Digital Instruments

3.1 Introduction
The digital voltmeters generally referred as DVM, convert the analog signals into
digital and display the voltages to be measured as discrete numericals instead ot
pointer deflection, on the digital displays. Such voltmeters can be used to measure
a.c. and d.c, voltages and also to measure the quantities like pressure, temperature,
stress etc. using proper transducer and signal conditioning circuit. The transducer
converts the quantity into the proportional voltage signal and signal conditioning
circuit brings the signal into the proper limits which can be easily measured by the
digital voltmeter. The output voltage is displayed on the digital display on the front
panel. Such a digital output reduces the human reading and interpolation errors and
parallax errors.
The DVMs have various features and the advantages, over the conventional
analog voltmeters having pointer deflection on the continuous scale.

3.2 Advantages of Digital Voltmeters

The DVMs have number of advantages over conventional analog voltmeters,
which
are,
1. Due to the digital display, the human reading errors, interpolation errors and
parallax errors are reduced.
2. They have input range from +1.000 V to +1000 V with the automatic range
selection and the overload indication.
3. The accuracy is high upto 0.005 % of the reading.
4. The resolution is better as 1 pV reading can be measured on 1 V range.
5. The input impedance is as high as 10 Mi
6. The reading speed is very high due to digital display.
7. They can be programmed and well suited for computerised control.
8. The output in digital form can be directly recorded and it is suitable for
further processing also.
(3 - 1)
9. With tne development of 1C chips, the cost of DVMs, size and power
requirements of DVMs are drastically reduced.
10. Due to small size, are portable.
11. The internal calibration does not depend on the measuring circuit.
12. The BCD output can be printed or used for digital processing.
13. The inclusion of additional circuitry make them suitable for the measurement
of quantities like current, impedance, capacitance, temperature, pressure etc.

Electronic Instrumentation

3-2

Digital Instruments

Sr
Para
.N
Analog
Digital
meter
o
Less
Very
high
upto

1. Accu
accuracy
racy
0.1
%
of
upto

full
Limited
High
upto
2. Reso
upto
1
1
part
in
lution
part
in
several
Power
Negligible
Pow
3.
required
power
is
er
high
required
4. Cost is
Low
in
High
in
cost.
cost
compare
d
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Fricti
No
Errors
5. onal
moving
due
to
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moving
Rang
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Has
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6. e
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facility
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Very
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7. impe
input
input
Obse
Errors
Due
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8 rvatio
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errors
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9. Com
Not
The
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3.2.1

Comparison of Analog and Digital Instruments

3.3 Performance Parameters of Digital Voltmeters

The various performance parameters of DVMs are,
1 Number of measurement ranges :
The basic range of any DVM is either IV or 10 V. With the help of attenuator at
the input, the range can be extended from few microvolts to kilovolts.

Electronic Instrumentation

3-3

Digital Instruments

Number of digits in readout :

Accuracy
Speed of the reading

2.
The number of digits of DVMs vary from 3 to 6. More the number of digits, more is
the resolution.

3.
: The accuracy depends on resolution and resolution
on number of digits. Hence more number of digits means more accuracy. The
accuracy is as high upto 0.005% of the reading.

4.
: In the digital
voltmeters, it is necessary to convert analog signal into digital signal. The various
techniques are used to achieve this conversion. The circuits which are used to
achieve such conversion are called digitizing circuits and the process is called
digitizing. The time required for this conversion is called digitizing period. The
maximum speed of reading and the digitizing period are interrelated. The instrument
user must wait, till a stable reading is obtained as it is impossible to follow the visual
readout at high reading speeds.

Normal mode noise rejection

5.
: This is usually obtained through the input filtering or by use of the integration
techniques. The noise present at the input, if passed to the analog to digital
converting circuit then it can produce the error, especially when meter is used for
low voltage measurement. Hence noise is required to be filtered.

Common mode noise

rejection
Digital output of several types
6.

: This is usually obtained by guarding. A guard is a sheet

metal box sourrounding the circuitry. A terminal at the front panel makes this 'box'
available to the circuit under measurement.
7.
: Tire digital readout of the instrument may be 4 line BCD, single line serial output
etc. Thus the type of digital output also determines the variety of the digital
voltmeter.

Input impedance

8.
: The input impedance of DVM
must be as high as possible which reduces the loading effects. Typically it is of the
order of 10 Mil

3.4 Basic Block Diagram of DVM

Any
digital
instrument
requires
analog to digital converter
at its input. Hence first
block in a general DVM is
ADC as shown in the Fig. Fig. 3.1 Basic block diagram of DVM
3.1.
Every ADC requires a

Electronic Instrumentation

3-4

Digital instruments

reference. The reference is generated internally and reference generator circuitry

depends on the type of ADC technique used. The output of ADC is decoded and
signal is processed in the decoding stage. Such a decoding is necessary to drive the
seven segment display. The data from decoder is then transmitted to the display. The
data transmission element may be a latches, counters etc. as per the requirement. A
digital display shows the necessary digital result of the measurement.

Electronic Instrumentation

3-5

Digital Instruments

3.5 Classification of Digital Voltmeters

The digital voltmeters are classified mainly based on the technique used for the
analog to digital conversion. Depending on this, the digital voltmeters are mainly
classified as,
i) Non-integrating type and ii) Integrating type
The non-integrating type digital voltmeters are further classified as,
a) Potentiometric type : These are subdnssified as
1) Servo potentiometric type
2) Successive approximation type
3) Null balance type
b) Ramp type : These are subclassified as,
1) Linear type
2) Staircase type
The integrating type digital voltmeters are classified as :
a) Voltage to frequency converter type
b) Potentiometric type
c) Dual slope integrating type

3.6 Successive Approximation Type DVM

The potentiometer used in the servo balancing type DVM is a linear divider but in
successive approximation type a digital divider is used. The digital divider is nothing
but a digital to analog (D/A) converter. The servomotor is replaced by an electronic
logic.
The basic principle of measurement by this method is similar to the simple
example of determination of weight of the object. The object is placed on one side of
the balance and the approximate weight is placed on other side. If weight placed is
more, the weight is removed and smaller weight is placed. If this weight is smaller
than the object, another small weight is added, to the weight present, if now the
total weight is higher than the object, the added weight is removed and smaller
weight is added. Thus by such successive procedure of adding and removing, the
weight of the object is determined. The successive approximation type DVM works
exactly on the same principle.
In successive approximation type DVM, the comparator compares the output of
digital to analog converter with the unknown voltage. Accordingly, the comparator
provides logic high or low signals. The digital to analog converter successively
generates the set pattern of signals. The procedure continues till the output of the
digital to analog converter becomes equal to the unknown voltage.
The Fig. 3.2 shows the block diagram of successive approximation type DVM.

Electronic Instrumentation

3-6

Digital Instruments

The
capacitor
is
connected at the input of
the
comparator.
The
output of the digital to
analog
converter
is
Fig. 3.2 Successive approximation type DVM
compared
with
the
unknown voltage, by the comparator. The output of the comparator is given to the
logic control and sequencer. This unit generates thesequence of code which is
applied to digital to analog converter. The position 2 of the switch S, receives the
output from digital to analog converter. The unknown voltage is available at the
position 1 of the switch S|. The logic control also drives the clock which is used to
alternate the switch S, between the positions 1 and 2, as per the requirement.
Consider the voltage to be measured is 3.7924 V. The set pattern of digital to
analog converter is say 8-4-2-1. At the start, the converter generates 8 V and switch
is at the position 2. The capacitor C, charges to 8 V. The clock is used to change the
switch position. So during next time interval, switch position is 1 and unknown input
is applied to the capacitor. As capacitor is charged to 8 V which is more than the
input voltage 3.7924 V, the comparator sends HIGH signal to the logic control and
sequencer circuit. This HIGH signal resets the digital to analog converter which
generates its next step of 4 V. This again generates HIGH signal. This again resets
the converter to generate the next step of 2 V.
Now 2 V is less than the input voltage. The comparator generates LOW signal
and sends it to logic control and sequence circuit. During the generation of LOW
signal, the generated signal by the converter is retained. Thus the 2 V step gets
stored in the converter. In addition to this, next step of 1 V is generated. Thus the
total voltage level becomes, stored 2 + generated 1 i.e. 3 V. This is again less than
the input and generates LOW signal. Due to low signal, this gets stored. After this 0.8
V step is generated for the second digit approximation.
Thus the process of successive approximation continues till the converter
generates 3.7924 V. This voltage is then displayed on the digital display.
At each low signal, there is an incremental change in the output of the digital to
analog converter. This output voltage approaches the value of the unknown voltage.
The limit to how close this output can approach to the unknown voltage, depends on
the level of noise at the input of comparator and the stability of the input switch. To
reduce the noise, filters may be used but it reduces the speed of measurement.
These limiting factors usually determine the number of digits of resolution of an
instrument. The general range of digits is 3 to 5. The speed depends upon the type
of switches used in digital to analog converter and comparator circuitry. If solid state
switches are used, the high speed can be obtained. For electromechanical switches,
the speed is few readings per second. The accuracy depends on the internal
reference supply associated with the digital to analog converter and the accuracy of
the converter itself.

Electronic Instrumentation

3.6.1

3-7

Digital Instruments

Advantages
TJie advantages of successive approximation DVM are,

1. Very high speed of the order of TOO readings per second possible.
2. The method of ADC is inexpensive.
3. The resolution upto 5 significant digits is possible.
4. The accuracy is high.

3.6.2

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of successive approximation DVM are,

1. The circuit is complex.
2. The DAC is also required.
3. The input impedance is variable.
4. The noise can cause error due to incorrect decisions made by comparator.

