorescence is defined as the property of
emitting radiation as a result of and during exposure to radiation. Particles used in
fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are coated with a material that produces
light in the visible spectrum when exposed to near-ultraviolet light. This "particle
glow" provides high contrast indications on the component anywhere particles collect.
Particles that fluoresce yellow-green are most common because this color matches the
peak sensitivity of the human eye under dark conditions. However, particles that
fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are available.
Ultraviolet Light
Ultraviolet light or "black light" is light in the 1,000 to 4,000 Angstroms (100 to
400nm) wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form
of light that is invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000A fall into the
visible light spectrum and are seen as the color violet. UV is separated according to
wavelength into three classes: A, B, and C. The shorter the wavelength, the more
energy that is carried in the light and the more dangerous it is to the human cells.
Class
UV-A
UV-B
UV-C

Wavelength Range
3,2004,000 Angstroms
2,8003,200 Angstroms
2,8001,000 Angstroms

The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500 and
3,800A with a peak wavelength at about 3,650A. This wavelength range is used
because it is in the UV-A range, which is the safest to work with. UV-B will do an
effective job of causing substances to fluoresce, however, it should not be used
because harmful effects such as skin burns and eye damage can occur. This
wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding process. UV-C
(1,000 to 2,800A) is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill bacteria in
industrial and medical settings.

The desired wavelength range for use in NDT is obtained by filtering the ultraviolet
light generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of
wavelengths. The short wavelengths of 3,120 to 3,340A are produced in low levels. A
peak wavelength of 3650A is produced at a very high intensity. Wavelengths in the
visible violet range (4050A to 4350A), green-yellow (5460A), yellow (6220A) and
orange (6770A) are also usually produced. The filter allows only radiation in the
range of 3200 to 4000A and a little visible dark purple to pass.
Basic Ultraviolet Lights
UV bulbs come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The more common types are the low
pressure tube, high pressure spot, the high pressure flood types. The tubular black
light is similar in construction to the tubular fluorescent lights used for office or home
illumination. These lights use a low pressure mercury vapor arc. Tube lengths of 6 to
48 inches are common. The low pressure bulbs are most often used to provide general
illumination to large areas rather than for illumination of components to be inspected.
These bulbs generate a relatively large amount of white light, which is concerning
since inspection specifications require less than two foot-candles of white light at the
inspection surface.
Flood lights are also used to illuminate the
inspection area, since they provide even
illumination over a large area. Intensity levels
for flood lamps are relatively low because the
energy is spread over a large area. They
generally do not generate the required UV
light intensity at the given distance that
specifications require.
Spot lights, on the other hand, provide
concentrated energy that can be directed to
the area of inspection. A spot light will
generate a six inch diameter circle of high
intensity light when held fifteen inches from the inspection surface. One hundred watt
mercury vapor lights are most commonly used, but higher wattages are available.
In the high pressure mercury vapor spot or flood lamps, UV light is generated by a
quartz tube inside the bulb. This tube contains two electrodes that establish an arc.
The distance between electrodes is such that a starting electrode must be used. A
resister limits the current to the starting electrode that establishes the initial arc that
vaporizes the mercury in the tube. Once this low level arc is established and the
mercury is vaporized, the arc between the main electrodes is established. It takes
approximately five minutes to "warm up" and establish the arc between the main
electrodes. This is why specifications require a "warm up time" before using the high
pressure mercury vapor lights. Flood and spot black lights produce large amounts of
heat and should be handled with caution to prevent burns. This condition has been
eliminated by newer designs that include cooling fans. The arc in the bulb can be
upset when exposed to an external magnetic field, such as that generated by a coil.
Care should be taken not to bring the lamp close to strong magnetic fields, but if the
arc is upset and extinguished, it must be allowed to cool before it can be safely
restarted.

High Intensity Ultraviolet Lights

The 400 watt metal halide bulbs or "super
lights" can be found in some facilities. This
super bright light will provide adequate
lighting over an area of up to ten times that
covered by the 100 watt bulb. Due to their
high intensity, excessive light reflecting from
the surface of a component is a concern.
Moving the light a greater distance from the
inspection area will generally reduce this
glare. Another type of high intensity light
available is the micro-discharge light. This
particular light produces up to ten times the amount of UV light conventional lights
produce. Readings of up to 60,000 uW/cm2 at 15 inches can be achieved.
The term black light originates from the fact that ultraviolet radiation is not visible to
the human eye and is, therefore, characterized as being black.

Magnetic Field Indicators

Determining whether a magnetic field is of adequate strength and in the proper
direction is critical when performing magnetic particle testing. As discussed
previously, knowing the direction of the field is important because the field should be
as close to perpendicular to the defect as possible and no more than 45 degrees from
normal. Being able to evaluate the field direction and strength is especially important
when inspecting with a multidirectional machine, because when the fields are not
balanced properly, a vector field will be produced that may not detect some defects.
There is actually no easy-to-apply method that permits an exact measurement of field
intensity at a given point within a material. In order to measure the field strength, it is
necessary to intercept the flux lines. This is impossible without cutting into the
material and cutting the material would immediately change the field within the part.
However, cutting a small slot or hole into the material and measuring the leakage field
that crosses the air gap with a Gauss meter is probably the best way to get an estimate
of the actual field strength within a part. Nevertheless, there are a number of tools and
methods available that are used to determine the presence and direction of the field
surrounding a component.
Gauss Meter or Hall Effect Gage
A Gauss meter with a Hall Effect probe is commonly used to measure the tangential
field strength on the surface of the part. As discussed in some detail on the
"Measuring Magnetic Fields" page, the Hall effect is the transverse electric field
created in a conductor when placed in a magnetic field. Gauss meters, also called
Tesla meters, are used to measure the strength of a field tangential to the surface of
the magnetized test object. The meters measure the intensity of the field in the air
adjacent to the component when a magnetic field is applied.

The advantages of Hall Effect devices are: they provide a quantitative measure of the
strength of magnetizing force tangential to the surface of a test piece, they can be used
for measurement of residual magnetic fields, and they can be used repetitively. Their
main disadvantages are that they must be periodically calibrated and they cannot be
used to establish the balance of fields in multidirectional applications.
Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI)
The Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) or Artificial Flaw Standard is often the
preferred method of assuring proper field direction and adequate field strength. The
use of a QQI is also the only practical way of ensuring balanced field intensity and
direction in multiple-direction magnetization equipment. QQIs are often used in
conjunction with a Gauss meter to establish the inspection procedure for a particular
component. They are used with the wet method only, and like other flux sharing
devices, can only be used with continuous magnetization.
The QQI is a thin strip of either 0.002 or 0.004 inch thick AISI 1005 steel. A photo
etch process is used to inscribe a specific pattern, such as concentric circles or a plus
sign. QQIs are nominally 3/4 inch square, but miniature shims are also available.
QQIs must be in intimate contact with the part being evaluated. This is accomplished
by placing the shim on a part etched side down, and taping or gluing it to the surface.
The component is then magnetized and particles applied. When the field strength is
adequate, the particles will adhere over the engraved pattern and provide information
about the field direction. When a multidirectional technique is used, a balance of the
fields is noted when all areas of the QQI produce indications.
Some of the advantages of QQIs are: they can be quantified and related to other
parameters, they can accommodate virtually any configuration with suitable selection,
and they can be reused with careful application and removal practices. Some of the
disadvantages are: the application process is somewhat slow, the parts must be clean
and dry, shims cannot be used as a residual magnetism indicator as they are a flux
sharing device, they can be easily damaged with improper handling, and they will
corrode if not cleaned and properly stored.

