Goering, Carroll E., Marvin L Stone, David W. Smith, and Paul K. Turnquist. 2003.

Development of
off-road vehicles. Chapter 1 in Off-Road Vehicle Engineering Principles, 1-18. St. Joseph, Mich.:
ASAE. American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

CHAPTER 1

DEVELOPMENT
OF OFF-ROAD
VEHICLES
1.1 Introduction
The National Academy of Engineering named the 20 greatest engineering
achievements of the 20th century (Inside ASAE, 2000). Agricultural mechanization
was ranked seventh ahead of computers, the telephone and spacecraft. Development
and use of off-road vehicles, primarily the agricultural tractor, played a major role in
the agricultural mechanization achievements of the past century.
It was recognized more than a century ago that human beings were inefficient as a
primary source of power, about 0.1 kW continuous output. A steam-powered tractor
plowing sod was demonstrated in 1858, but tractors got their first impetus during
World War I and really came into their own during World War II, in each case
because of the enormous increase in demand for food and fiber production, while
experiencing a severe decrease in available agricultural labor.
Evolution of the tractor has accompanied changes in farm technology and sizes of
farms. The tractor has progressed from its original primary use as a substitute for
animal power to the present units designed for multiple uses. Traction and power, belt
power, power take-off drives, mounted tools, hydraulic remote-control units,
electronic sensing and control of machine performance, and ergonomically designed
operator workplace and climate-controlled cabs have extended the usefulness and
efficiency of the tractor for agricultural and other off-road uses.
The word tractor has been attributed to various sources (Farm Implement News,
1952, 1953), however, according to the Oxford Dictionary, the word was first used in
1856 in England as a synonym for traction engine. The term tractor appears in an
1890 U.S. patent for a track-laying steamtraction engine. The rapid increase in

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES

numbers and versatility of tractors has been accompanied by a similar decrease in

numbers of horses and mules on farms in the United States (USDA, 1960). Depending
upon local and domestic conditions, various types and sizes of tractors have been
developed and used worldwide.
The early steam engines furnished belt power, but they had to be pulled from place
to place by horses or oxen. The next step in the evolution in farm power was the
conversion of the steam engine into a self-propelled traction engine. Successful steam
plows were developed in the 1850s, and improvements continued until 1900.
Inadequate traction plagued the inventors of the large heavy tractors, who tried to
solve the problem by making the driving wheels wider and wider. One big-wheeled
tractor made in 1900 for use in California had two wood-covered drive wheels, each 5
m wide and 3 m in diameter. The tractor weighed about 36 tons. Other attempts to
solve the problem of traction resulted in the development of track-type agricultural
tractors about 1900.
Early attempts to develop gasoline tractors were stimulated by the need for
reduction in the number of workers required to attend the steam tractors, both when
plowing and operating threshing machines. Early gasoline tractors resembled steam
tractors. Considerable development was needed before a reasonably successful
internal combustion engine was available for a tractor. The internal combustion engine
did not assume much importance until after the expiration of the Otto patents in 1890.
The first Winnipeg tractor trials were held in 1908, giving the public an opportunity
to compare field operations of steam and gas tractors. Succeeding trials were held each
year through 1912, when they were discontinued. The first U.S. tractor demonstration,
held at Omaha, Nebraska, in 1911, was conducted as an exhibition and not as a
competition between machines.
The Nebraska Tractor Test Law, passed in 1919, specified that every tractor sold in
the state of Nebraska should be tested and the results published. In addition, the
manufacturer was required to maintain an adequate supply of parts for repairs. The
tests, which attained worldwide recognition, have provided standards for rating
tractors, speeded improvements, and eliminated many types that were inferior in
design and performance.

1.2 History of Vehicle Development

Some of the important highlights in tractor development are listed here.
1858-1919
Steam plowing engine by J. W. Fawkes drew eight plows at 4.8 km/h in virgin sod in
1858.
The Parvins steamer was probably the first U.S. attempt at a track-laying device in
1873, although the U.S. Patent Office recorded crawler tractor developments in the
early 1850s.
Otto patents were issued for an internal combustion engine in 1876.
At least one company built a tractor with an internal combustion engine in 1889.
The first Winnipeg tractor trials were held in 1908.