3.7 Servo Potentiometric or Continuous Balance Type DVM

In the potentiometric type voltmeters internal reference voltage is provided. The
reference voltage is denoted as VREF- The voltage to be measured is the input
voltage and is denoted as V jn. A voltage comparison technique is used to measure
the input voltage. The unknown voltage is compared with the reference voltage with
the help of the setting of the calibrated potentiometer i.e. potential divider. The arm
of the potentiometer is varied to obtain the null condition i.e. balancing condition.
The internal reference voltage is
present at the two terminals of the
; Potential
1
-0potentiometer. When the null
divider Internal
*
Null
reference
(Vref)
condition is obtained, the value of
Unknown
indicator
voltage
voltage
________J
the unknown voltage is indicated
by the dial setting of the
Fig. 3.3 Basic principle of potentiometric DVM
potentiometer. The basic principle
of potentiometric voltmeter is
shown in the Fig. 3.3.
Practically, the null balancing is not obtained manually but is obtained
automatically. Such a voltmeter is called self balancing potentiometric type DVM. The
servomotor js used to vary the arm of the potentiometer hence it is also called servo
balancing potentiometer type DVM.
The block diagram of servo potentiometer type DVM is shown in the Fig. 3.4.
The input voltage to be measured is applied to one side of mechanical chopper
type comparator after filtering and attenuating to suitable level. The reference
voltage is applied at the two terminals of the potentiometer. The position of the
sliding contact decides the value of the feedback voltage, which is used as the
second input to the comparator. The comparator which is an error detector,
compares the unknown voltage and the feedback voltage. The output of the
comparator is a square wave signal whose amplitude is a

Electronic Instrumentation

3-8

Digital Instruments
Digital
display

The servomotor also drives the

mechanical readout. The voltage
corresponding to the stable position
of the sliding contact is indicated in
the numerical form on the digital
display.
Fig. 3.4 Servo balancing potentiometric type
DVM
function of the difference in the two voltages
connected to its two ends i.e. error voltage.
This output signal from comparator is
amplified and then fed to power amplifier.
The power amplifier output is given to the
servomotor which acts as a potentiometer
adjustment device. The servomotor moves
the sliding contact proportional to the error
signal. The direction of the movement of the
sliding contact depends on tine sign of the
error i.e. whether the feedback voltage is
larger or smaller than the unknown input
voltage. When the feedback voltage is same
as the input voltage, the error is zero and
therefore servomotor will not receive any
signal, which will stop the movement of the
sliding contact. Thus the sliding contact will
attain a stable position.

The
relation
between
unknown input voltage and
reference
voltage
can
mathematically expressed as,

Where

the
the
be

Vin = Voltage to be

measured
Vref = Reference
voltage
x = Fraction depends on the position

of slider
The voltage to be measured
depends on the reference voltage as
the maximum value of the fraction x
is 1. The reference voltage source
used in such DVMs must be
extremely stable and generally a standard cell or zener diode is used as a reference
voltage source. This DVM uses the principle of balancing, instead of sampling
because of mechanical movement.

3.8 Ramp Type DVM

It uses a linear ramp technique or staircase ramp technique. The staircase ramp
technique is simpler than the linear ramp technique. Let us discuss both the
techniques.

Electronic Instrumentation

3.8.1

3-9

Digital Instruments

Linear Ramp Technique

The basic principle of such measurement is based on the measurement of the

time taken by a linear ramp to rise from 0 V to the level of the input voltage or to
decrease from the level of the input voltage to zero. This time is measured with the
help of electronic time interval
Start of ramp
counter and the count is
Voltage to be measured

+12V
displayed in the numeric
form with the help of a
Basically it consists
which is positive going or
The range of the ramp is
the

Time

- 12 V

digital display.
of a linear ramp
negative going.
12 V while

Gating time
interval

clock
pulses
counter
base

The to

conversion from a voltage to a

interval is shown in the Fig. 3.5.

Gate
opened

range is 10 V.

Fig. 3.5 Voltage to time conversion

time

At the start of measurement, a ramp voltage is initiated which is continuously

compared with the input voltage. When these two voltages are same, the
comparator generates a pulse which opens a gate i.e. the input comparator
generates a start pulse. The ramp continues to decrease and finally reaches to 0 V or
ground potential. This is sensed by the second comparator or ground comparator. At
exactly 0 V, this comparator produces a stop pulse which closes the gate. The
number of clock pulses are measured by the counter. Thus the time duration for
which the gate is opened, is proportional to the input voltage. In the time interval
between start and stop pulses, the gate remains open and the oscillator circuit drives
the counter. The magnitude of the count indicates the magnitude of the input
voltage, which is displayed by the display. The block diagram of linear ramp DVM is

Fig. 3.6 Linear ramp type DVM

shown in the Fig. 3.6.

Electronic Instrumentation

3-10

Digital Instruments

Properly attenuated input signal is applied as one input to the input comparator.
The ramp generator generates the proper linear ramp signal which is applied to both
the comparators. Initially the logic circuit sends a reset signal to the counter and the
readout. The comparators are designed in such a way that when both the input
signals of comparator are equal then only the comparator changes its state. The
input comparator is used to send the start pulse while the ground comparator is used
to send the stop pulse.
When the input and ramp are applied to the input comparator and at the point
when negative going ramp becomes equal to input voltages the comparator sends
start pulse, due to which gate opens. The oscillator drives the counter. The counter
starts counting the pulses received from the oscillator. Now the same ramp is applied
to the ground comparator and it is decreasing. Thus when ramp becomes zero, both
the inputs of ground comparator becomes zero (grounded) i.e. equal and it sends a
stop pulse to the gate due to which gate gets closed. Thus the counter stops
receiving the pulses from the local oscillator. A definite number of pulses will be
counted by the counter, during the start and stop pulses which is measure of the
input voltage. This is displayed by the digital readout.
The sample rate multivibrator determines the rate at which the measurement
cycles are initiated. The oscillation of this multivibrator is usually adjusted by a front
panel control named rate, from few cycles per second to as high as 1000 or more
cycles per second. The typical value is 5 measuring cycles/second with an accuracy
of 0.005 % of the reading. The sample rate provides an initiating pulse to the ramp
generator to start its next ramp voltage. At the same time, a reset pulse is also
generated which resets the counter to the zero state.
The advantages of this technique are :
1. The circuit is easy to design.
2. The cost is low.
3. The output pulse can be transferred over long feeder lines without loss of
information.
4. The input signal is converted to time, which is easy to digitize.
5. By adding external logic, the polarity of the input also can be displayed.
6. The resolution of the readout is directly proportional to the frequency of the
local oscillator. So adjusting the frequency of the local oscillator, better
resolution can be obtained.
The disadvantages of this technique are :
1. The ramp requires excellent characteristics regarding its linearity.
2. The accuracy depends on slope of the ramp and stability of the local
oscillator.
3. Large errors are possible if noise is superimposed on the input signal.
4. The offsets and drifts in the two comparators may cause errors.
5. The speed of measurement is low.
6. The swing of the ramp is 12 V, this limits the base range of
measurement to 10 V.

Electronic Instrumentation

3.8.2

3-11

Digital Instruments

Staircase Ramp Technique

In this type of DVM, instead of linear ramp, the staircase ramp is used. The
staircase ramp is generated by the digital to analog converter. The block diagam of
staircase ramp type DVM is shown in the Fig. 3.7.
The technique of using staircase ramp is also called null balance technique. The
input voltage is properly attenuated and is applied to a null detector. The another
input to null detector is the staircase ramp generated by digital to analog converter.
The ramp is continuously compared with the input signal.

Fig. 3.7 Staircase ramp type DVM

Initially the logical control circuit sends a reset signal. This signal resets the
counter. The digital to analog converter is also resetted by same signal.
At the start of the measurement, the logic control circuit sends a starting pulse
which opens the gate. The counter starts counting the pulses generated by the local
oscillator.
The output of counter is given to the digital to analog converter which generates
the ramp signal. At every count there is an incremental change in the ramp
generated. Tlius the staircase ramp is generated at the output of the digital to
analog converter. This is given as the second input of the null detector. The increase
in ramp continues till it achieves the voltage equal to input voltage.
When the two voltages are equal, the null detector generates a signal which in
turn initiates the logic control circuit. Thus logic control circuit sends a stop pulse,
which closes the gate and the counter stops counting.
At the same time, the logic control circuit generates a transfer signal due to
which the counter information is transferred to the readout. The readout shows the
digital result of the count.
The advantages of this technique are :
1. The greater accuracy is obtained than the linear ramp technique.
2. The overall design is more simple hence economical.
3. The input impedance of the digital to analog converter is high when the
compensation is reached.

Electronic Instrumentation

3-12

Digital Instruments

The disadvantages of this technique are :

1- Though accuracy is higher than linear ramp, it is dependent on the accuracy
ot digital to analog converter and its internal reference.
2. The speed is limited upto 10 readings per second.
After the discussion of the non-integfating type of DVMs, let us see the operation
and features of integrating type of DVMs.
/

3.9 Dual Slope Integrating Type DVM

This is the most popular method of analog to digital conversion. In the ramp
techniques, the noise can cause large errors but in dual slope method the noise is
averaged out by the positive and negative ramps using the process of integration.
The basic principle of this method is that the input signal is integrated for a fixed
interval of time. And then the same integrator is used to integrate the reference
voltage with reverse slope. Hence the name given to the technique is dual slope
integration technique.
The block diagram of dual slope integrating type DVM is shown in the Fig. 3.8. It
consists of five blocks, an op-amp used as an integrator, a zero comparator, clock
pulse generator, a set of decimal counters and a block of control logic.

When the switch S, is in position I, the capacitor C starts charging from zero
level. The rate of charging is proportional to the input voltage level. The output of
the op-amp is given by,
V

out

V nut

= - 1
Vv

R,C J
V.n
t!
R| c

dt

...
(i)

Where,
charged

t, = Time for which capacitor is

Vin = Input voltage R,
= Series resistance
C = Capacitor in feedback path

After the interval t}/ the input voltage is disconnected and a negative voltage
Vref is connected by throwing the switch S, in position 2. In this position, the output
of the op-amp is given by,
i l2

V.,

f-v

dt

RlCJ
... ( 2)

Subtracting (1) from

(2),
v

out v out

Vref *2

R, C

Vref

- V

v-v=n=

t,

ref

- Vin

Ri C

Vin t,

R, C

- vint,

= Vre f
f t,

... (3)

Thus the input voltage is dependent on the time periods t| and t2 and not on the
values of R, and C.
This basic principle of this method is shown in the Fig. 3.9.

Fig. 3.9 Basic principle of dual

slope method

At the start of the measurement, the

counter is resetted to zero. The output of
the flip-flop is also zero. This is given to
the control logic. This control sends a
signal so as to close an electronic switch
to position 1 and integration of the input
voltage starts. It continues till the time
period t,. As the output of the integrator
changes from its zero value, the zero
comparator output changes its state. This
provides a signal to control logic which
intum opens the gate and the counting of
the clock pulses starts.