Above left is a photo of a typical QQI shim. The photo on the right shows the
indication produced by the QQI when it is applied to the surface a part and a magnetic
field is established that runs across the shim from right to left.
Pie Gage
The pie gage is a disk of highly permeable material divided into four, six, or eight
sections by nonferromagnetic material. The divisions serve as artificial defects that
radiate out in different directions from the center. The diameter of the gage is 3/4 to 1
inch. The divisions between the low carbon steel pie sections are to be no greater than
1/32 inch. The sections are furnace brazed and copper plated. The gage is placed on
the test piece copper side up and the test piece is magnetized. After particles are
applied and the excess removed, the indications provide the inspector the orientation
of the magnetic field.

The principal application is on flat surfaces such as weldments or steel castings where
dry powder is used with a yoke or prods. The pie gage is not recommended for
precision parts with complex shapes, for wet-method applications, or for proving field
magnitude. The gage should be demagnetized between readings.
Several of the main advantages of the pie gage are that it is easy to use and it can be
used indefinitely without deterioration. The pie gage has several disadvantages, which
include: it retains some residual magnetism so indications will prevail after removal
of the source of magnetization, it can only be used in relatively flat areas, and it
cannot be reliably used for determination of balanced fields in multidirectional
magnetization.
Watch this short movie to see a Pie field gage in action (600KB mov).
Slotted Strips
Slotted strips, also known as Burmah-Castrol Strips, are pieces of highly permeable
ferromagnetic material with slots of different widths. They are placed on the test
object as it is inspected. The indications produced on the strips give the inspector a
general idea of the field strength in a particular area.
Advantages of these strips are: they are relatively easily applied to the component,
they can be used successfully with either the wet or dry method when using the
continuous magnetization, they are repeatable as long as orientation to the magnetic
field is maintained, and they can be used repetitively. Some of the disadvantages are
that they cannot be bent to complex configuration and they are not suitable for
multidirectional field applications since they indicate defects in only one direction.

Magnetic Particles
As mentioned previously, the particles that are used for magnetic particle inspection
are a key ingredient as they form the indications that alert the inspector to defects.
Particles start out as tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron oxide. A
pigment (somewhat like paint) is bonded to their surfaces to give the particles color.
The metal used for the particles has high magnetic permeability and low retentivity.
High magnetic permeability is important because it makes the particles attract easily
to small magnetic leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivity is
important because the particles themselves never become strongly magnetized so they
do not stick to each other or the surface of the part. Particles are available in a dry mix
or a wet solution.
Dry Magnetic Particles
Dry magnetic particles can typically be
purchased in red, black, gray, yellow and
several other colors so that a high level of
contrast between the particles and the part
being inspected can be achieved. The size of
the magnetic particles is also very important.
Dry magnetic particle products are produced to
include a range of particle sizes. The fine
particles are around 50 m (0.002 inch) in size,
and are about three times smaller in diameter
and more than 20 times lighter than the coarse
particles (150 m or 0.006 inch). This make them more sensitive to the leakage fields
from very small discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made
exclusively of the fine particles. Coarser particles are needed to bridge large
discontinuities and to reduce the powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles
easily adhere to surface contamination, such as remnant dirt or moisture, and get
trapped in surface roughness features. It should also be recognized that finer particles
will be more easily blown away by the wind; therefore, windy conditions can reduce
the sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not recommended
because the small particles are less likely to be recaptured and the "once used" mix
will result in less sensitive inspections.
The particle shape is also important. Long,
slender particles tend align themselves along
the lines of magnetic force. However, research
has shown that if dry powder consists only of
long, slender particles, the application process
would be less than desirable. Elongated
particles come from the dispenser in clumps
and lack the ability to flow freely and form the
desired "cloud" of particles floating on the
component. Therefore, globular particles are
added that are shorter. The mix of globular and
elongated particles result in a dry powder that flows well and maintains good
sensitivity. Most dry particle mixes have particles with L/D ratios between one and
two.

Wet Magnetic Particles

Magnetic particles are also supplied in a wet suspension such as water or oil. The wet
magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the
suspension provides the particles with more mobility and makes it possible for smaller
particles to be used since dust and adherence to surface contamination is reduced or
eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a
relatively large area.
Wet method magnetic particles products differ from dry powder products in a number
of ways. One way is that both visible and fluorescent particles are available. Most
nonfluorescent particles are ferromagnetic iron oxides, which are either black or
brown in color. Fluorescent particles are coated with pigments that fluoresce when
exposed to ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce green-yellow are most common to
take advantage of the peak color sensitivity of the eye but other fluorescent colors are
also available. (For more information on the color sensitivity of the eye...see the
material on penetrant inspection.)

The particles used with the wet method are smaller in size than those used in the dry
method for the reasons mentioned above. The particles are typically 10 m (0.0004
inch) and smaller and the synthetic iron oxides have particle diameters around 0.1 m
(0.000004 inch). This very small size is a result of the process used to form the
particles and is not particularly desirable, as the particles are almost too fine to settle
out of suspension. However, due to their slight residual magnetism, the oxide particles
are present mostly in clusters that settle out of suspension much faster than the
individual particles. This makes it possible to see and measure the concentration of
the particles for process control purposes. Wet particles are also a mix of long slender
and globular particles.
The carrier solutions can be water or oil-based. Water-based carriers form quicker
indications, are generally less expensive, present little or no fire hazard, give off no
petrochemical fumes, and are easier to clean from the part. Water-based solutions are
usually formulated with a corrosion inhibitor to offer some corrosion protection.
However, oil-based carrier solutions offer superior corrosion and hydrogen
embrittlement protection to those materials that are prone to attack by these
mechanisms.

Suspension Liquids
Suspension liquids used in the wet
magnetic particle inspection method can
be either a well refined light petroleum
distillate or water containing additives.
Petroleum-based liquids are the most
desirable carriers because they provided
good wetting of the surface of metallic
parts. However, water-based carriers are
used more because of low cost, low fire
hazard, and the ability to form indications
quicker than solvent-based carriers.
Water-based carriers must contain wetting
agents to disrupt surface films of oil that
may exist on the part and to aid in the dispersion of magnetic particles in the carrier.
The wetting agents create foaming as the solution is moved about, so anti-foaming
agents must be added. Also, since water promotes corrosion in ferrous materials,
corrosion inhibitors are usually added as well.
Petroleum based carriers are primarily used in systems where maintaining the proper
particle concentration is a concern. The petroleum based carriers require less
maintenance because they evaporate at a slower rate than the water-based carriers.
Therefore, petroleum based carriers might be a better choice for a system that gets
only occasional use or when regularly adjusting the carrier volume is undesirable.
Modern solvent carriers are specifically designed with properties that have flash
points above 200oF and keep nocuous vapors low. Petroleum carriers are required to
meet certain specifications such as AMS 2641.