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

The first tractor demonstration was held in the United States at Omaha, Nebraska, in
1911.
Smaller, lightweight tractors were introduced.
The frameless-type tractor was introduced.
Cast iron was first used in chassis on the 1917 Fordson tractor (Miller, 2000). This
promoted frame rigidity and accuracy of drive train alignment.
Oil cooled clutch facings were first used on 1917 Fordson tractor (Miller, 2000). The
oil used was from the engine sump.
The Nebraska Tractor Test Law was passed in 1919.
The power take-off was introduced on the International 8-16 tractor in 1919, which
expanded the versatility by providing engine power for drawn equipment (Miller,
2000).
1920-1929
The first Nebraska tractor test was completed on a John Deere Waterloo Boy in 1920
(Bashford, 2000).
A highly successful row-crop or all-purpose farm tractor was developed and marketed
as the McCormick-Deering Farmall Regular in 1924 (Miller, 2000).
The mechanical rockshaft to lift mounted equipment was introduced in 1927 on the
Deere model GP tractor (Miller, 2000).
The power take-off was gradually adopted.
1930-1939
Caterpillar introduced the diesel engine in 1931 in one of their crawler tractors.
Nebraska Test No. 208 reported it developed 83.86 belt horsepower (Miller, 2000).
Rubber tires by Firestone Rubber and Allis-Chalmers were first offered in 1932 (an
earlier option was available on the Model U). Rubber tires replaced steel wheels
during the next 20 years. Rubber tires enabled higher field and transport speeds,
increased tractive power and provided a more comfortable ride (Miller, 2000).
First wheeled diesel tractor tested at Nebraska.
Hydraulic rockshaft replaced the mechanical rockshaft in 1936 on the Deere Model A
tractor (Miller, 2000). The need for powered lift prompted all manufacturers to
provide this feature.
Interest in high-compression engines increased and in 1937 the Oliver 70 HC was the
first tractor available with a higher compression ratio that could utilize the 70octane fuel. This resulted in higher power for the same engine size and better fuel
economy (Miller, 2000).
Outside styling consultants were hired to enhance tractor appearance in 1938 by
International Harvester and Deere. IH used Raymond Loewy and Deere used Henry
Dreyfuss Associates (Miller, 2000).
The weight-transfer hitch was introduced in 1938 on the Ford 9N tractor. It used the
hydraulically operated rockshaft to increase or decrease traction by lifting or
lowering the hitch (Miller, 2000).
Full electric equipment was adopted.
1940-1949
Live power take-off was introduced.

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES

LPG engines burned petroleum gases consisting of butane and propane. MinneapolisMoline marketed the first LPG tractor engine in about 1941. LPG is a clean burning
fuel and extended engine life. Use continued through the 1960s (Miller, 2000).
Remote hydraulic cylinders for mounted and drawn implements were adopted and
standardized by SAE and ASAE, accelerating their adoption and use (Miller,
2000).
First LPG tractor tested at Nebraska.
Number of lawn and garden tractors expanded rapidly.
1950-1959
Power of tractors increased rapidly.
Percentage of diesel tractors increased.
Large four-wheel drive tractors were developed for the wheatland areas of North
America.
Last LPG tractor tested at Nebraska.
Refinements such as power steering, automatic transmissions, and transmissions with
greater speed selections became widely available.
1960-1969
Power of tractors continued to increase.
Except for the smallest tractors in the United States, all tractors now have diesel
engines.
Much more emphasis was placed on operator comfort and safety.
Full power-shift transmissions became available.
Planetary final drives for the final transmission reduction in large tractors (Miller,
2000).
Ergonomic seat and suspension designs resulted in improved comfort and adjustability
for operators (Miller, 2000).
Radial-ply tractor tires became available.
The number of power tillers started to expand in Japan.
1970-1979
Turbocharger and intercoolers were added to diesel engines.
Roll-over protective structures (ROPS) became available and, beginning October 15,
1976, were required on all new tractors sold for use by employees in the United
States.
Most large tractors were equipped with cabs.
Nebraska tractor test included sound level measurements in 1970.
Four-wheel drive increased in popularity.
Last gasoline tractor tested at Nebraska in 1978; since then, only diesel tractors have
been tested.
Percentage tractors of more than 75 kW continued to increase in North America.
1980-2000
Tractors equipped with electronic sensing and control systems for improved
performance