The counter counts the pulses and when it reaches to 9999, it generates a carry
pulse and all digits go to zero. The flip-flop output gets activated to the logic level T.
This activates the control logic. This sends a signal which changes the switch S)
position from 1 to 2. Thus -Vref gets connected to op-amp. As Vret polarity is opposite,
the capacitor starts discharging. The integrator output will have constant negative
slope as shown in the Fig. 3.9. The output decreases linearly and after the interval t 2,
attains zero value, when the capacitor C gets fully discharged.
At this instant, the output of zero comparator changes its state. This intum
sends a signal to the control logic and the gate gets closed. Thus gate remains open
for the period t,+ t2. The counting operation stops at this instant. Tire pulses counted
by the counter thus have a direct relation with the input voltage. The counts are then
transferred to the readout.
From equation (3) we can write,

Let time period of clock oscillator be T and digital counter has counted the
counts n, and n2 during the period t, and t2 respectively.
Vin = V. ref

ll = V
' n,T

ref

Thus the unknown voltage measurement is not dependent on the clock

frequency, but dependent on the counts measured by the counter.
The advantages of this technique are :
1. Excellent noise rejection as noise and superimposed a.c. are averaged out
during the process of integration.
2. The RC time constant does not affect the input voltage measurement.
3. The capacitor is connected via an electronic switch. This capacitor is an auto
zero capacitor and avoids the effects of offset voltage.
4. The integrator responds to the average value of the input hence sample and
hold circuit is not necessary.
5. The accuracy is high and can be readily varied according to the specific
requirements.
The only disadvantage of this type of DVM is its slow speed.

3.10

Voltage to Frequency Converter Type Integrating DVM

In case of ramp type DVM, the voltage is converted to time. The time and
frequency are related to each other. Thus the voltage can be converted to frequency
for the measurement purpose. A train of puLses, whose frequency depends upon the
voltage beingmeasured, is generated. Then the number of pulses appearing in a
definite interval of time is counted. Since the frequency oFthese pulses is a function
of the unknown voltage, the number of pulses counted in that period of time is the
indication of the unknown input voltage.
The heart of such integrating type of DVM is the operational amplifier used as an
integrator. The input voltage is integrated for a fixed interval. An integration of a
constant
input voltage results a ramp at the output, the slope of
which is proportional to the input voltage. If the input is
positive, the output of op-amp is negative going ramp. After
some time, the _v capacitor is discharged to 0, thus output
returns back to zero and the next cycle begins. Hence the
waveform at the output is a sawtooth waveform as shown in
the Fig. 3.10.
If the input signal is doubled, the number of teeth in the output signal per unit
time will be also doubled. Thus the frequency of the output will be doubled. Thus the
frequency of the output is proportional to the input voltage. This is nothing but the
voltage to frequency conversion.
The sawtooth pulses are finally enter into a reversible counter. The measured
value by the reversible counter is finally displayed with the help of digital readout.
The block diagram of voltage to frequency converter type integrating DVM is
shown in the Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 3.11 Voltage to frequency converter type DVM

Initially output of an integrator is adjusted to zero volts. When the input voltage
Vjn is applied, the charging current Vin/R| flows, which starts the charging of the
capacitor C. rhis produces a ramp at the output. When input voltage is positive, the
output ramp is negative going This ramp is given as one input of a comparator. A -V
volts is given as a reference to the second input terminal of a comparator. The
negative going ramp and - V' volts reference are compared by the comparator. When
the ramp reaches to -V volts, the comparator output changes its state. This signal
triggers the pulse generator. The function of the pulse generator is to produce a
pulse of precision charge content. The polarity ofthis charge is opposite to that of
capacitor charge. Thus the pulse generated by the pulse generator rapidly
discharges the capacitor. Hence the output of the op-amp again becomes zero. This
process continues so as to get a sawtooth waveform at the output of op-amp. The
frequency of such waveform is directly proportional to the applied input voltage.
Thus if the input voltage increases, the number of teeth per unit time in the
sawtooth waveform also increases i.e. the frequency increases.
Each teeth produces a pulse at the output of the pulse generator so number of
pulses is directly related to the number of teeth i.e. the frequency.
These pulses are allowed to pass through the pulse transformer. These are
applied at one input of the gate. Gate length control signal is applied at the other
input. The gate' length may be 0.1 sec, 1 sec, 20 msec etc. The gate remains open
for this much time
period.
When the gate is open, the pulses are counted by the reversible counter. After
gate length period, when the gate is closed, the count measured by the counter is
transferred to the digital readout.
Mathematical Analysis : The input voltage V in charges the capacitor with a
current Vin / R; upto the reference voltage connected to the comparator other end.
Let this voltage is Vr. When capacitor voltage reaches this value, the comparator
changes the state, giving trigger to the pulse generator. This produces the pulse of
precision charge content which discharges the capacitor rapidly.
Key Point. The rate of charging and discharging results in a signal whose
frequency is
directly proportional to the input voltage VM.
The waveforms of integrator output and output of a pulse generator are shown
in the Fig. 3.12.

Integrator
output

Fig. 3.12 Waveforms of voltage to frequency conversion

Pulse
output

From the analysis of dual slope technique, we can write,

But in this type, both Vr and t2 are constants.

K2 = Vrt2_______________
vin = K2(l) = K2(f0)

Vjn.

Key Point : Thus the output frequency fu is directly proportional to the input voltage

The discharging time of capacitor must be as small as possible.

Accuracy : The accuracy of voltage to frequency conversion technique depends
on the magnitude and stability of the charge produced by the pulse generator. Thus
the accuracy depends on the precision of the charge fedback in every pulse and also
on the linearity between voltage and frequency.
To obtain the better accuracy the rate of pulses generated by the pulse
generator is kept equal to,
i) The voltage time integration of the input signal.
ii) The total voltage time areas of the feedback pulses.
There are two techniques to design the pulse generator for the better accuracy :
i) Using a precision capacitor : The precision capacitor is placed between the
pulse generator and the summing junction of op-amp. The capacitor is allowed to
charge upto precise voltage level and then this charge can be transferred to the
summing junction of op-amp.
ii) Using a transformer : The transformer can be placed between the pulse
generator and the summing junction of op-amp. The primary of the transformer is
connected to the pulse generator. The secondary is connected to the summing
junction of op-amp. The transformer material has a square type hysteresis loop
characteristics. Due to this, there is excursion around the B-H loop of transformer.
This excursion can produce precise amount of charge at the summing junction of opamp.
The purpose of the reversible counter is to sense the polarity of input voltage
and count the pulses accordingly. If the input signal changes its polarity during a
measuring period then the pulses received by the counter after the reversal of
polarity must be subtracted from the previous count. For this purpose, the counter
used is a reversible counter. If a reversible counter is not used, then the counter will
keep on adding the number of pulses and total count will keep on increasing though
actually the input polarity is reversed. This will give the incorrect reading. This type
of situations may occur while measuring the low voltage of the order of mV in
presence of a large amount of superimposed noise signal.
When the reversible counting scheme is used, there are four conditions of
counting possible which are,

i)

Positive up-counting

ii)

Positive down-counting

iii) Negative up-counting

iv) Negative down-counting
For the measurement of bipolar voltages, one more set of comparator and the
pulse generator is necessary to add. The second comparator produces positive going
pulse for the negative input signal. A +V volts reference is used at the second input
terminal of this comparator. The only important thing is that, both the pulse
generators should produce same amount of feedback charge at the summing point
of the op-amp.
Let us study the waveforms at various stages of the DVM when a complex input
waveform is applied to it. The various waveforms are shown in the Fig. 3.13.

Fig. 3.13 Integration of complex waveform

The input voltage has positive polarity for the period t () to t, and negative
polarity for the period t, to t4. For the periods t, to t, and t4 to t5, the voltage level is
zero.
The gate should be open for the entire time interval t () to t(J. This is shown in the
waveform Fig. 3.13 (d).
When input voltage polarity is positive i.e. for the periods l () to t[ and t5 to t6, the
output of the pulse generator is high. For other time period it is low. This is shown in
the Fig. 3.13 (b).

When the input voltage polarity is negative i.e. for the period t 2 to t4 the output
of the pulse generator is high. This is due to other pulse generator used for the
bipolar voltages. This is shown in the Fig. 3.13 (c).
For the period 10 to t,, it is positive counting up. For the period 12 to 13 it is
positive counting down. For t 3 to t4 negative counting up while for the period t 5 to t6 it
is negative counting down.
Transfer characteristics : The transfer
characteristics show the relation between
the input voltage and the output
frequency. This should be as linear as
possible. It remains linear upto a
frequency called saturation frequency.
This is shown in the Fig. 3.14.
Fig. 3.14 Transfer characteristics
The slope of both the positive and
negative voltage characteristics must be
same.
To increase the operating speed of this type of DVM, the upper frequency can be
increased i.e. increasing V/f conversion rate. But this results into reduced accuracy
and design cost of such circuit is also very high.
Hence another method in which 5 digit resolution is available, is used to increase
the speed of operation. This is the modified version of V/f integrating type DVM and
is called interpolating integrating DVM.

3.10.1

Interpolating Integrating DVM

The block diagram of interpolating integrating DVM is shown in the Fig. 3.15.
This is a modified version of V/f integrating DVM. A zero comparator is the
additional circuitry in the DVM. The zero comparator ensures that the charge on the
capacitor is zero.
During first 20 msec, the operation is exactly similar to the normal V/f
integrating DVM. However during this time the pulses are directed to the 100 s
decade. Here each pulse is equivalent to the 100 counts.
After 20 msec, the switch S, is moved from position 1 to 2 and
of
opposite polarity is offered. Some charge is still present on the capacitor. The
opposite polarity
helps to remove the remaining charge at a constant
rate. When the charge reaches zero, the zero comparator provides a pulse to the
control logic. When the switch is moved from position 1 to 2, at the same time gate
G, is also opened. Hence the pulses from 50 kHz oscillator can reach to Is decade.
When the zero comparator provides a pulse, the gate G 2 is closed. This completes
the reading operation.

ref

ref

Fig. 3.15 Interpolating integrating DVM 3.11 Potentiometric Integrating Type DVM
The block diagram of potentiometric integrating type DVM is shown in the Fig.
3.16. It uses a potentiometer at the input side and each measurement consists of
two sample periods t, and 12 as decided by the control logic.

Fig. 3.16 Potentiometric integrating type DVM

During the first sampling period t (, the output of digital to analog converter is
zero. Hence the voltage to be measured is directly applied to V/I converter and then
I/f converter. Thus the voltage to frequency conversion takes place during the period
tr The pulses produced by the pulse transformer are fed into 100 s decade of the
reversible counter.
The reversible counter counts these pulses which are proportional to the input
voltage. This count is then transferred to digital to analog converter. The digital to
analog converter produces a voltage corresponding to the counts. During the
process of transfer, the count is retained in the counter.