Dry Particle Inspection

In this magnetic particle testing technique, dry
particles are dusted onto the surface of the test
object as the item is magnetized. Dry particle
inspection is well suited for the inspections
conducted on rough surfaces. When an
electromagnetic yoke is used, the AC or half
wave DC current creates a pulsating magnetic
field that provides mobility to the powder. The
primary applications for dry powders are
unground welds and rough as-cast surfaces.
Dry particle inspection is also used to detect
shallow subsurface cracks. Dry particles with
half wave DC is the best approach when
inspecting for lack of root penetration in welds
of thin materials. Half wave DC with prods and

dry particles is commonly used when inspecting large castings for hot tears and
cracks.
Steps in performing an inspection using dry particles
Prepare the part surface - the surface should be relatively clean but this is not as
critical as it is with liquid penetrant inspection. The surface must be free of grease, oil
or other moisture that could keep particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint,
rust or scale will reduce test sensitivity but can sometimes be left in place with
adequate results. Specifications often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a
nonconductive coating (such as paint) and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a
ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint,
rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the magnetizing force - Use permanent magnets, an electromagnetic yoke,
prods, a coil or other means to establish the necessary magnetic flux.
Dust on the dry magnetic particles - Dust on a light layer of magnetic particles.
Gently blow off the excess powder - With the magnetizing force still applied,
remove the excess powder from the surface with a few gentle puffs of dry air. The
force of the air needs to be strong enough to remove the excess particles but not
strong enough to dislodge particles held by a magnetic flux leakage field.
Terminate the magnetizing force - If the magnetic flux is being generated with an
electromagnet or an electromagnetic field, the magnetizing force should be
terminated. If permanent magnets are being used, they can be left in place.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.

Wet Suspension Inspection

Wet suspension magnetic particle
inspection, more commonly known as
wet magnetic particle inspection,
involves applying the particles while
they are suspended in a liquid carrier.
Wet magnetic particle inspection is
most commonly performed using a
stationary, wet, horizontal inspection
unit but suspensions are also available
in spray cans for use with an
electromagnetic yoke. A wet inspection
has several advantages over a dry
inspection. First, all of the surfaces of
the component can be quickly and
easily covered with a relatively uniform layer of particles. Second, the liquid carrier
provides mobility to the particles for an extended period of time, which allows enough
particles to float to small leakage fields to form a visible indication. Therefore, wet
inspection is considered best for detecting very small discontinuities on smooth
surfaces. On rough surfaces, however, the particles (which are much smaller in wet
suspensions) can settle in the surface valleys and loose mobility, rendering them less
effective than dry powders under these conditions.

Steps in performing an inspection using wet suspensions

Prepare the part surface - Just as is required with dry particle inspections, the
surface should be relatively clean. The surface must be free of grease, oil and other
moisture that could prevent the suspension from wetting the surface and preventing
the particles from moving freely. A thin layer of paint, rust or scale will reduce test
sensitivity, but can sometimes be left in place with adequate results. Specifications
often allow up to 0.003 inch (0.076 mm) of a nonconductive coating (such as paint)
and 0.001 inch max (0.025 mm) of a ferromagnetic coating (such as nickel) to be left
on the surface. Any loose dirt, paint, rust or scale must be removed.
Apply the suspension - The suspension is gently sprayed or flowed over the surface
of the part. Usually, the stream of suspension is diverted from the part just before the
magnetizing field is applied.
Apply the magnetizing force - The magnetizing force should be applied immediately
after applying the suspension of magnetic particles. When using a wet horizontal
inspection unit, the current is applied in two or three short busts (1/2 second) which
helps to improve particle mobility.
Inspect for indications - Look for areas where the magnetic particles are clustered.
Surface discontinuities will produce a sharp indication. The indications from
subsurface flaws will be less defined and lose definition as depth increases.

Inspection Using Magnetic Rubber

The magnetic rubber technique was developed for detecting very fine cracks and is
capable of revealing finer cracks than other magnetic techniques. Additionally, the
technique can be use to examine difficult to reach areas, such as the threads on the
inside diameter of holes, where the molded plugs can be removed and examined under
ideal conditions and magnification if desired. The tradeoff, of course, is that
inspection times are much longer.
The techniques uses a liquid (uncured) rubber containing suspended magnetic
particles. The rubber compound is applied to the area to be inspected on a magnetized
component. Inspections can be performed using either an applied magnetic field,
which is maintained while the rubber sets (active field), or the residual field from
magnetization of the component prior to pouring the compound. A dam of modeling
clay is often used to contain the compound in the region of interest. The magnetic
particles migrate to the leakage field caused by a discontinuity. As the rubber cures,
discontinuity indications remain in place on the rubber.
The rubber is allowed to completely set, which takes from 10 to 30 minutes. The
rubber cast is removed from the part. The rubber conforms to the surface contours and
provides a reverse replica of the surface. The rubber cast is examined for evidence of
discontinuities, which appear as dark lines on the surface of the molding. The molding
can be retained as a permanent record of the inspection.
Magnetic rubber methods requires similar magnetizing systems used for dry method
magnetic particle tests. The system may include yokes, prods, clamps, coils or central
conductors. Alternating, direct current, or permanent magnets may be used to draw
the particles to the leakage fields. The direct current yoke is the most common
magnetization source for magnetic rubber inspection.

Continuous and Residual

Magnetization Techniques
In magnetic particle inspection, the magnetic
particles can either be applied to the
component while the magnetizing force is
applied, or after it has been stopped.
Continuous magnetization describes the
technique where the magnetizing force is
applied and maintained while the magnetic
particles are dusted or flowed onto the surface
of the component. In a wet horizontal testing
unit, the application of the particles is stopped
just before the magnetizing force is applied;
but, since particles are still flowing over and
covering the surface, this is considered
continuous magnetization. Residual magnetization, on the other hand, describes the
technique where the magnetizing force is applied to magnetize the component and
then stopped before applying the magnetic particles. Only the residual field of the
magnetized component is used to attract magnetic particles and produce an indication.
The continuous technique is generally chosen when maximum sensitivity is required
because it has two distinct advantages over the residual technique. First, the magnetic
flux will be highest when current is flowing and, therefore, leakage fields will also be
strongest. Field strength in a component depends primarily on two variables: the
applied magnetic field strength and the permeability of the test object. Viewing the
upper right portion of the hysteresis loop below, it is evident that the magnetic flux
will be the strongest when the magnetizing force is applied. If the magnetizing force
is strong enough, the flux density will reach the point of saturation. When the
magnetizing force is removed, the flux density will drop to the retentivity point. The
two gray traces show the paths the flux density would follow if the magnetizing force
was applied and removed at levels below that required to reach saturation. It can be
seen that the flux density is always highest while the magnetizing current is applied.
This is independent of the permeability of a material.