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

Nebraska tractor tests start testing to meet requirements of the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) codes that are internationally
accepted (Bashford, 2000).
First Nebraska lift test was published in 1984 (Bashford, 2000).
Number of maintenance, landscape and garden tractors expanded rapidly.
Introduction of rubber-belted track agricultural vehicles.
Tractor size and power have appeared to reach upper limit of 300 kW.

1.3 Types of Off-Road Vehicles

Early tractors, essentially a substitute for draft horses, were first powered by a
steam engine. The internal combustion engine came later. The first tractors were large
and cumbersome and were suited mainly for plowing and threshing. As time passed,
the tractor was developed for many more purposes. Adaptations were made for its use
as a motor cultivator, and later came the general-purpose tractor to perform major
farm operations.
The many uses, adaptations, and refinements of the tractor have resulted in the
gradual evolution of several recognized classifications. One descriptive classification,
listed below, is based on steering method, the arrangement of the frame, and traction
members (see Figures 1.1 to 1.9).
Crawler
Power tiller
Standard row-crop
Tree skidder
High-clearance
Skid-steer loader
Utility
Four-wheel drive with smaller front
steering wheels
Orchard
Lawn and garden
Four-wheel drive with equal-sized
wheels and articulated frame steering
Multipurpose
The crawler tractor originally introduced in the 1930s had steel tracks. In the early
1990s Caterpillar introduced the Challenger series with a rubber-belted track drive
(Figure 1.1). It is designed for row-crop and tillage operations.
The standard tractor (Figure 1.2) was developed primarily for traction. It is
characterized by a drive through the two rear wheels, with center of gravity located at
approximately one-third the wheelbase ahead of the rear axles. Row-crop tractors, in
addition to being suitable for traction work, are especially adapted for use on row
crops, allowing quick attachment of various tillage and cultivation tools as well as
implements for such tasks as mowing and handling forages.

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES

Figure 1.1. Crawler tractor. CAT Challenger Model 75E with rubber belted tracks. Power
ranges from 131 to 306 kW. (Reprinted with permission from Caterpillar, Inc.)

Figure 1.2. Standard, or row-crop tractor. Power ranges from 56 to 82 kW.

(Reprinted with permission from New Holland North America, Inc.)

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

Figure 1.3. Utility or light industrial tractor. Power ranges from 24 to 54 kW.
(Reprinted with permission from Kubota Tractor Corporation.)

Figure 1.4. Lawn and garden tractor. Power ranges from 5 to 15 kW.
(Reprinted with permission from Areins Company.)

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES

High-clearance tractors are usually modified row-crop tractors designed especially