The input to V/f

converter
is now
the difference between
the input voltage and the
voltage produced by digital to analog converter. Due to thesmall errors and reduced
resolution, the output of digital to analog converter is not exactly equal to the input
voltage. Hence there exists a small voltage at the input of V/f converter, which is the
difference between input voltage and output of digital to analog converter.
Now the second sampling period t2 starts. During this period the V/f converter
generates a train of pulses, the frequency of which is proportional to the difference
between the input and the output of digital to analog converter. These pulses are
given to the 1 s decade of the reversible counter. The carry is generated when each
hundredth pulse is generated. This is then passed to 100 s decade. At the end of the
period t2, the reading operation ends. The count is then transferred to the digital
readout.
The advantages of this DVM are :
1. The accuracy is very high. It depends on the digital to analog converter and
its reference. The accuracy of V/f converter is of reduced importance.
2. The rejection of noise signals superimposed on input signal to be measured.
While the high cost and less speed of operation are the two major limitations of
this DVM.

S
Op
Cir
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Ac
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Techniq
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exit
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Hig
Hig
Po
ry
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or
approxi
hig
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Mi
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m
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er
Single
Slo
Hig
Lo
Lo
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.4 slope
w
h
w
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or
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Mi
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Dual
Hig
Hi
od
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3.12

Comparison of Various Techniques

3.13

3 - ^ and 4 - ^ Digit

The resolution of digital meters depends on the number of digits used in the
display. The three digit display for 0-1 V range can indicate the values from 0 to 999
mV with the smallest increment of 1 mV.

0 to 9

Practically one more digit which can display

only 0 or 1 is added. This digit is called half
digit

Oor 1

and display is called 3 - ^ digit display. This is

shown in the Fig. 3.17.
In such a display the meter can read the
values
1
above 999
Fig. 3.17 3 - digit display
upto 1999,
to give the overlap between the ranges for convenience. This process is called overranging.
Three full
digits

In case of 4 - ~ digit display, there are 4 full digits and 1 half digit. The number
obtained is from 0 to 19999. For this operation the time period required for counting
operation should be reduced. This can be achieved by changing the frequency of the
clock
signal. The wave shaping and amplifier circuitry should be more accurate for 4 - ^
digit display. It is necessary to add one more BCD counter, latch, BCD to 7 segment
decoder and 7 segment display unit. The resolution of 4 d i g i t display is better
than 3 - - digit display while the accuracy is 10 times better.

3.14

Resolution and Sensitivity

If n is the number of full digits then the resolution of a DVM is given by,
10n
where

R = Resolution

Thus for 3 digit display, n = 3

R

= _L =
3

10

10-3

o.OOl

or 0.1%

The sensitivity is the smallest change in the input which a digital meter should
be able to detect. Hence, it is the full scale value of the lowest range multiplied by
the resolution of the meter.
S = (fcLin ><
where

S = Sensitivity
(fs)min = Full scale value on minimum range.

R = Resolution expressed as decimal.

1
)>n^ Example 3.1 : What is the resolution of a 3 - - digit display on 1 V and 50 V

Solution
ranges ?

: The number of full digits are n = 3

Thus meter cannot distinguish between the values that differ from each other
by less than 0.001 of full scale.
Thus for 1 V range, the resolution is 1 x 0.001 =
0.001 V while for 50 V range, the resolution is 50 x
0.001 = 0.05 V.
Thus on 50 V range, the meter cannot distinguish between the readings that
differ by less than 0.05 V.
) Example 3.2 : A voltmeter uses 4 - ^ digit display, i) Find its resolution ii) How
would
the 11.87 V be displayed on a 10 V range? iii) How would 0.5573 be displayed
on IV and 10 V ranges ?

Solution

: i) For 4 ^ digit display the full digits are n = 4

R = -5- = 0.0001
104
ii) There are 5 digit places in 4 - ~ digits hence 11.87 would be displayed as
11.870.
iii) Resolution on IV range is IV x 0.0001 = 0.0001 V
Hence any reading upto 4th decimal can be
displayed.
Hence 0.5573 will be displayed as 0.5573
But resolution on 10 V range is 10 V x 0.0001 = 0.001 V
Hence decimals upto the 3rd place can be displayed.
Therefore on 10 V range, the reading will be displayed as 0.557 rather than
0.5573.
Example 3.3 : A 3 - ^ digit DVM has an accuracy specification of 0.5 % of the
reading 2 digit. What is the error in volts, when the reading is 5.00 V on its
10 V range, ii) What is the % error of reading, when the reading is 0.10 V on
its 10 V range?

Solution

: As number of digits n = 3

R = -1- =3 0.001

10

For 10 V
range,

R
1 digit

0.001 x 10 = 0.01 V
0.01 V on 10 V
range

i) The reading is 5.00 V

Error due to reading
and 1 digit error
Total error
ii) When reading is 0.10 V,
Error due to reading

0.5% of 5.00 = ^x5 = 0.025 V

1. 5
1.
01 V

0.5%+of
0.1 =
= 0.035
x 0.1
0.025
0.01
V=
0.0005
V 0.01 V

0.0105
V
0.0105 inn
10.5
-or x 100
%

and 1 digit error

Total error
.'.
reading

3.15

Error

as

of

General Specifications of DVM

1
.2 Displa
y
Unit
.3 annun
ciation
.4 Maxi
mum
range
.5 Over
indicat
. Functi
ons
Zero
6
adjust
.7
ment
Samp
ling
.8
rate
Rangi
.9
ng
Polarit
.1
y
Temp
eratur
0
e
.1
Powe
1
rInput
:
.2
1
imped
.1
ance
Accur
3
acy
:
.4
1
Size
.1
5 Weigh
t

3-1/2
digits,
LCD
mV,
V, mA,
Q,
kQ,
MQ,
LOW
BAT
(Low
battery),
ac,
1999
or
1999
Only
(1)
or
(1)
displayed
at
MSB
DC
volts,
AC
volts,
DC
amps,
AC
amps,
Automatic
2
samples/second
Automatic
or
manual
Auto
negative
P
polarity
indication
CT
toRelative
40 C, <
80%
Humidity
(RH),
2
AA
size
1.5
V
batteries,
life
of
2000
hours
10
MQ
- 1000
MQ

0.5%
to80
0.7%
160
(L)
x
(B)
x
30
(H)
About
gm
without250
batteries

The general specifications of DVM are

3.16

Digital Multimeters

The digital multimeter is an instrument which is capable of measuring a.c.

voltages, d.c. voltages, a.c. and d.c. currents and resistances over several ranges.
The basic circuit of a digital multimeter is always a d.c. voltmeter as shown in the

High

Low

Fig. 3.18.

Fig. 3.18 Basic scheme of digital multimeter

The current is converted to voltage by passing it through low shunt resistance.
The a.c. quantities are converted to d.c. by employing various rectifier and filtering
circuits. While for the resistance measurements the meter consists of a precision low
current source that is applied across the unknown resistance while gives d.c.
voltage. All the quantities are digitised using analog to digital converter and
displayed in the digital form on the display. The analog multimeters require no power
supply and they suffer less from electric noise and isolation problems but still the
digital multimeters have following advantages over analog multimeters :
i)

The accuracy is very high.

ii) The input impedance is very high hence there is no loading effect.
iii) An unambigious reading at greater viewing distances is obtained.
iv) The output available is electrical which can be used for interfacing with
external equipment.
v) Due to improvement in the integrated technology, the prices are going down.
vi) These are available in very small size.
The requirement of power supply, electric noise and isolation problems are the
two limitations.
The basic building blocks of digital multimeter are several A/D converters,
counting circuitry and an attenuation circuit. Generally dual slope integration type
ADC is preferred in the multimeters. The single attenuator circuit is used for both a.c.
and d.c. measurements in many commercial multimeters. The block diagram of a
digital multimeter is shown in the Fig. 3.19.

Fig. 3.19 Block diagram of a digital multimeter

As mentioned above basically it is a d.c. voltmeter. In order to measure unknown
currents, current to voltage converter circuit is implemented. This is shown in the
Fig. 3.20.

Fig. 3.20 Current to voltage converter

The unknown .current is applied to the summing junction Xi at the input of opamp. As input current of op-amp is almost zero, the current I R is almost same as I,.
This current IR causes a voltage drop, which is proportional to the current to be
measured. This voltage drop is the analog input to the analog to digital converter,
thus providing a reading that is proportional to the unknown current
In order to measure the resistances, a constant current source is used. The
known current is passed through the unknown resistance. The voltage drop across
the resistance is applied to analog to digital converter hence providing the display of
the value of the unknown resistance. To measure the a.c. voltages, the rectifiers and

filters are used. The a.c. is converted to d.c and then applied to the analog to digital
converter.
In addition to the visual display, the output from the digital multimeters can also
be used to interface with some other equipments.

3.16.1

Comparison of Analog Multimeter and DMM

power
1
supply
.2 No
required.
use of
electronic
.3 No
componen
Suffer
less
.4
from
electric
The
isolation
.5
problems
The
.6
accuracy
is
less.
The
input
.7 impedance
less.
Possiblity
of
.8 is
ambigious
output
cannot
be
.9 The
interfaced
Size
is
and
.1 more
bulky.
Simple
in
constructio
0
. n.
Analog electronic multimeter

3.17

1
supply
is
.2 Power
required.
It
uses
.3 electronic
components
Suffer
more
.4
from
electric
noise.
The
isolation
problems
.5
are
more.
The
.6
accuracy
is
high.
The
input
.7 impedance
very
high.
The
realing
is
.8 is
unambigiou
output
can
be
.9 The
Itin
is
compact
size
and
.1 easily
light
in
Construction
0
complicated
. is
but due to
Digital multimeter

Specifications of Digital Multimeters

The important specifications of a digital multimeter are as follows :

i)

D.C. voltage

There are five ranges available from 200 mV to 1000 V.

The resolution is 10 gV on the lowest range.
The accuracy is 0.03 % of the reading + two digits
ii) A.C. voltage
There are five ranges from 200 mV to
750 V The resolution is 10 gV on the
lowest range.
The accuracy is frequency dependent but the best accuracy is 0.5% + 10 digits
between 45 Hz and 1kHz on all the ranges.
lii) D.C. current
There are five ranges from 200 pA to 2000 mA.

The resolution is 0.01 pA on the lowest range.

The accuracy is 0.3 % of reading + two digits.
iv) A.C. current
There are five ranges from 200 pA to 2000 mA.
The accuracy is frequency dependent but the best accuracy of 1% + ten digits
between 45 Hz and 2 kHz on all the ranges.
v) Resistance
Six ranges are available from 200 2 to 20 M2
The accuracy is 0.1/. of reading + two digits + 0.02 2 on the lowest range.
vi) Input impedance
The input impedance is about 10 M2 on all the ranges.
vii) Normal mode noise rejection
It is greater than 60 dB at 50 Hz while the common mode noise rejection is
greater than 90 dB at 50 Hz and greater than 120 dB at d.c.
viii)Overload protection
The overload protection of 1000 V d.c. and 750 r.m.s. a.c. is provided.
ix) Diode test
The voltage drop across the diode can be measured for which 1 mA 10 % of
constant current source is used.
x) Conductance
It can display conductance in siemens.
xi) Relative reference
When 'REL' button is pressed, the displayed reading is stored as a reference and
then subtracted from the subsequent readings to indicate only amount of deviation
from the reference.
xii) Frequency
The frequency range os 200 Hz to 200 kHz autoselection.