However, the permeability of the material is very important. High permeability

materials do not retain a strong magnetic field so flux leakage fields will be extremely
weak or nonexistent when the magnetizing force is removed. Therefore, materials
with high magnetic permeability are not suited for inspection using the residual
technique. When the residual technique is used to inspect materials with low
permeability, care should be taken to ensure that the residual field is of the necessary
strength to produce an indication. Defects should be relatively large and surface
breaking to have a high probability of detection using the residual method.
The second advantage of the continuous technique is that when current is used to
generate the magnetizing force, it can provide added particle mobility. Alternating or
pulsed direct current will cause the particles to vibrate and move slightly on the
surface of the part. This movement allows the particles to travel to leakage sites. More
particles mean brighter indications compared to those formed using the residual
technique.
One disadvantage of the continuous method is that heating of the component occurs
when using direct magnetization. For example, when prods are used, they may create
areas of localized heating when the continuous technique is used. This may be
acceptable on components that will be further processed (removing this condition),
but machined or in-service components may be adversely affected by this condition.
While generally not recommended, the residual technique does have its uses. It is
commonly used in automated inspection systems to inspect materials with high
retentivity. To speed throughput, automated systems often magnetize the parts and
then submerge them in an agitated magnetic particle bath or pass them through a
spray station. Closely controlled automated systems provided good results using the
residual magnetism technique.

Field Direction and Intensity

Field Direction
As discussed previously, determining the direction of the field is important when
conducting a magnetic particle inspection because the defect must produce a
significant disturbance in the magnetic field to produce an indication. It is difficult to
detect discontinuities that intersect the magnetic field at an angle less than 45o. When
the orientation of a defect is not well established, components should be magnetized
in a minimum of two directions at approximately right angles to each other.
Depending on the geometry of the component, this may require longitudinal
magnetization in two or more directions, multiple longitudinal and circular
magnetization or circular magnetization in multiple directions. Determining strength
and direction of the fields is especially critical when inspecting with a multidirectional
machine. If the fields are not balanced, a vector field will be produced that may not
detect some defects.
Depending on the application, pie gages, QQI's, or a gauss meter can be used to check
the field direction. The pie gage is generally only used with dry powder inspections.
QQI shims can be used in a variety of applications but are the only method
recommended for use in establishing balanced fields when using multidirectional
equipment.

Field Strength
The applied magnetic field must have sufficient strength to produce a satisfactory
indication, but not so strong that it produces nonrelevant indications or limits particle
mobility. If the magnetizing current is excessively high when performing a wet
fluorescent particle inspection, particles can be attracted to the surface of the part and
not be allowed to migrate to the flux leakage fields of defects. When performing a dry
particle inspection, an excessive longitudinal magnetic field will cause furring.
Furring is when magnetic particles build up at the magnetic poles of a part. When the
field strength is excessive, the magnetic field is forced out of the part before reaching
the end of the component and the poles along its length attract particles and cause
high background levels. Adequate field strength may be determined by:

Performing an inspection on a standard specimen that is similar to the test

component and has known or artificial defects of the same type, size, and
location as those expected in the test component. QQI shims can sometimes be
used as the artificial defects.
Using a gauss meter with a Hall effect probe to measure the peak values of the
tangent field at the surface of the part in the region of interest. Most
specifications call for a field strength of 30 to 60 gauss at the surface when the
magnetizing force is applied.
Looking for light furring at the ends of pipes or bars when performing dry
particle inspections on these and other uncomplicated shapes.

Formulas for calculating current levels should only be used to estimate current
requirements. The magnetic field strength resulting from calculations should be
assessed for adequacy using one of the two method discussed above. Likewise,
published current level information should also be used only as a guide unless the
values have been established for the specific component and target defects of the
inspection at hand.
Using a Pie Gage
A pie gage is placed copper side up and held
in contact with the component as the
magnetic field and particles are applied.
Indications of the leakage fields provide a
visual representation of defect direction
within the component. Pie gages work well
on flat surfaces, but if the surface is concave
or convex, inaccurate readings may occur.
The pie gage is a flux sharing device and
requires good contact to provide accurate
readings.
Using Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) Shims
Quantitative Quality Indicator (QQI) flaw shims are used to establish proper field
direction and to ensure adequate field strength during technique development. The
QQI flaw shim is the most efficient means of determining balance and effectiveness
of fields. The QQI's are also flux sharing devices and must be properly attach so as

not to allow particles to become trapped under the artificial flaw. Application using
Super glue is the preferred way of attaching the artificial flaw, but does not allow for
reuse of the shims. Shims can also be attached with tape applied to just the edge of the
shim. It is recommended that the tape be impervious to oil, not be fluorescent, and be
1/4 to 1/2 inch in width.
The QQI must be applied to locations on the component where the flux density may
vary. One example would be the center area of a yoke or Y shaped component.
Oftentimes, the flux density will be near zero in this area. If two legs of a Y are in
contact with the pad in circular magnetization, it must be determined if current is
flowing evenly through each leg. A QQI on each leg would be appropriate under such
conditions.
QQI's can be used to establish system threshold values for a defect of a given size. By
attaching a QQI shim with three circles (40%, 30% and 20% of shim thickness) to the
component, threshold values for a specific area of the component, can be established.
Begin by applying current at a low amperage and slowly increasing it until the largest
flaw is obtained. The flux density should be verified and recorded using a Hall effects
probe. The current is then increased until the second circle is identified and the flux
density is again recorded. As the current is further increased, the third ring is
identified and the current values are recorded.
Hall Effects Gauss Meter
There are several types of Hall effects probes
that can be used to measure the magnetic
field strength. Transverse probes are the type
most commonly used to evaluate the field
strength in magnetic particle testing.
Transverse probes have the Hall effect
element mounted in a thin, flat stem and they
are used to make measurements between two
magnetic poles. Axial probes have the
sensing element mounted such that the
magnetic flux in the direction of the long
axis of the probe is measured.
To make a measurement with a transverse probe, the probe is positioned such that the
flat surface of the Hall Effect element is transverse to the magnetic lines of flux. The
Hall Effect voltage is a function of the angle at which the magnetic lines of flux pass
through the sensing element. The greatest Hall Effect voltage occurs when the lines of
flux pass perpendicularly through the sensing element. If not perpendicular, the output
voltage is related to the cosine of the difference between 90 degrees and the actual
angle. The peak field strength should be measured when the magnetizing force is
applied. The field strength should be measured in all areas of the component to be
inspected.

Particle Concentration and Condition

Particle Concentration
The concentration of particles in the suspension is a very
important parameter in the inspection process and must be
closely controlled. The particle concentration is checked after
the suspension is prepared and regularly monitored as part of
the quality system checks. ASTM E-1444-01 requires
concentration checks to be performed every eight hours or at
ever shift change.
The standard process used to perform the check requires
agitating the carrier for a minimum of thirty minutes to ensure
even particle distribution. A sample is then taken in a pearshaped 100 ml centrifuge tube having a stem graduated to 1.0
ml in 0.05 ml increments for fluorescent particles, and
graduated to 1.5 ml. in 0.1 ml increments for visible particles.
The sample is then demagnetized so that the particles do not
clump together while settling. The sample must then remain undisturbed for a
minimum of 60 minutes for a petroleum-based carrier or 30 minutes for a water-based
carrier, unless shorter times have been documented to produce results similar to the
longer settling times. The volume of settled particles is then read. Acceptable ranges
are 0.1 to 0.4 ml for fluorescent particles and 1.2 to 2.4 ml for visible particles. If the
particle concentration is out of the acceptable range, particles or the carrier must be
added to bring the solution back in compliance with the requirement.
Particle loss is often attributed to "dragout." Dragout occurs
because the solvent easily runs off components and is
recaptured in the holding tank. Particles, on the other hand, tend
to adhere to components, or be trapped in geometric features of
the component. These particles will be "drug out" or lost to the
system and will eventually need to be replaced.
Particle Condition
After the particles have settled, they should be examined for
brightness and agglomeration. Fluorescent particles should be
evaluated under ultraviolet light and visible particles under
white light. The brightness of the particles should be evaluated weekly by comparing
the particles in the test solution to those in an unused reference solution that was
saved when the solution was first prepared. The brightness of the two solutions should
be relatively the same. Additionally, the particles should appear loose and not lumped
together. If the brightness or the agglomeration of the particles is noticeably different
from the reference solution, the bath should be replaced.