for crops that require extra clearance, such as cane.
Utility tractors (Figure 1.3) generally have less clearance than standard or row-crop
tractors. They are used for many jobs on the farm or ranch and are often equipped with
a front loader. A typical use for such a tractor is cleaning a feedlot.
An orchard tractor differs little from a utility tractor except that it is a few
centimeters lower. The ROPS standard by the Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) does not apply, and therefore the tractor is not equipped with
a rollover protective structure.
Lawn and garden tractors (Figure 1.4) have a power output of less than 15kW and
are primarily designed for the care of large lawns. They can tow or carry a lawn
mower, a sweeper, a snow blower, a bulldozer blade, and many other attachments.
Because these tractors have very low clearance and are designed for light-duty use,
they are not generally used for agricultural production.
A power tiller is a two-wheeled tractor guided by hand and used commonly in the
rice-growing region of Japan and Southeast Asia. The power tiller is equipped with a
rotary tiller and powered by a horizontal single-cylinder engine of 5 to 12 kW.
The tree skidder (Figure 1.5) is a four-wheel-drive tractor developed especially for
moving tree trunks out of the forest to an area where they can be loaded onto trucks.
The tree skidder is a combination of an agricultural and an industrial tractor.
The skid-steer tractor (Figure 1.6) was designed especially for industrial use, but it
is often used in agriculture when turning room is restricted, such as in a dairy or fruitstorage building. The name skid-steer comes from the method of turning, which is
exactly like that of a crawler. The wheels on one side are braked or reversed, causing
the tractor to skid in order to turn.
A four-wheel-drive tractor with smaller front wheels (Figure 1.7) is simply a
standard or a row-crop tractor with the front wheels also being driven. In regard to
price and traction, this type of tractor falls between the standard and the four-wheeldrive tractor with equal-sized wheels (Figure 1.9). This tractor has become particularly
popular in Japan because of its excellent steering and traction characteristics in soft,
wet rice fields.
Four-wheel-drive, or simply 4WD, tractors have been developed to produce more
drawbar power. The size of 4WD tractors varies in the United States and Canada from
100 kW to more than 300 kW. In Europe, 4WD tractors may be as small as 15 kW and
are used especially in vineyards. Four-wheel-drive tractors can be steered by pivoting
the tractor in the center (frame steer) or steering the wheels (as in Figure 1.8).
The complexity of a tractor is illustrated by Figure 1.9, which shows such features
as power steering, epicyclic gear reduction in the front wheels, wet disk brakes,
power-shift transmission, and a ROPS cab.

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

Figure 1.5. Tree skidder. This vehicle has four-wheel drive. Power ranges from 75 to 150 kW.
(Reprinted with permission from Caterpillar, Inc.)

Figure 1.6. Skid-steer tractor. This type of tractor has four-wheel drive. Power ranges from
27 to 82 kW. (Reprinted with permission from GEHL Company.)

10

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES

Figure 1.7. Four-wheel drive tractor with smaller steering wheels in front. Power ranges from
70 to 190 kW. (Reprinted with permission from Deere and Co.)

Figure 1.8. Four-wheel drive tractor with equal-sized wheels, articulation and front-wheel
steering. Power ranges from 20 to 300 kW. (Reprinted with permission from Case IH.)

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

11

Figure 1.9. Phantom view of a off-road vehicle showing the design complexity.
(Reprinted with permission from Deere and Co.)

1.4 Some Global Variations in Tractors

Diverse geographical, climate and use factors require some variations, so that:
Tractors made and used in Japan are usually equipped with riceland tires.
The power-to-mass ratio is greater for Japanese tractors than for others.
European tractors more commonly use radial-ply tires for traction.
Tractors made outside of North America may have as many as four different
speeds on the power take-off.
In North America, 4WD is used mainly on tractors over 100 kW; in Japan,
however, tractors, tractors as small as 10 kW may have front-wheel-assisted
4WD.
In Europe, the United Kingdom, and Japan, 4WD with front wheels smaller than
the rear is common, whereas almost all 4WD tractors in North America have
equal-sized wheels.
Crawler tractors are more popular in Europe and the United Kingdom.
Power tillers are quite popular in Japan and Southeast Asia, primarily because of
the small rice farms and soft, wetland conditions found there.

12

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES

1.5 Functions of Off-Road Vehicles

Todays off-road vehicle is a complex machine used to propel and power a large
variety of implements for agricultural production. Therefore, implement applications
have considerable effect on vehicle design. The engineer must be aware of implement
requirements to properly weigh such design considerations as crop clearance,
wheelbase, width of tractor, power-to-mass ratio and mass distribution, as well as to
provide placement of controls to satisfy the majority of operations. Every design will
necessarily include some compromises.
Implements are generally attached to and operated by tractors in one of four ways:
Towed, single-point hitch
Mounted, three-point hitch
Semi-mounted, three-point hitch
Frame mounted
Power may be transmitted to the implement by a power take-off shaft or by oilhydraulic hoses. Each new tractor provides many engineering problems related to
proper drawbar height, provision for sufficient horizontal and vertical angular
movement, and implement clearance.
The widespread adoption of hitch-mounted and frame-mounted equipment is
probably the result of one or both of two primary factors: decreased investment cost to
the farmer and increased versatility. In addition, the extra weight transfer of mounted
implements adds significantly to the tractive ability of the tractor.