3 18 Frequency Meter
The frequency is the measure of repeatation of any signal. The frequency is
nothing but the number of cycles of the signal per imit time. In communication
systems it is the most important physical quantity. Frequency and time are
interdependent. The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). The unit hertz is defined as one
event per second.

3.18.1

Analog Frequency Meter

The basic principle of analog frequency meter is that first unknown signal
frequency is converted into proportional current. Then the current is converted into
the voltage which is calibrated interms of the frequency.
The block diagram of analog frequency meter is as shown in the Fig. 3.21.

Pr
/\/
Ito
ec
\
V
isi
c
co
h
nv
di
an
sp
en d
filt

Input
signal

Reference o
voltage

Fig. 3.21 Block diagram of analog frequency meter

Hh

-0

Meter calibrated interms of input frequency

Advantages :
(i) The design of analog frequency meter is simple.
(ii) The analog frequency meter is suitable for limited frequency range.
Disadvantages :
(i) Due to the aging effect of capacitors, the analog frequency meter has poor
reliability.
(ii) The accuracy and resolution of the analog frequency meter is poor.
(iii) The range of frequency measurement is limited.
(iv) Period, ratio of frequencies can not be measured using the analog filter
meter.

3.19

Principle of Digital Frequency Meter

Jill
1
1
sec.
sec.
Fig. 3.22 Principle of digital
frequency measurement

The signal waveform whose frequency is to be

measured is converted into trigger pulses and
applied continuously to one terminal of an
AND gate. To the other terminal of the gate, a
pulse of 1 sec is applied as shown in the Fig.
3.22. The number of pulses counted at the
output terminal during period of 1 sec
indicates the frequency.

The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted to trigger pulses

which is nothing but train of pulses with one pulse for each cycle of the signal. At the
output terminal of AND gate, the number of pulses in a particular interval of time are
counted using an electronic counter. Since each pulse represents the cycle of the
unknown signal, the number of counts is a direct indication of the frequency of the
signal which is unknown. Since electronic counter has a high speed of operation,
high frequency signals can be measured.
The basic block diagram of digital frequency meter is as shown in Fig. 3.23.

3.20

Basic Circuit for Frequency Measurement

Enable / disable

Fig. 3.23 Blockdiagram of digital frequency meter

The signal waveform whose frequency is to be measured is first
amplified. Then the amplified signal is applied to the schmitt trigger
which converts input signal into a square wave with fast rise and fall
times. This square wave is then differentiated and clipped. As a result,
the output from the schmitt trigger is the train of pulses for each cycle
of the signal. TJie output pulses from the schmitt trigger are fed to a
START/STOP gate. When this gate is enabled, the input pulses pass
through this gate and are fed directly to the electronic counter, which
counts the number of pulses. When this gate is disabled, the counter
stops counting the incoming pulses. The counter displays the number
of pulses that have passed through it in the time interval between
start and stop. If this interval is known, the unknown frequency can be
measured.
The basic circuit of digital frequency meter used for the measurement of
frequency consists two R-S flip flops. The basic circuit for measurement of frequency
is as shown in the Fig. 3.24.

Gate control flip-flop

Fig. 3.24 Basic circuit for frequency measurement

The output of unknown frequency is applied to the Schmitt trigger which
produces positive pulse at the output. These are counted pulses present at A of the
main gate. The time base selector provides positive pulses at B of the START gate
and STOP gate, both.
Initially FF - 1 is at LOGIC 1 state. The voltage from Y output is applied to A of the
STOP gate which enables this gate. The LOGIC 0 state of the output Y is applied to
input A of START gate which disables this gate.
When STOP gate enables, positive pulses from the time base pass through STOP
gate to S input of FF - 2, setting FF - 2 to LOGIC 1 state.
The LOGIC 0 level of Y of FF - 2 is connected to B of main gate, which confirms
that pulses from unknown frequency source can't pass through the main gate.
By applying a positive pulse to R input of FF - 1, the operation is started. This
changes states of the FF - 1 to Y = 1 and Y = 0. Due to this, STOP gate gets disabled,
while START gate gets enabled. The same pulse is simultaneously applied to all
decade counters to reset all of them, to start new counting.
With the next pulse from the time base passes through START gate reseting FF 2 and it changes state from LOGIC 0 to LOGIC 1. As Y changes from 0 to 1, the gating
signal is applied to input B of the main gate which enables the main gate.
Now the pulses from source can pass through the main gate to the counter. The
counter counts pulses. The state of FF - 1 changes from 0 to 1 by applying same
pulse from START gate to S input of FF - 1. Now the START gate gets disabled, while
STOP gate gets enabled. It is important that the pulses of unknown frequency pass
through the main gate to counter till the main gate is enabled.

The next pulse from the time base generator passes through STOP Gate to S
input of FF - 2. This sets output back to 1 and Y = 0. Now main gate gets disabled.
The source supplying pulses of unknown frequency gets disconnected. In between
this pulse and previous pulse from the time base selector, the number of pulses are
counted by the counter. When the interval of time between two pulses is 1 second,
then the count of pulses indicates the frequency of the unknown frequency source.

3.21

Block Diagram of Digital Frequency Counter

For the unknown frequency measurements the digital frequency counter is the
most accurate and reliable instrument available. With the highest accuracy digital
frequency counters, the accuracy of the atomic time standards can be achieved. As
most of the events now a days can be converted into an electrical signal consisting
train of pulses, the digital frequency counter can be used for counting heart beats,
passing of radioactive particles, revolutions of motor shaft, light flashes etc. The
block diagram of digital frequency counter is as shown in the Fig. 3.25.

Fig. 3.25 Block diagram of digital frequency counter

The major components of the digital frequency counter are as given below.
(1) Input signal conditioning circuit
(2) Time base generator
(3) Gating circuit
(4) Decimal counter and display unit.
Let us study each block of the digital frequency counter one by one.
1. Input signal conditioning circuit :
In this circuit, an amplifier and schmitt trigger arc included. The threshold
voltage of the schmitt trigger can be controlled by sensitivity control on the control
panel. First of all the input signal of unknown frequency is fed into input signal
conditioning circuit. There the signal is amplified and then it is converted into square
wave by schmitt trigger circuit.

2. Time base generator :

The crystal oscillator produces a signal of 1 MHz or 100 MHz depending upon the
requirement. In general, the accuracy of the digital frequency counter depends on
the accuracy of the time base signals produced, thus the temperature compensated
crystal oscillator is used. Then output of the oscillator is passed through another
schmitt trigger circuit producing square wave output. Then it is fed to frequency
dividers connected in cascade. Thus a train of pulses are obtained after each
frequency divider section.
Using time base selector switch S the Gate Time can be adjusted.
3. Gating circuit :
The gating circuit consists of AND gate. When the enable signal is provided to
the AND gate, it allows a train of pulses to pass through the gate for the time period
selected by the time base circuit. The pulses are counted and then the second pulse
generated from the time base generator disables AND gate and thus closes it.
4. Decimal counter and display unit :
In this unit, decade counters are connected in the cascade. The output of the
AND gate is connected to the clock input of the first decade counter. Then the output
of this counter to the clock input of next and so on. Using these counters the number
of pulses are counted and are displayed by the display unit. As the number of pulses
counted are proporHonal to the input signal frequency, the final display is
proportional to the unknown frequency of the input signal.

3.22

Period Measurement

Using the frequency counter, the period measurement is possible. As we know,

time period T = 1/f. So if the frequency to be measured is low, then the accuracy of
the frequency counter decreases as less number of pulses are connected to the
gating circuit. Thus in low frequency region it is better to measure period rather than
frequency. The block diagram of the period mode of the digital frequency counter is
as shown in the Fig. 3.26.
The main difference in the frequency mode and period mode of the digital
frequency counter is that the unknown input signal controls the gate time of the
gating circuit while the time base frequency is counted in the decade counter
assembly.

Fig. 3.26
Note that In the period mode, the input signal conditioning circuit produces a train of
pulses. So the positive going zero crossing pulses are used as trigger pulses for
opening and closing of AND gate in the gating circuit.
The main advantage of the period mode is that the accuracy is greater for the
low frequency input signals.

3.22.1

Multiple Period Averaging

In simple period mode, the pulses obtained from time base circuit are counted in
one cycle time of an unknown input signal. It leads to getting error. To overcome
this, the pulses are measured for more than one cycle of the input signal. Here the
input signal frequency is first divided by the decade counters and then it is applied
to the gating circuit as shown in the Fig. 3.27.
Amplifier

3.23

Fig. 3.27 Multiple period averaging mode

Time interval Measurement

The time interval measurement is basically similar to the period measurement.

In the time interval measurement mode, gate control flip flop is used as shown in the
Fig. 3.28.
Input
1

Fig. 3.28 Time interval measurement

In this measurement mode, two inputs are used to start and stop the counting.
Here similar to the period measurement, the internal frequency pulses generated by
Input
time base generator
circuit are counted. The start and stop signals are derived from
2
two inputs. The AND gate is enabled with the external input 1 applied. The counting
of the pulses starts at this instant. The AND gate is disabled with the input 2
applied. Thus pulses are counted in the time interval which is proportional to the
time interval between application of inputs 1 and 2.

3.24

Frequency Ratio Measurement

By using the frequency counter, the ratio of two frequencies can be

measured. It is again similar to period measurement. The block
diagram is as shown in the Fig. 3.29.

Amplifier

Fig. 3.29 Frequency ratio measurement using frequency counter

In this mode, the low frequency signal is used as gating signal, while the pulses
are counted for the high frequency signal. Hence it is clear that the low frequency
represents the time base.

The number of pulses corresponding to the high frequency signal f 2 are counted
during the period of the low frequency signal f t, by the decade counters and
displayed by the display unit.

3.25

Measurement Errors

In general, in the measurement of frequency and time using frequency counter,

there are some errors inherently occuring. The most commonly observed
instrumental errors are gating error, time base error and trigger level error.