Suspension Contamination
The suspension solution should also be examined for
evidence of contamination. Contamination primarily comes
from inspected components. Oils, greases, sand, and dirt will
be introduced to the system through components. If the area is
unusually dusty, the system will pickup dust or other
contaminates from the environment.
This examination is performed on the carrier and particles
collected for concentration testing. The graduated portion of
the tube is viewed under ultraviolet and white light when
fluorescent particles are being used, and under white light
when visible particles are being used. The magnetic particles should be examined for
foreign particles, such as dirt, paint chips and other solids. Differences in color,
layering or banding within the settled particles would indicate contamination. Some
contamination is to be expected but if the foreign matter exceeds 30 percent of the
settled solids, the solution should be replaced.
The liquid carrier portion of the solution should also be inspected for contamination.
Oil in a water bath and water in a solvent bath are the primary concerns. If the
solution fluoresces brightly when fluorescent particles are being used, this can be an
indication that dye is being dislodged from the particles by the mixing pump. While
not technically contamination, this condition should be further evaluated by allowing
the collected sample bath to set for 10 to 12 hours and viewed under ultraviolet light.
If a band that fluoresces brighter than the bulk of particles is evident on top of the
settled solids, the bath contains excessive unattached fluorescent pigments and should
be discarded.
Water Break Test
A daily water break check is required to evaluate the surface wetting performance of
water-based carriers. The water break check simply involves flooding a clean surface
similar to those being inspected and observing the surface film. If a continuous film
forms over the entire surface, sufficient wetting agent is present. If the film of
suspension breaks (water break) exposing the surface of the component, insufficient
wetting agent is present and the solution should be adjusted or replaced.

Electrical System Checks

Changes in the performance of the electrical system of a magnetic particle inspection
unit can obviously have an effect on the sensitivity of an inspection. Therefore, the
electrical system must be checked when the equipment is new, when a malfunction is
suspected, or every six months. Listed below are the verification tests required by
ASTM E-1444-01.

Maximum Unit Output

A magnetic particle unit should be checked regularly (daily) to verify that the
maximum current output of its electrical system has not changed over time. This
check is performed by placing a large diameter (typically 1 inch or more) copper or
aluminum bar between the contacts and energizing the circuit with the current control
set to the maximum value. The maximum amperage as recorded by the system's
ammeter should be noted and compared to the value obtained when the unit was last
certified or calibrated. A significant drop or gradual decay indicates a problem with
the unit that should be corrected.
Internal Short Test
The internal short circuit testing is required to determine the if current is "leaking
past" the test article. Internal electrical leakage will cause the test equipment to
indicate current is flowing through the component when it is actually bypassing the
component. The process for checking equipment for this condition is to energize the
system with nothing between the contact heads and the amperage set to the highest
output. If the ammeter shows any current flow, internal shorting should be suspected.
Ammeter Check
It is important that the ammeter provide consistent and correct readings. If the meter
is reading low, over magnetization will occur and possibly result in excessive
background fluorescence. If ammeter readings are high, flux density could be too low
to produce detectable indications. To verify ammeter accuracy, a calibrated ammeter
is connected in series with the output circuit and values are compared to the
equipment's ammeter values. Readings are taken at three output levels in the working
range. The equipment meter is not to deviate from the calibrated ammeter more than
+/- 10 percent or 50 amperes, whichever is greater. If the meter is found to be outside
this range, the condition must be corrected. It should be noted that when measuring
half-wave rectified current, the readings should be doubled.
Quick Break Test
A quick break circuit is primarily used in three-phase, full-wave rectified systems to
ensure longitudinal magnetic fields maintain their strength to the end of a component.
Quick break circuits cause the current to abruptly collapse or drop to zero at the end
of the activation cycle. By doing this, low frequency eddy currents are produced close
to the surface of a component. These eddy currents help extend the useable
longitudinal field to the ends of the component. To determine if a quick break system
is functioning properly, an oscilloscope is often used. By observing the sine wave of
the current, it can be determined if current drops abruptly when the circuit is
interrupted.
Shot Timer Check
When a timer is used to control the shot duration, the timer must be calibrated. ASTM
E-1444 -01 requires the timer be calibrated to within +/- 0.1 second. A certified timer
should be used to verify the equipment timer is within the required tolerances.

Lighting
Magnetic particle inspection predominately relies on visual inspection to detect any
indications that form. Therefore, lighting is a very important element of the inspection
process. Obviously, the lighting requirements are different for an inspection
conducted using visible particles than they are for an inspection conducted using
fluorescent particles. The lighting requirements for each of these techniques, as well
as how light measurements are made, is discussed below.
Light Requirements When Using Visible Particles
Magnetic particle inspections that use visible particles can be conducted using natural
or artificial lighting. When using natural lighting, it is important to keep in mind that
daylight varies from hour to hour. Inspector must constantly stay aware of the lighting
conditions and make adjustments when needed. To improve the uniformity of lighting
from one inspection to the next, the use of artificial lighting is recommended.
Artificial lighting should be white whenever possible and white flood or halogen
lamps are most commonly used. The light intensity is required to be 100 foot-candles
at the surface being inspected. It is advisable to choose a white light wattage that will
provide sufficient light, but avoid excessive reflected light that could distract from the
inspection.
Light Requirements When Using Fluorescent Particles
Ultraviolet Lighting
When performing a magnetic particle inspection using fluorescent particles, the
condition of the ultraviolet light and the ambient white light must be monitored.
Standards and procedures require verification of lens condition and light intensity.
Black lights should never be used with a cracked filter as the output of white light and
harmful black light will be increased. The cleanliness of the filter should also be
checked regularly since a coating of solvent carrier, oil, or other foreign material can
reduce the intensity or light by as much as 50%. The filter should be checked visually
and cleaned as necessary before warming-up the light.
For UV lights used in component evaluations, the normally accepted intensity is
1000mwatts/cm2 when measured at 15 inches from the filter face (requirements can
vary from 800 to 1200mwatts/cm2). The required check should be performed when a
new bulb is installed, at startup of the inspection cycle, if a change in intensity is
noticed, or every eight hours if in continuous use. Regularly checking the intensity of
UV lights is very important because bulbs lose intensity over time. In fact, a bulb that
is near the end of its operating life will often have an intensity of only 25% of its
original output. Black light intensity will also be affected by voltage variations, so it is
important to provide constant voltage to the light. A bulb that produces acceptable
intensity at 120 volts will produce significantly less at 110 volts.
Ambient White Lighting
When performing a fluorescent magnetic particle inspection, it is important to keep
white light to a minimum as it will significantly reduce the inspectors ability to detect
fluorescent indications. Light levels of less than 2fc are required by most procedures
and some procedures require it to be less than 0.5fc at the inspection surface. Some