1.6 Sources of Energy

One of the characteristics of a technically advancing society, at least before 1978, is
that the rate of growth of energy use is considerably higher than the rate of population
growth and closely parallels the growth of economic output (Sporn, 1957). Possession
of adequate energy is a requisite for any kind of advanced civilization, for if human
beings must depend strictly on their own muscles, it will take all of their mental and
physical strength to supply the bare necessities of life. The difference in per capita
energy consumption is closely related to differences in standards of living. The
important sources of energy are:
Solar energy, direct
Solar energy, indirect
Fossil fuels: oil, natural gas, coal, peat, shale and tar sands
Biomass: wood, corncobs, etc.
Wind
Tides
Water
Nuclear energy
Geothermal energy
Our present age may sometime be called the fossil fuel age since most of our
present power use is coming from stored fossil fuelsoil, gas, and coal. How long
these supplies will last is debatable, but they are nonrenewable. Farming and other off-

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

13

road operations in the 21st century depend on petroleum fuels, so it is of interest to

know when the supply will begin to diminish. The date is uncertain, but in the United
States, for example, production of petroleum has not met demand since 1947 (Scarlott,
1987). In 1973, the United States imported about 40% of its oil needs (Ray, 1973), and
in 2000, more than 50% was imported. It has also been predicted that we may have
nearly reached the year of peak production, after which crude oil production will begin
to decline.
Oil shales, from which it is possible to obtain nearly a barrel of oil per ton, are
available in considerable but indeterminate amounts. For power plant use, some
attention is being given to recovery of the oil by methods other than mining.
Solar energy is our one inexhaustible energy source. A rough measure of energy
falling on the earth is a maximum of approximately 940 W/m2 and an average of 630
W/m2. Although this energy source will likely become very useful for space heating
and for agricultural operations such as crop drying, at present it is doubtful that it will
be useful for operating tractors because of the low concentration of energy and a lack
of suitable means of collecting and concentrating it. Another problem is the large
difference in the amount of available solar energy at different times of the year or day
and at different locations.
Nuclear energy could ease the load on fossil fuels, as it is well adapted to large
power-plant operations where radiation shielding can be employed. It is a
concentrated, clean, and easily controlled energy source; the energy in 4 ml of
uranium 235 being equivalent to the energy stored in 140 m3 of coal (Nuclear
Energy, 1961).
Controlled fusion, the process of combining the lighter elements rather than
breaking up the heavy atoms as in the fission process, may offer some hope for future
power plants, even the farm tractor. Fusion atomic energy does not require heavy
shielding since it is not radioactive.

1.7 Energy Conversion Devices

Common techniques for the conversion of energy include:
Human and animal energy
Steam piston engine
Piston engines
Steam turbine engine
Compression ignition (diesel)
Thermoelectricity
Spark ignition (gasoline)
Fuel cell
Gas turbine
Solar cell
Rotary (Wankel) engine
Electric motor and electric generator
Free-piston engine
Storage battery
Sterling engine
MHD (magnetohydrodynamic) devices
The second law of thermodynamics states that conversion of heat to work is limited
by the temperatures at which conversion occurs. For a cycle with a high temperature
T1 and a low temperature T2 the maximum efficiency, usually called the Carnot cycle
efficiency, is
T T2
e= 1
T1