3.25.1

Gating Error

The output pulse of oscillator is used to open and dose the main gate during
frequency measurement. During this gating pulse, input signal passes through the
gate. By using the decade counters the input signal pulses are counted.
Consider an example of a gating pulse used to measure pulses of two waveforms
with different phase relationships with respect to the gating signal. The gating signal
is not at all synchronised with the input signals as indicated by the waveforms in the
Fig. 3.30 (a) and (b)

Gating pulse
period

Fig. 3.30 Gating error

Input signal 1
Input signal 2

From above waveforms it is clear that in one measurement, for input signal 1,
when gate is open decade counter counts 5 pulses; while that for input signal 2, it
counts 4 pulses. Hence there is 1 count error in the measurement. This gating error
in frequency measurement plays important role during measurement of low
frequencies. Consider that, frequency of 10 Hz is measured in Is. The decade counter
will count 10 1 count. So there is 10 % inaccuracy. Thus at the lower frequencies,
period measurement is preferred over time measurement.
To decide a frequency between period measurements and frequency
measurements, let fc be the crystal frequency of the counter and f x be the frequency
of unknown input signal.
In period measurements, the number of pulses counted is given by,

In frequency measurement, the number of pulses counted in Is is

- (2)

given by, Nf = fx
Thus the crossover frequency f0 at which N = N, is given by
Thus from equation (3) we can conclude that, to minimize the 1 count gating
error effect, frequencies lower than the cross over frequency f c are measured in
"period" mode of measurement; while the frequencies greater than the crossover
fo =
...
or
(3)
frequency f(, are measured in "frequency" mode of measurement.

3.25.2

Time Base Error

In frequency measurement, due to inaccuracies in the time base, errors occur in

the measurement. The common time base errors are oscillator calibration errors,
short term crystal stability errors and long term crystal stability errors.
The oscillator calibration errors can be overcome by using different simple
calibration techniques. In one of the techniques, we get accuracy of order of 1 part in
106 with standard frequency. If zero beating is done by using visual means such as
oscilloscope, the
y
calibration accuracy increases to 1 part in 10 .
The main cause of short term crystal stability errors is the variation in frequency
of the oscillator momentarily. It may takes place due to the voltage transients,
electrical interference, cycling of crystal oven, shocks and vibrations etc. These
errors can be reduced by using long gate times such as 10s and 100s during
frequency measurements. A typical value for short term stability for standard crystal
is of the order of 1 or 2 parts in 107.
Due to the aging and deterioration of the crystal, long term crystal stability
errors occur. When temperature cycled crystal is kept in continuos oscillation,
internal stresses are relived. Because of this, the minute particles at the surface of
the crystal get shed causing reduction in the thickness. This increases the frequency
of the oscillator.

3.25.3

Trigger Level Error

In period and frequency measurement the trigger level error is decided by the
accuracy with which the gate is opened or closed. In general, in the frequency
measurement set up, the schmitt trigger provides gate control pulses. But it is
commonly observed that input signal consists noise i.e. unwanted quantity. These
unwanted components also get amplified along with the actual input signal. The
triggering of the schmitt trigger occurs due to input signal amplification and its
signal to noise ratio. So to limit the trigger level error, large signal amplitudes and
fast rise times in the signal are best suited.

The obtain maximum accuracy following precautions must be taken.

1. The crossover frequency must be selected as where f c clock frequency of the
counter.
2. The frequency measurement must be carried out above ^/fc while the period
measurement must be carried out below
3. The accuracy of the measurement is a function of time since the last
calibration against the standard.
4. Tine large amplitude signals and fast rise times minimize trigger level errors.

3.26

High Frequency Measurement

The digital frequency meter can count frequency from 0 Hz to few 100 MHz. The
counters used in the digital frequency meter limit the frequency range. These
counters cannot count the high frequency at high speed. The frequency upto 100
MHz covers only a small portion of the frequency spectrum. So some other
techniques are necessary to extend the range of digital frequency meter above 40
MHz. The input frequency is reduced or minimised and then it is applied to the digital
counter. Following are some techniques used for high frequency measurements.
1. Prescaling
By using high seed counters the high frequency is divided by integers such as 2,
4, 6 etc. So that the frequency lies within the frequency range that can be counted
by digital frequency meter.
2. Heterodyne Converter
By using heterodyne techniques, the high frequency signals are converted into
low frequency signal which can lie within frequency range of the digitaf frequency
meter.
3. Transfer Oscillator
The harmonic of L.F. oscillator is mixed to produce zero frequency with high
frequency signal. The frequency of L.F. oscillator is measured and multiplied by an
integer which is equal to the ratio of two frequencies.
4. Automatic Divider
The high frequency is reduced by some factor such as 100 : 1 using
automatically tuned circuits. These circuits generate output frequency equal to
l/1000th of the input frequency.

Examples with Solutions ) Example 3.4 : Determine the resolution of 3j digit display
on 1 V and 10 V ranges.

Solution

VTU : [an./Feb.-2008, h Marks

: The number of full digits are n = 3

1

1
0"

-Xr =
0.001
103

Thus meter can not distinguish between the values that differ from each other by
less than 0.001 of full scale.
Thus for 1 V range, the resolution is 1 x 0.001 =
0.001 V And for 10 V range, the resolution is 10 x
0.001 = 0.01 V
Thus on 10 V range, the meter can not distinguish between the readings that
differ by less than 0.01 V.
I
Example 3.5 : A 42 digit DVM has an accuracy of 0.5 % of reading 1 digit.
i) What is the possible error, in volts when the instrument is reading 5 V on 200
V range.

'it) Wlwt is lilt possible error, in wits when the instrument is rending 0.1 V on 2
V range ?
WS * II jllimmil*MllMEHBI

Solution :

n= Number of digits = 4

R = Resolution =
i)

11
10n 104

For 200 V range,

R = -i-x200
= 0.02 V
4
10

The reading is 5 V.
.'. Error due to reading = 0.5 % of 5 =
0.025 V 1 digit error = 0.02 V Total error =
0.025 + 0.02 = 0.045 V
ii) For 2 V range,
R = ~^rx2
= 2xl0"4 V
104
The reading is 0.1 V.
Error due to reading = 0.5 % of 0.1 = 5x10

1 digit error = 2x10

V Total error =

5x10"*+2x10"* =7x10 4 V
Example 3.6 : A 4 Ijl digit voltmeter is used for voltage measurement :
i)

Find its resolution ii) How would 12.98 V he displayed on a 10 V

range? Hi) How would 0.6973 he displayed on 1 V and 10 V ranges?

Solution

VTU : July/Aug.-2010, 6 Marks

: i) For 4 1/2 digit display, the full digits n = 4.

11
10n ~ 104

0.000
1

ii) There are 5 digit place in the display hence 12.98 would be displaced as 12.980.
iii) On 1 V range, R = 0.0001 x 1 = 0.0001
Hence any reading upto 4
displayed as 0.6973 V.

th

decimal can be displayed. Hence 0.6973 will be

On 10 V range, R = 0.0001 x 10= 0.001

Hence decimals upto 3rd place can be displayed. Hence 0.6973 will be displayed
as
697 on 10 V range.

1.

Review Questions
2.

State the advantages of digital voltmeters over other voltmeters.

3.

Explain with neat circuit diagrams the working of the following digital voltmeters.
i)

Successive approximation type DVM

ii)

Linear ramp type DVM

iii) Staircase ramp type DVM

iv) Voltage to frepiency converter type integrating DVM
v)

Dual slope integrating type DVM

4.

Compare the linear and staircase ramp techniques.

5.

Why reversible counter is used in V/f converter type DVM ?

6.

Explain the following terms as applied to digital displays :

i) Resolution ii) Difference .

' ^ and 4 ^ digit display

iii) Sensitivity iv) Accuracy specifications

7.

Compare analog multimeter with digital multimeter (DMM).

8.

Draw and explain the basic block diagram of DMM.

9.

State the various specifications of DMM.

9. A 3 - digit voltmeter is used for measuring voltage

i)

Find its resolution

ii)

How would the voltage of 14.53 V be displayed on 10 V scale?

Hi) How would the reading of 14.53 V be displayed on 100 V scale ? [Ans.:

0.001,14.53, 014.51
10. The lowest range on a 4^ digit DVM is 10 mV full scale. What is its sensitivity ?

11. Explain analog frequency meter with the help of block diagram.
12. Write advantages and disadvantages of the analog frequency meter.
13. Explain the principle of digital frequency meter.
14. Explain digital frequency counter with neat diagram. Explain each block of digital
frequency counter in detail15. Explain how frequency is measured using the digital frequency counter.
16. Explain how digital frequency counter is used to measure,
(i) frequency, (ii) period, (iii) time interval, (iv) ratio of frequencies.

University Questions
Q.1 Discuss the advantages of a digital voltmeter over an analog
voltmeter.
Jan./Feb.-2008, 4 Marks; Jan./Feb.-2011, 3
Marks

Q.2 Explain the working of a digital frequency meter with the help of a block
diagram.
Jan./Feb.-2008, 10 Marks, |uly/Aug.-2008, 10
Marks, J

uly/Aug.-2010, 10
Marks,
Jan./Feb.-20ll, 7 Marks

Q.3 With
diagram
explain the
principle
operation
successive
Q.4
Withblock
a block
schematic
explain
theand
working
of ofdigital
millimeter.
approximation type DVM. Show transition
diagram for Jan./Feb.-2009
3-bit.
July/Aug.-2008,
T 10
Marks

Q.5 With the help of block diagram explain the working of dual

an./Feb.-2009, 2010, 10
Marks

slope DVM Q.6 Explain the ramp type digital voltmeter with the

july/Aug.-2009, 10
Marks

help of block diagram Q.7 Differentiate analog meters and digital

meter,

an./Fcb.-2010, |an./Feb.-2011, 10
Marks
July/Aug.-2010, 4
Marks

Oscilloscopes
4.1 Introduction
In studying the various electronic, electrical networks and systems, signals
which are functions of time, are often encountered. Such signals may be periodic or
non periodic in nature. The device which allows, the amplitude of such signals, to be
displayed primarily as a function of time, is called cathode ray oscilloscope,
commonly known as C.R.O. The C.R.O. gives the visual representation of the time
varying signals. The oscilloscope has become an universal instrument and is
probably most versatile tool for the development of electronic circuits and systems.
It is an integral part of electronic laboratories.
The oscilloscope is, in fact, a voltmeter. Instead of the mechanical deflection of a
metallic pointer as used in the normal voltmeters, the oscilloscope uses the
movement of an electron beam against a fluorescent screen, which produces the
movement of a visible spot. The movement of such spot on the screen is
proportional to the varying magnitude of the signal, which is under measurement.
The electron beam can be deflected in two directions : the horizontal or xdirection and the vertical or y-direction. Thus an electron beam producing a spot can
be used to produce two dimensional displays. Thus C.R.O. can be regarded as a fast
x-y plotter. The x-axis and y-axis can be used to study the variation of one voltage
as a function of another. Typically the x-axis of the oscilloscope represents the time
while the y-axis represents variation of the input voltage signal. Thus if the input
voltage signal applied to the y-axis of C.R.O. is sinusoidally varying and if x-axis
represents the time axis, then the spot moves sinusoidally, and the familiar
sinusoidal waveform can be seen on the screen of the oscilloscope. The oscilloscope
is so fast device that it can display the periodic signals whose time period is as small
as microseconds and even nanoseconds. The C.R.O. basically operates on voltages,
but it is possible to convert current, pressure, strain, acceleration and other physical
quantities into the voltage using transducers and obtain their visual representations
on the C.R.O.