specifications require that a white light intensity measurement be made at 15 inches

from a UV light source to verify that the white light is being removed by the filter.
White Light for Indication Confirmation
While white light is held to a minimum in fluorescent inspections, procedures may
require that indications be evaluated under white light. The white light requirements
for this evaluation are the same as when performing an inspection with visible
particles. The minimum light intensity at the surface being inspected must be 100fc.
Light Measurement
Light intensity measurements are made using a radiometer. A radiometer is an
instrument that translates light energy into an electrical current. Light striking a
silicon photodiode detector causes a charge to build up between internal layers. When
an external circuit is
connected to the cell, an electrical current is produced. This current is linear with
respect to incident light. Some radiometers have the ability to measure both white and
UV light, while others require a separate sensor for each measurement. The sensing
area should always be kept clean and free of materials that could reduce or obstruct
light reaching the sensor.
Radiometers are relatively unstable instruments and readings often change
considerably over time. Therefore, they must be calibrated regularly. They should be
calibrated at least every six months. A unit should be checked to make sure its
calibration is current before taking any light readings.
Ultraviolet light measurements should be taken using a fixture to maintain a minimum
distance of 15 inches from the filter face to the sensor. The sensor should be centered
in the light field to obtain the peak reading. UV spot lights are often focused which
causes intensity readings to vary considerable over a small area. White lights are
seldom focused and, depending on the wattage, will often produce in excess of the
100fc at 15 inches.

Eye Consideration
Eye Adaptation
Just as lighting is an important consideration
in the inspection process, so is the eye's
response to light. Scientists have recently
discovered that a special, tiny group of cells
at the back of the eye help tell the brain how
much light there is, causing the pupil to get
bigger or smaller. The change in pupil
diameter is not instantaneous, therefore,
eyes must be given time to adapt to
changing lighting conditions. When performing a fluorescent magnetic particle
inspection, the eye must be given time to adapt to the darkness of the inspection booth
before beginning to look for indications. Dark adaptation time of at least one minute
is required by most procedures. Some studies recommend adaptation time of five

minutes if entering an inspection area from direct sunlight. Inspectors should carefully
adhere to the required adaptation time as it is quite easy to overlook an indication
when an inspection is started before the eyes have adjusted to the darkened
conditions.
Eyeball Fluorescence
When ultraviolet light enters the human eye, the fluid that fills the eye fluoresces.
This condition is called eyeball fluorescence, and while it is considered harmless, it is
annoying and interferes with vision while it exists. When working around ultraviolet
lights, one should be careful not to look directly into lights and to hold spot lights to
avoid reflection. UV light will be reflected from surfaces just as white light will, so it
is advisable to consider placement of lights to avoid this condition. Special filtered
glasses may be worn by the inspector to remove all UV light from reaching the eyes
but allowing yellow-green light from fluorescent indications to pass. Technicians
should never wear darkened or photochromatic glasses as these glasses also filter or
block light from fluorescent indications.

Examples of Visible Dry

Magnetic Particle Indications
Eddy Current:
A current induced in a conductor situated in a changing magnetic field or moving
in a fixed one.

Ultrasonic:
The study and use of pressure waves that have a frequency in excess of 20,000
Hz and therefore inaudible to the human ear.

One of the advantages that a magnetic particle inspection has over some of the other
nondestructive evaluation methods is that flaw indications generally resemble the
actual flaw. This is not the case with NDT methods such as ultrasonic and eddy
current inspection, where an electronic signal must be interpreted. When magnetic
particle inspection is used, cracks on the surface of the part appear as sharp lines that
follow the path of the crack. Flaws that exist below the surface of the part are less
defined and more difficult to detect. Below are some examples of magnetic particle
indications produced using dry particles.

Indication of a crack in a saw blade

Indication of cracks in a weldment

Indication of cracks originating at a fastener hole

Before and after inspection pictures of cracks emanating from a hole

Indication of cracks running between attachment holes in a hinge

Examples of Fluorescent Wet

Magnetic Particle Indications
The indications produced using the wet magnetic particles are more sharp than dry
particle indications formed on similar defects. When fluorescent particles are used,
the visibility of the indications is greatly improved because the eye is drawn to the
"glowing" regions in the dark setting. Below are a few examples of fluorescent wet
magnetic particle indications.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of cracks in a drive shaft.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a bearing.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a crane hook.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack at a sharp radius.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of a crack in a casting.

Magnetic particle wet fluorescent indication of cracks at a fastener hole.

Magnetic Particle Inspection 20

Question Quiz

~ First name ~

~ Last name ~

Which of the following has a very weak and negative

susceptibility to magnetic field?
Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials
None of the above

When a ferromagnetic material is in a unmagnetized

state, the domains are:
Aligned in a north and south direction
Aligned in a east and west direction
Randomly organized
Balanced to produce a gauss rating of 2

Magnetic lines of force:

Have the same strength
Seek the path of least resistance
Decrease in density with increasing distance from the
poles
All of the above

The magnetic field circling each loop of wire in a coil

combines with the fields from the other loops to produce
a concentrated field:
Which is maximized around the outside of the coil
Around each loop of the coil
Down the center of the coil

All of the above

A material with a wider hysteresis loop has:

Lower permeability
Higher retentivity
Higher coercivity
All of the above

Which of the following has a large susceptibility to

magnetic field?
Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials
None of the above

Faradays Law of Magnetic Induction states that:

The flow of electrons can be used to generate a magnetic
field
The magnetic forces of the material's electrons will be
affected by an external magnetic field
Iron filings can be used to produce an indication of a
flaw
Flux leakage is the byproduct of magnetic fields when
testing aluminum alloys.

The central conductor technique is sometimes used

because it:
Allows large diameter circular parts to be completely
inspected with one application of the magnetizing force
Produces a longitudinal field in circular parts
Establishes a magnetic field that extends from the ID to
the OD of a circular part
None of the above
A material is considered demagnetized when:

Its residual magnetic field measures less than 5 gauss

It no longer produces an indication
It's no longer attracted to a magnet
Its residual magnetic field measures less than 3 gauss

10

Magnetic particle inspection has several advantages over

liquid penetrant inspection which include:
Components with thin coatings can be inspected without
removing the coating
Components can be inspected more rapidly
The technique is more portable
Both A and B

11

When using both a circular and longitudinal magnetic

field, the circular field is usually established first
because:
It is more difficult to establish a circular field
It is easier to flip the domains of a circular field to a
longitudinal field
It is easier to measure a longitudinal field
None of the above

12

When using the direct induction method:

The part must be placed in the center of the coil
Good electrical contact must be established between the
test equipment and test component
The part may be tested in only one direction
It is not necessary to demagnetize the part

13

The best detection of defects occurs:

When the magnetic field is 10% beyond its saturation
point
When the hysteresis loop shifts from positive to negative
When the lines of magnetic force are parallel to the

longest dimension of the defect

When the lines of magnetic force are perpendicular to the
longest dimension of the defect

14

When performing a magnetic particle test with a coil, the

part should be placed:
Along the outside edge the coil
Along the inside edge of the coil
Centered in the coil
None of the above