14

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES

Thus the Carnot cycle establishes an inherent limit to the maximum useful
conversion of energy that may be obtained from a fuel used in a power plant, such as
in a tractor engine. In the best tractor engines only about one-third of the heating value
of the fuel is converted into useful work.
Conventional piston engines have hundreds of parts, and the reciprocating units
must be stopped and started thousands of times per minute. Nevertheless, they are
highly successful units.
Rotary engines are of interest because of their simple design. Inside the combustion
chamber is a three-lobed rotor with curved sides. The shape of the rotor and the
chamber causes the rotor to move in an eccentric orbit as it rotates. All three corners of
the rotor stay in contact with the walls of the chamber at all times. Vanes, which
correspond to piston rings in the conventional engine, seal the chambers from loss of
gas. As the rotor turns, its corners form three moving cavities, which in turn go
through the usual cycle of intake, compression, power, and exhaust. The output shaft
turns at three times the speed of the rotor in this example. The power-to-mass ratio is
greater than 1.0, which is not an advantage on a tractor. The major mechanical
problem, the rotating seals, has been solved well enough to include the Wankel in
production line automobiles but not yet in industrial-type diesel engines. The Wankel
engine so far is less efficient than conventional spark-ignition engines used in tractors.
The simplicity and reliability of a gas-turbine engine plus its high power-to-weight
ratio makes it a desirable power unit for aircraft. Its high power-to-weight ratio is,
however, not an asset on a tractor used for the usual agricultural or industrial purposes.
The efficiency of gas-turbine engines, when the power is transmitted through a shaft,
is roughly one-half to two-thirds that of diesel engines. The efficiency compares more
closely with gasoline-burning spark-ignition engines.
The principle of operation of a gas-turbine engine has much in common with the
conventional piston-type internal combustion engine. The events that take place in a
piston engine (intake, compression, ignition, power, and exhaust) also take place in a
gas-turbine engine. Gas turbine engines run at a relatively constant rpm, which also
restricts their use on a tractor in which variations in both speed and torque are
required.

1.8 The Future Engine

The piston engine, especially the diesel is well established (Amann, 1974) and is
not likely to be replaced immediately with other types of energy conversion systems.
However, development of new engine materials has progressed considerably. Ceramic
materials, which have high heat resistance, as well as high anticorrosion and antiwear
properties, have indicated their potential applications to piston engines, permitting
operations at higher temperatures and thus higher thermal efficiency compared to
conventional metal-based engines. Although their brittleness has been a limitation to
their wide application for engine structures, recent development of ultra-plastic fine
ceramics may open a new era for wide usage in piston engines. Complete replacement
of engine parts with ceramics is not likely to occur soon, but applications of ceramics
to specific engine parts including turbochargers will. Tractor and engine manufactures

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

15

continue to use better engine materials and to develop new types of energy conversion
devices.

1.9 Trends in Tractor Design

The design and performance of tractors have changed considerably since the first
Nebraska tractor tests. The future tractor design greatly depends on technological
advancement and agricultural and economic development, including energy and
environmental systems (Cragle, 1983). From Figure 1.10, it is clear that tractors
continue to have a greater power-to-mass ratio, which results in the tractors traveling
faster, since improvements in traction have not keep pace with the increase in power.
It is also clear that the power output of tractors has continued to increase. The growth,
however, in power and weight of tractors will probably not continue at the same rate
as in the past. One reason is the failure of farm sizes to grow because of the decrease
in the availability of land, as well as market limitations and the instability of export
opportunities. The trend of farm size stabilization is now clearly noted in most
European countries (Gohlich, 1984). Another reason for limiting the increase in size of
future tractors is increasing soil compaction that affects soil conservation as well as
plant growth. Detailed discussion on the future trends in tractor development will not
be made here since it is beyond the scope of this book. However, Gohlich (1984)
presents an excellent discussion on this subject. He concludes that:
More emphasis will be concentrated on reducing the total weight of the tractorimplement system in order to minimize the ground pressure and soil compaction, particularly during seedbed preparation.
Front- and rear-mounted implements will contribute increasingly to better, more
convenient, and more economical field operations.
Instead of the standard heavy tractors today, for most of the required field
operations a lighter, second tractor power unit with low-pressure tires, which
would transfer the majority of its power through the power take-off (PTO) rather
than through the ground drive, may be a desirable approach on the future farm.
The optimization of power transfer will be facilitated by driver information
displays as well as by control circuits that may eventually take over some
present manual functions.
Components for the drivers comfort and safety will be further improved;
thereby helping to ensure that farming remains a satisfying job for the farm
worker.