(4 - 1)

Electronic Instrumentation

4-2

Oscilloscopes

4.2 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The cathode ray tube (CRT) is the heart of the C.R.O. The CRT generates the
electron beam, accelerates the beam, deflects the beam and also has a screen
where beam becomes visible as a spot. The main parts of the CRT are :
i) Electron gun ii) Deflection system iii) Fluorescent screen
iv) Glass tube or envelope v) Base
A schematic diagram of CRT, showing its structure and main components is
shown in the Fig. 4.1.
Beam deflection

Fig. 4.1 Cathode ray tube

4.2.1

Electron Gun

The electron gun section of the cathode ray tube provides a sharply focused
electron beam directed towards the fluorescent-coated screen. This section starts
from thermally heated cathode, emitting the electrons. The control grid is given
negative potential with respect to cathode. This grid controls the number of electrons
in the beam, going to the
screen.
The momentum of the electrons (their number x their speed) determines the
intensity, or brightness, of the light emitted from the fluorescent screen due to the
electron bombardment. The light emitted is usually of the green colour. Because the
electrons are negatively charged, a repulsive force is created by applying a negative
voltage to the control grid (in CRT, voltages applied to various grids are stated with
respect to cathode, which is taken as common point). This negative control voltage
can be made variable.
Key Point: A more negative voltage results in less number of electrons in the
beam and hence decreased brightness of the beam spot.
Since the electron beam consists of many electrons, the beam tends to diverge.
This is because the similar (negative) charges on the electron repel each other. To
compensate for such repulsion forces, an adjustable electrostatic field is created
between two cylindrical anodes, called the focusing anodes.
Key Point: The variable positive voltage on the second anode is used to adjust the
focus or
sharpness of the bright beam spot.

Electronic Instrumentation

4-3

Oscilloscopes

The high positive potential is also given to the preaccelerating anodes and
accelerating anodes, which results into the required acceleration of the electrons.
Both focusing and accelerating anodes are cylindrical in shape having small
openings located in the centre of each electrode, co-axial with the tube axis. The
preaccelerating and accelerating anodes are connected to a common positive high
voltage which varies between 2 kV to 10 kV. The focusing anode is connected to a
lower positive voltage of about 400 V to 500 V.

4.2.2

Deflection System

When the electron beam is accelerated it passes through the deflection system,
with which beam can be positioned anywhere on the screen.
The deflection system of the cathode-ray-tube consists of two pairs of parallel
plates, referred to as the vertical and horizontal deflection plates. One of the plates
in each set is connected to ground (0 V). To the other plate of each set, the external
deflection voltage is applied through an internal adjustable gain amplifier stage. To
apply the deflection voltage externally, an external terminal, called the Y input or the
X input, is available.
As shown in the Fig. 4.1, the electron beam passes through these plates. A
positive voltage applied to the Y input terminal (V y) causes the beam to deflect
vertically upward due to the attraction forces, while a negative voltage applied to the
Y input terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect vertically downward, due to
the repulsion forces.
Similarly, a positive voltage applied to X-input terminal (V x) will cause the
electron beam to deflect horizontally towards the right; while a negative voltage
applied to the X-input terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally
towards the left of the screen. The amount of vertical or horizontal deflection is
directly proportional to the correspondingly applied voltage.
When the voltages are applied simultaneously to vertical and horizontal
deflecting plates, the electron beam is deflected due to the resultant of these two
voltages.
The face of the screen can be considered as an x-y plane. The (x,y) position of
the beam spot is thus directly influenced by the horizontal and the vertical voltages
applied to the deflection plates Vx and Vy, respectively.
The horizontal deflection (x) produced will be proportional to the horizontal
deflecting voltage, Vx, applied to X-input.
X oc Vx

Electronic Instrumentation

4-4

Oscilloscopes

Where Kx is constant of proportionality.

The deflection produced is usually measured in cm or as number of divisions, on
the scale, in the horizontal direction.
Then Kx = where Kx expressed as cm/volt or division/volt, is called horizontal
*X
sensitivity of the oscilloscope.
Similarly, the vertical deflection (y) produced will be proportional to the vertical
deflecting voltage, Vv, applied to the y-input.

~ Vy

Kv = y/Vv and Kv, the vertical sensitivity, will be expressed as cm/volt, or

division/volt.
Vertical
The values of vertical and horizontal
deflection
sensitivities
are
selectable
and
adjustable
through
multipositional
switches on the front panel that controls
the gain of the corresponding internal
amplifier stage. The bright spot of the
electron beam can thus trace (or plot)
the x-y relationship between the two
voltages, Vx and V>.
The schematic arrangement of the
vertical and the horizontal plates,
Fig. 4.2 Arrangement of plates in CRT
controlling the position of the spot on
the screen is shown in the Fig. 4.2.

4.2.3

Fluorescent Screen

The light produced by the screen does not disappear immediately when
bombardment by electrons ceases, i.e., when the signal becomes zero. The time
period for which the trace remains on the screen after the signal becomes zero is
known as "persistence". The persistence may be as short as a few microsecond, or
as long as tens of seconds or even minutes.
Medium persistence traces are mostly used for general purpose applications.
Long persistence traces are used in the study of transients. Long persistence
helps in the study of transients since the trace is still seen on the screen after the
transient has disappeared.
Short persistence is needed for extremely high speed phenomena.

Electronic Instrumentation

4-5

Oscilloscopes

The screen is coated with a fluorescent material called phosphor which emits
light when bombarded by electrons. There are various phosphors available which
differ in colour, persistence, and efficiency.
One of the common phosphor is Willemite, which is zinc, orthosilicate, ZnO+
Si02, with traces of manganese. This produces the familiar greenish trace. Other
useful screen materials include compounds of zinc, cadmium, magnesium and
silicon.
The kinetic energy of the electron beam is
converted into both light and heat energy when
it hits the screen. The heat so produced gives
rise to "phosphor burn" which is damaging and
sometimes destructive. This degrades the light
output of phosphor and sometimes may cause
complete phosphor destruction. Thus the
phosphor must have high burn resistance to
avoid accidental damage.
Similarly the phosphor screen is provided with an aluminium layer called
aluminizing the cathode ray tube. This is shown in the Fig. 4.3.
Such a layer serves three functions :
1) To avoid build up of charges on the phosphor which tend to slow down the
electrons and limits the brightness.
2) It serves as a light scatter. When the beam strikes the phosphor with
aluminized layer, the light emitted back into the tube is reflected back
towards the viewer which increases the brightness.
3) The aluminium layer acts as a heat sink for the phosphor and thus reduces
the chances of the phosphor burning.
Phosphor Screen Characteristics
Many phosphor materials having different excitation times and colours as well as
different phosphorescence times are available.
The type PI, P2, PT1 or P31 are the short persistence phosphors and are used for
the general purpose oscilloscopes.
Medical oscilloscopes require a longer phosphor decay and hence phosphors like
P7 and P39 are preferred for such applications.
Very slow displays like radar require long persistence phosphors to maintain
sufficient flicker free picture. Such phosphors are PI9, P26 and P33.
The phosphors PI9, P26, P33 have low burn resistance. The phosphors PI, P2, P4,
P7, PI I have medium burn resistance while P15, P31 have high bum resistance.

Electronic Instrumentation

4-6

Oscilloscopes

The various phosphors and their characteristics are given in the Table 4.1.
Phosphor

Colour

Persistence

Applications

Relative
luminance

yell
yell
me
owowdiu
P1
45
gre
gre
m
blu
gre
me
P2
60
een
diu
me
whi
whi
P4 blu
50
diu
te yell
te me
m
owdiu
P7 e45
wh
gre
mite
en
sho
blu
me
blu
ediu
P11
25
e
vio
mlet
sho
P1
blu
visi
15
5 blu
eeble
gr
gre
-sh
ee
en
ort
n
ora
P1
ora
lon
ng
9
nge
g
25
e
me
P3
gre
gre
10
diu
1
en
en
0
msho
P3
ora
ora
ver
20
3 gre
ng nge
y
me
P3
gre
50
9 en en diu
mlon
Under
excitation

After glow

Table 4.1

Relative
writing
speed

Gen
eral
35
purp
Gen
70
eral
kand
75 Blac
Rad
95 whit
ar
Phot
10
ogra
0
phic
25 Flyin
g
spot
sca
Rad
3
ar
Gen
75 eral
purp
ose
Rad
7
ar
Co
40 mpu
ter

Why P31 is commonly used ?

Out of these varieties, the material P31 is used commonly for general purpose
oscilloscopes due to following characteristics :
1) It gives colour to which.human eye response is maximum.
2) It gives short persistence required to avoid multiple image display.
3) It has high burn resistance to avoid the accidental damage.
4) Its illumination level is high.
5) It provides high writing speed.
Key Point: The light output of a fluorescent screen is proportional to the number of
bombarding electrons, i.e. to the beam current.

4.2.4

Glass Tube

All the components of a CRT are enclosed in an evacuated glass tube called
envelope. This allows the emitted electrons to move about freely from one end of
the tube to the other end.

4.2.5

Base

The base is provided to the CRT through which the connections are made to the
various parts.

Electronic Instrumentation

4-7

Oscilloscopes

4.3 Basic Principle of Signal Display

In many applications, it is required to display the voltage as a function of time.
By applying such a voltage to the Y input, the vertical deflection of the electron
beam will be proportional to the magnitude of this voltage. It is then necessary to
convert the horizontal deflection into a time axis. A special unit inside the
oscilloscope, called the sweep generator or time base generator, provides a
periodic voltage waveform that varies linearly with time, as shown in the Fig. 4.4.
Since this waveform resembles the teeth of hacksaw, it is also called sawtooth
waveform.