15

A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force

that run:
Parallel to the long axis of the part
90 degrees to the long axis of the part
Transverse to the long axis of the part
Opposite the waveform of the magnetic particle machine
used

16

The number of magnetic lines of force cutting thorugh a

plane of a given area at a right angle is known as the:
Magnetic flux leakage
Magnetic flux density
Magnetic ampere
None of the above

17

Multidirectional inspection equipment:

Provides a more sensitive inspection
Provices a less sensitive inspection
Can be used without the need for QQIs
Reduces inspection time

18

An object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a

second equal but opposite magnetic pole on the other is
called a:

Dipole
Inductor
Capacitor
A ferromagnetic material

19

Materials can be demagnetized by:

Heating above thier curie temperature
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing
magnetic field
Both A and B
None of the above

20

A volume of space where there is a change in magnetic

energy is called:
A magnetic field
A magnetic dipole
A magnetic pole
A magnetic domain

Magnetic Particle Inspection 35

Question Quiz

Ferromagnetic materials are made up of small polarized

regions known as:
Photons
Quarks
Electrons
Domains

The area where the exit poles are concentrated is called

the magnets:
South pole

North pole
Dipole
Flux density

Which of the following has a very weak and negative

susceptibility to magnetic field?
Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials
None of the above

The magnetic flux density that remains in the material

when the magnetizing force is zero is called:
Retentivity
Residual magnetism
Coercive force
Permeability

A property of a material that describes the ease with

which a magnetic flux is established in a component is
called:
Retentivity
Residual magnetism
Coercive force
Permeability

The best detection of defects occurs:

When the magnetic field is 10% beyond its saturation
point
When the hysteresis loop shifts from positive to negative
When the lines of magnetic force are parallel to the
longest dimension of the defect
When the lines of magnetic force are perpendicular to the
longest dimension of the defect

A location where a magnetic field can be detected exiting

or entering a material is called:
A magnetic pole
A magnetic field
A flux field
Polarity

Since all matter is composed of atoms:

All parts can be tested with MPI if they are heated to
their curie temperature
All materials can be tested with a MPI regardless of
temperature
All materials are affected in some way by a magnetic
field
None of the above

The magnetic field circling each loop of wire in a coil

combines with the fields from the other loops to produce
a concentrated field:
Which is maximized around the outside of the coil
Around each loop of the coil
Down the center of the coil
All of the above

10

An object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a

second equal but opposite magnetic pole on the other is
called a:
Dipole
Inductor
Capacitor
A ferromagnetic material
A material with a narrower hysteresis loop has:

11

Higher residual magnetism

Higher permeability
Lower residual magnetism
Higher retentivity

12

The opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to

the establishment of a magnetic field is called:
Retentivity
Reluctance
Coercive force
Permeability

13

Components generally must be demagnetized because

residual magnetism can:
Affect machining and welding processes
Interfere with near by electronic components
Increase wear by attracting abrasive particles
All of the above

14

When all the magnetic domains are aligned, the material

is said to be:
Magnetically saturated
Partially magnetized
Magnetically stable
Unmagnetized

15

A material with a wider hysteresis loop has:

Lower reluctance
Lower residual magnetism
Higher residual magnetism
Higher premeability
Magnetic lines of force:

16

Have the same strength

Seek the path of least resistance
Decrease in density with increasing distance from the
poles
All of the above

17

When testing parts with magnetic particles, it is best to

magnetize the part:
In two directions at right angles to each other
With AC whenever possible
With DC whenever possible
With an amperage of at least 1000 amps

18

When the magnetizing current is stopped, a

ferromagnetic material will:
remain magnetically saturated
become demagnetized
retain a residual magnetic field withing the component
None of the above

19

A current carrying conductor induces a magnetic field:

By direct induction
By direct induction
That is longitudinal
That is circular
By magnostriction

20

A material is considered demagnetized when:

Its residual magnetic field measures less than 5 gauss
It no longer produces an indication
It's no longer attracted to a magnet
Its residual magnetic field measures less than 3 gauss
When a ferromagnetic material is in a unmagnetized

21

state, the domains are:

Aligned in a north and south direction
Aligned in a east and west direction
Randomly organized
Balanced to produce a gauss rating of 2

22

A volume of space where there is a change in magnetic

energy is called:
A magnetic field
A magnetic dipole
A magnetic pole
A magnetic domain

23

The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be

applied to a magnetic material to reduce the magnetic
flux to zero is called:
Retentivity
Residual magnetism
Coercive force
Permeability

24

When using both a circular and longitudinal magnetic

field, the circular field is usually established first
because:
It is more difficult to establish a circular field
It is easier to flip the domains of a circular field to a
longitudinal field
It is easier to measure a longitudinal field
None of the above

25

Faradays Law of Magnetic Induction states that:

The flow of electrons can be used to generate a magnetic
field
The magnetic forces of the material's electrons will be

affected by an external magnetic field

Iron filings can be used to produce an indication of a
flaw
Flux leakage is the byproduct of magnetic fields when
testing aluminum alloys.

26

A material with a wider hysteresis loop has:

Lower permeability
Higher retentivity
Higher coercivity
All of the above

27

Materials can be demagnetized by:

Heating above thier curie temperature
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing
magnetic field
Both A and B
None of the above

28

Which of the following has a large susceptibility to

magnetic field?
Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials
None of the above

29

Magnetic lines of force:

Almost never cross each other
Commonly cross each other
Will shift 90 degrees when a direct current is applied
Never cross each other
Magnetic lines of force:

30

Form closed loops from pole to pole

Will shift 180 degrees when a direct current is applied
Were discovered by Wilhelm Hurst
None of the above

31

The number of magnetic lines of force cutting thorugh a

plane of a given area at a right angle is known as the:
Magnetic flux leakage
Magnetic flux density
Magnetic ampere
None of the above

32

A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force

that run:
Parallel to the long axis of the part
90 degrees to the long axis of the part
Transverse to the long axis of the part
Opposite the waveform of the magnetic particle machine
used

33

A circular magnetic field has lines of force that run:

Parallel to the long axis of the part
90 degrees to the long axis of the part
Circumferentially around the perimeter of the part
Opposite the waveform of the magnetic particle machine
used

34

A yoke establishes a magnetic field:

That can be constant or pulsed
Between the north and south poles of the yoke
Equally in all directions around the poles
Both A and B
A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the:

35

Induced magnetic flux density and the magnetizing force

Induced magnetic flux density and the electron force
Electron flow and magnetic field strength
Flux density and number of coil turns

Magnetic Particle Inspection 50

Question Quiz

An object that has a magnetic pole on one end and a

second equal but opposite magnetic pole on the other is
called a:
Dipole
Inductor
Capacitor
A ferromagnetic material

When all the magnetic domains are aligned, the material

is said to be:
Magnetically saturated
Partially magnetized
Magnetically stable
Unmagnetized

When a ferromagnetic material is in a unmagnetized

state, the domains are:
Aligned in a north and south direction
Aligned in a east and west direction
Randomly organized
Balanced to produce a gauss rating of 2

When a magnetic field cuts across a crack:

Electrons begin jumping back and forth across the crack
The crack begins to heat up
Magnetic poles form at the edges of the crack
All of the above

When using both a circular and longitudinal magnetic

field, the circular field is usually established first
because:
It is more difficult to establish a circular field
It is easier to flip the domains of a circular field to a
longitudinal field
It is easier to measure a longitudinal field
None of the above

Faradays Law of Magnetic Induction states that:

The flow of electrons can be used to generate a magnetic
field
The magnetic forces of the material's electrons will be
affected by an external magnetic field
Iron filings can be used to produce an indication of a
flaw
Flux leakage is the byproduct of magnetic fields when
testing aluminum alloys.