1.10 Engineering Standards

Design engineers utilize engineering standards in vehicle design, development, and
evaluation. Sources of engineering standards, engineering practices and data are: the
American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE), the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), and the International Standards Organization (ISO). Standards are
cited and used in several of the chapters in this book.

16

CHAPTER 1 DEVELOPMENT OF OFF-ROAD VEHICLES

Figure 1.10. Trend of changes in tractor sped and power (Yahva and Goering, 1977).

1.11 Chapter Summary

Development and use of off-road vehicles, primarily the agricultural tractor, played
a major role in the agricultural mechanization achievements of the 20th century. The
Nebraska Tractor Test Law, passed in 1919, specified that every tractor sold in the
state of Nebraska should be tested and the results published. The tests, which attained
worldwide recognition, have provided standards for rating tractors.
Traction power, belt power, power take-off drives, mounted tools, hydraulic
remote-control units, electronic sensing and control of machine performance, and
ergonomically designed operator workplace and climate-controlled cabs have extend
the usefulness and efficiency of the tractor for agricultural and other off-road uses.
Todays off-road vehicle is complex and is being used to propel and power a large
variety of implements for agricultural production. Implement applications, therefore,
have considerable effect on vehicle design, and the engineer must be aware of
implement requirements to weigh properly such design considerations as crop
clearance, wheelbase, width of tractor, power-to-mass ratio and mass distribution, as
well as to provide placement of controls to satisfy the majority of operations.
Agricultural and other off-road operations in the 21st century depend on petroleum
fuels, so it is of interest to know when the supply will begin to diminish. The date is

OFF-ROAD VEHICLE ENGINEERING PRINCIPLES

17

uncertain, but in 1973 the United States imported about 40% of its oil needs (Ray,
1973), and in 2000, more than 50% was imported. Solar energy is our one
inexhaustible energy source, but it is doubtful that it will be useful for operating
tractors because of the low concentration of energy and a lack of suitable means of
collecting and concentrating. Controlled fusion may offer some hope for future power
plants, even those as small as a farm tractor, since fusion atomic energy does not
require heavy shielding because it is not radioactive.
The piston engine, especially the diesel is well established (Amann, 1974) and is
not likely to be replaced immediately with other types of energy conversion systems.
However, development of new engine materials has progressed considerably. Ceramic
materials, which have high heat resistance, as well as high anticorrosion and antiwear
properties, have indicated their potential applications to piston engines, permitting
operations at higher temperatures and thus higher thermal efficiency compared to
conventional metal-based engines. Future tractor design greatly depends on
technological advancement and agricultural and economic development, including
energy and environmental systems (Cragle, 1983).
Design engineers utilize engineering standards, engineering practices and data in
vehicle design, development, and evaluation.

References and Suggested Readings

Amann, C.A. 1974. Why the piston engine lives on. Machine Design (21 February).
Bashford, L.L. 2000. Tractor tests. Resource 7(4): 9-10.
Baumheckel, R., and K. Borghoff. 1997. International Harvester Farm Equipment
Product History 1831-1985. St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.
Caterpillar Inc., Product Research and Agricultural Business Unit Engineers. 1995. In
pursuit of the ideal tractor: Development of the rubber belt tractor. ASAE
Distinguished Lecture Series No. 20. St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.
Cragle, R.G. 1983. Trends which will impact agricultural technology in the next
decade. SAE Technical Paper Series No. 831268. International Off-Highway
Meeting and Exposition of the Society of Automotive Engineers, 12-15 September.
Warrendale, PA: SAE.
Erb, D., and E. Brunbaugh. 1993. Full Steam Ahead J. I. Case Tractors and
Equipment 1842-1955. St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.
Farm Implement News, 25 Dec. 1952; 25 Sept. 1953; 25 Nov. 25 1953. Origin of the
term of tractor.
Gay, L. 1995. Farm Tractors 1975-1995. St. Joseph, MI: ASAE.
Ghlich, H. 1984. The development of tractors and other agricultural vehicles. Journal
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Inside ASAE. 2000. Agricultural mechanization named among top 20 engineering
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