Components generally must be demagnetized because

residual magnetism can:
Affect machining and welding processes
Interfere with near by electronic components
Increase wear by attracting abrasive particles
All of the above

The magnetic field circling each loop of wire in a coil

combines with the fields from the other loops to produce
a concentrated field:
Which is maximized around the outside of the coil
Around each loop of the coil
Down the center of the coil
All of the above

A material with a wider hysteresis loop has:

Higher reluctance
Higher permeability
Lower retentivity
All of the above

10

Magnetic lines of force:

Form closed loops from pole to pole
Will shift 180 degrees when a direct current is applied
Were discovered by Wilhelm Hurst
None of the above

11

Dry magnetic particles:

Cannot be reused
Come in only one color
Are all of uniform size
None of the above

12

A material with a wider hysteresis loop has:

Lower permeability
Higher retentivity
Higher coercivity
All of the above

13

Since all matter is composed of atoms:

All parts can be tested with MPI if they are heated to
their curie temperature
All materials can be tested with a MPI regardless of
temperature
All materials are affected in some way by a magnetic
field
None of the above

14

A material with a narrower hysteresis loop has:

Higher reluctance
Lower coercivity
Higher retentivity
All of the above

15

A circular magnetic field has lines of force that run:

Parallel to the long axis of the part
90 degrees to the long axis of the part
Circumferentially around the perimeter of the part
Opposite the waveform of the magnetic particle machine
used

16

A yoke establishes a magnetic field:

That can be constant or pulsed
Between the north and south poles of the yoke
Equally in all directions around the poles
Both A and B

17

When using the direct induction method:

The part must be placed in the center of the coil
Good electrical contact must be established between the
test equipment and test component
The part may be tested in only one direction
It is not necessary to demagnetize the part

18

Magnetic particle inspection can be performed on parts

made from which materials?
Iron, nickel, copper
Iron, nickel, cobalt
Nickel, cobalt, copper
Iron only

19

The number of magnetic lines of force cutting thorugh a

plane of a given area at a right angle is known as the:
Magnetic flux leakage
Magnetic flux density
Magnetic ampere
None of the above

20

A material with a wider hysteresis loop has:

Lower reluctance
Lower residual magnetism
Higher residual magnetism
Higher premeability

21

A property of a material that describes the ease with

which a magnetic flux is established in a component is
called:
Retentivity
Residual magnetism
Coercive force
Permeability

22

The magnetic flux density that remains in the material

when the magnetizing force is zero is called:
Retentivity
Residual magnetism
Coercive force
Permeability

23

The opposition that a ferromagnetic material shows to

the establishment of a magnetic field is called:
Retentivity
Reluctance
Coercive force

Permeability

24

A material is considered demagnetized when:

Its residual magnetic field measures less than 5 gauss
It no longer produces an indication
It's no longer attracted to a magnet
Its residual magnetic field measures less than 3 gauss

25

Which of the following has a very weak and negative

susceptibility to magnetic field?
Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials
None of the above

26

Which of the following has a large susceptibility to

magnetic field?
Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials
None of the above

27

A current carrying conductor induces a magnetic field:

By direct induction
By direct induction
That is longitudinal
That is circular
By magnostriction

28

When testing parts with magnetic particles, it is best to

magnetize the part:
In two directions at right angles to each other
With AC whenever possible

With DC whenever possible

With an amperage of at least 1000 amps

29

A material with a narrower hysteresis loop has:

Higher permeability
Lower retentivity
Lower coercivity
All of the above

30

Magnetic lines of force:

Almost never cross each other
Commonly cross each other
Will shift 90 degrees when a direct current is applied
Never cross each other

31

A material with a narrower hysteresis loop has:

Higher residual magnetism
Higher permeability
Lower residual magnetism
Higher retentivity

32

A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force

that run:
Parallel to the long axis of the part
90 degrees to the long axis of the part
Transverse to the long axis of the part
Opposite the waveform of the magnetic particle machine
used

33

Magnetic lines of force:

Have the same strength
Seek the path of least resistance
Decrease in density with increasing distance from the

poles
All of the above

34

The best detection of defects occurs:

When the magnetic field is 10% beyond its saturation
point
When the hysteresis loop shifts from positive to negative
When the lines of magnetic force are parallel to the
longest dimension of the defect
When the lines of magnetic force are perpendicular to the
longest dimension of the defect

35

A volume of space where there is a change in magnetic

energy is called:
A magnetic field
A magnetic dipole
A magnetic pole
A magnetic domain

36

When the magnetizing current is stopped, a

ferromagnetic material will:
remain magnetically saturated
become demagnetized
retain a residual magnetic field withing the component
None of the above

37

Which type of current flows continuously in one direction

at a constant voltage?
Direct current
Alternating current
Rectified alternating current
Half wave rectified alternating current
When performing a magnetic particle test with a coil, the
part should be placed:

38

Along the outside edge the coil

Along the inside edge of the coil
Centered in the coil
None of the above

39

A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the:

Induced magnetic flux density and the magnetizing force
Induced magnetic flux density and the electron force
Electron flow and magnetic field strength
Flux density and number of coil turns

40

Multidirectional inspection equipment:

Provides a more sensitive inspection
Provices a less sensitive inspection
Can be used without the need for QQIs
Reduces inspection time

41

The central conductor technique is sometimes used

because it:
Allows large diameter circular parts to be completely
inspected with one application of the magnetizing force
Produces a longitudinal field in circular parts
Establishes a magnetic field that extends from the ID to
the OD of a circular part
None of the above

42

Materials can be demagnetized by:

Heating above thier curie temperature
Subjecting the component to a reversing and decreasing
magnetic field
Both A and B
None of the above

43

A location where a magnetic field can be detected exiting

or entering a material is called:
A magnetic pole
A magnetic field
A flux field
Polarity

44

The force required to remove the residual magnetism

from the material is called the:
Inverse force
Reciprocal force
Coercive force
Residual force

45

The use of prods is sometimes restricted because:

They produce a relatively weak field
There is a potential for arcing that could damage parts
It is not possible to control the field orientation
None of the above

46

Magnetic particle inspection has several advantages over

liquid penetrant inspection which include:
Components with thin coatings can be inspected without
removing the coating
Components can be inspected more rapidly
The technique is more portable
Both A and B

47

Magnetic particle inspection uses small ferromagnetic

particles simmilar to:
Copper filing
Iron filings
Magnesium filings

Permanent Magnets

48

The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be

applied to a magnetic material to reduce the magnetic
flux to zero is called:
Retentivity
Residual magnetism
Coercive force
Permeability

49

Ferromagnetic materials are made up of small polarized

regions known as:
Photons
Quarks
Electrons
Domains

50

The area where the exit poles are concentrated is called

the magnets:
South pole
North pole
Dipole
Flux density