Flyback time or Retrace time Tf

Fig. 4.4 Sawtooth waveform generated by time base generator

Assume that no voltage is applied to vertical deflecting plates, but only this
sawtooth voltage Vx is applied to the horizontal deflecting plates. During the trace
time Tr , the voltage Vx is linearly increasing with time, and hence the electron beam
will move linearly in the horizontal direction. At the end of trace period T r , the beam
reaches extreme right hand position in the horizontal direction. At this, instant, the
voltage suddenly drops to zero in a short interval of time, known as flyback period.
Hence the beam suddenly jumps back to the original positions at the extreme left
hand side. Then again it starts moving to the right during the next cycle of sawtooth
waveform. The fly back of the beam is blanked out by a suitable voltage and is not
visible on the screen.
Thus for a selected trace time Tr , the spot moves horizontally across the face of
the screen along the x-axis from left to right, with a constant speed, restarts again
from the left, and repeats such traces. Depending on the speed of the bright spot
and the persistence of vision, the trace produced by the spot will look like a
horizontal straight line. Thus the horizontal axis is now converted into a time axis.
When a periodically varying voltage say sinusoidal voltage is applied to the y
terminal of the scope and internally generated sawtooth voltage is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates, then sawtooth voltage keeps on shifting the spot
horizontally while the applied voltage shifts the spot vertically proportional to its
magnitude. Hence finally due to the effect of both the voltage, a familiar sinusoidal
waveform can be observed on the screen.

Electronic Instrumentation

4-8

Oscilloscopes

When the sweep and signal frequencies are equal, a single cycle appears on the
screen. When the sweep is lower than the signal, several cycles appear on the
screen. In such case, the number of cycles depends on the ratio of the two
frequencies. When the sweep is higher than the signal, less than one cycle appears
on the screen.
The display of spot on the screen appears stationary only when the two
frequencies i.e. sweep and signal are same or are integral multiples of each other.
For any other frequencies the trace on the screen keeps on drifting horizontally. Thus
for the trace to appear stationary, the sawtooth voltage is synchronized with signal
applied to the vertical input. For the vertical input signal, the triggering pulses are
derived for the synchronization.
There are two important requirements of a sweep generator :
1. The sweep must be linear in nature, for all screen horizontal deflection.
2. To move the spot in one direction only, the sweep voltage must drop to zero
suddenly, after reaching its maximum value. Otherwise the return sweep will
trace the signal backwards.

4.3.1

Types of Sweep

The various types of sweep generated in the oscilloscopes are,

1. Recurrent Sweep : The sawtooth sweep is an a.c. voltage and it rapidly
alternates and hence the display occurs repetitively. The observer sees the lasting
image by the eye. This repeated operation is called recurrent sweep. This is also
called continuous sweep.
2. Single Sweep : The waveform to be investigated produces a trigger signal
which produces a single sweep.
3. Driven Sweep : The sweep is driven by the signal itself in this operation. If
the sweep cycle starts after the start of signal cycle, then part of the cycle may be
lost. This possiblility is removed by starting the sweep cycle by the signal, alongwith
the start of the signal cycle.
4. Triggered Sweep : A recurrent sweep continues to produce a horizontal line
whether input signal is applied or not. But in a triggered sweep, a sweep is initiated
by a trigger voltage which is derived from an incoming signal. Thus in the absence of
signal, there is no sweep and CRT screen remains blank.
The continuous sweep uses astable (free running) multivibrator. It covers wide
frequency range. It can be locked into synchronisation by an input signal itself.
Whenever sweep frequency and input signal frequency are same or multiples of each
other, the synchronisation results.
The triggered sweep uses monostable multivibrator. It becomes on whenever
trigger pulse comes and till then remains off, keeping the screen blank. After specific
voltage is reached, the multivibrator switches to off state. Thus triggered sweep
produces the display for specific period of time. It produces the display irrespective
of the signal frequency. Thus with triggered sweep single shot events or transients

Electronic Instrumentation

4-9

Oscilloscopes

can be observed. Practically oscillosopes using triggered sweep uses the calibration
of sweep speed in time per division. The reciprocal of the time period selected is
tire frequency of the sweep.
5. Intensity Modulation : In many applications, it is necessary to make the
intensity of part of the signal more than the other part. This is called intensity
modulation. It is achieved by applying a.c. signal to the control eletrode of CRT. Thus
the display is bright for positive half cycle and dark for negative half cycle. This is
also called Z-axis modulation.

4.4 Block Diagram of Simple Oscilloscope

The block diagram of oscilloscope is shown in the Fig. 4.5.

Fig. 4.5 Basic block diagram of C.R.O

The various blocks of block diagram of simple oscilloscope are as follows :

4.4.1

CRT

This is the cathode ray tube which is the heart of C.R.O. It is used to emit the
electrons required to strike the phosphor screen to produce the spot for the visual
display of the signals.

4.4.2

Vertical Amplifier

The input signals are generally not strong to provide the measurable deflection
on the screen. Hence the vertical amplifier stage is used to amplify the input signals.
The amplifier stages used are generally wide band amplifiers so as to pass faithfully
the entire band of frequencies to be measured.
Similarly it contains the attenuator stages as well. The attenuators are used
when very high voltage signals are to be examined, to bring the signals within the
proper range of
vjp'v
operation.
The block diagram of a vertical amplifier is shown in the Fig. 4.6.
6
v i
FET input amplifier

Phase
Inverter
Input
attenuator

Main amplifier
Drive amplifier

a,

Output
amplifier

Fig. 4.6 Vertical amplifier

It consists of several stages with overall fixed sensitivity. The amplifier can be
designed for stability and required bandwidth very easily due to the fixed gain.
The input stage consists of an attenuator followed by FET source follower. It has
very high input impedance required to isolate the amplifier from the attenuator.
It is followed by BJT emitter follower to match the output impedance of FET
output with input of phase inverter.
The phase inverter provides two antiphase output signals which are required to
operate the push pull output amplifier.
The push pull operation has advantages like better hum voltage cancellation,
even harmonic suppression especially large 2 nd harmonic, greater power output per
tube and reduced number of defocusing and nonlinear effects.

4.4.3

Delay Line

The delay line is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical sections.
When the delay line is not used, the part of the signal gets lost. Thus the input signal
is not applied directly to the vertical plates but is delayed by some time using a
delay line circuit as shown in the Fig. 4.7.

Fig. 4.7 Delay line circuit

Key Point: /Is the signal is delayed, the sweep generator output gets enough
time to reach to
the horizontal plates before signal reaches the vertical plates.
If the trigger pulse is picked off at a time t = t 0 after the signal has passed
through the main amplifier then signal is delayed by x, nanoseconds while sweep
takes y, nanoseconds to reach. The design of delay line is such that the delay time x,
is higher than the time y,. Generally x, is 200 nsec while the y, is 80 ns, thus the
sweep starts well in time and no part of the signal is lost.
There are two types of delay lines used in C.R.O. which are :
i)

Lumped parameter delay line

ii) Distributed parameter delay line

4.4.3.1

Lumped Parameter Delay Line

Fig. 4.8 T-filter section

Lumped parameter delay line consists of number

of cascaded symmetrical LC networks called T
sections. Each section is capable of delaying the
signal by 3 to 6 nsec. Such a T filter section is shown in
the Fig. 4.8.
The T section acts as a low-pass filter having cut

off frequency as,

fc

1
n y'L
C

If Vj consists of frequencies much less than the cut-off frequency, output signal
V will be a faithful reproduction of Vj but delayed by the time,

where

t.

while
where

Id
Id
n

total delay n =
number of T sections

A practical delay line circuit in C.R.O. is driven by pushpull amplifier and is

shown in the Fig. 4.9.
t'

o/1RRRT

-i

Mo

f-yUWOv

_Ii

.t -i

zc =
'Tuc

o----1QOQQ r-+-\ 0 0 0 0 / + - \ 0 0 0 0
J0000 /+-\ QQQQ r

Fig. 4.9 Prictical delay line

4.4.3.2

Distributed Parameter Delay Line

It is basically a transmission line constructed with a wound helical coil on a

mandrel and extruded insulation between it. It is specially manufactured co-axial
cable with high inductance per unit length. The construction of such line is shown in
the Fig. 4.10.
The inductance can be increased by winding the helical inner conductor on
ferromagnetic core. This increases the characteristics impedance Z 0 and delay time.
Typical parameters for helical, distributed parameter delay line are Z 0 = 1000 2 and
td = 180 nsec/m. The coaxial delay line is advantageous as :
i) It does not require careful adjustment as lumped parameter.
ii) It requires less space.
Outer

4.4.4

Fig. 4.10 Distributed delay line

Trigger Circuit

^Ihls necessary that horizontal deflection starts at the same point of the input
vertical signal, each time it sweeps. Hence to synchronize horizontal deflection with
vertical deflection a synchronizing or triggering circuit is used. It converts the
incoming signal into the triggering pulses, which are used for the synchronization.

4.4.5

Time Base Generator

The time base generator is used to generate the sawtooth voltage, required to
deflect the beam in the horizontal section. This voltage deflects the spot at a
constant time dependent rate. Thus the x-axis on the screen can be represented as
time, which helps to display and analyse the time varying signals.

4.4.6

Horizontal Amplifier

The sawtooth voltage produced by the time base generator may not be of
sufficient strength. Hence before giving it to the horizontal deflection plates, it is
amplified using the horizontal amplifier.

4.4.7

Power Supply

The power supply block provides the voltages required by CRT to generate and
accelerate an electron beam and voltages required by other circuits of the
oscilloscope like horizontal amplifier, vertical amplifier etc.
There are two sections of a power supply block. The High Voltage (HV) section
and Low Voltage (LV) section. The high voltages of the order of 1000 to 1500 V are
required by CRT. Such high negative voltages are used for CRT.
The negative HV supply has following advantages :
i)

The accelerating anodes and the deflection plates are close to ground
potential. This ground potential protects the operator from shocks.
ii) The deflection voltages are measured with respect to ground hence blocking
or coupling capacitors are not necessary.
iii) Insulation required between controls and chasis is less.
The low voltage is required for the heater of the electron gun, which emits the
electrons. This is a positive voltage of the order of few hundred volts.
This voltage is also used for other circuits of C.R.O.
This is the discussion of basic block diagram of a simple C.R.O.
Let us discuss now in detail, the front panel controls available for a C.R.O.

4.5 Front Panel Controls of Simple C.R.O.

The various front panel controls of a simple C.R.O. are described in this section.
These are divided into four groups,
1. Basic controls
2. Vertical section
3. Horizontal section
4. Z-axis Intensity control

ON-OFF :
Intensity :
Focus
4.5.1

1.

Basic Controls

The on-off switch turns on or off the C.R.O.

2.
This controls the intensity or brightness of the light
produced by beam spot. It actually controls the number of electrons per second that
are bombarding the screen which determines the brightness of the spot.
3.
: This controls the sharpness of the spot. A sharper spot is
always preferred. Focusing of the spot is obtained by varying the voltage applied to
the focusing anodes of the cathode ray tube.

Astigmatism

4.
: This is another focus control. With the help
of focus control and astigmatism control, a very sharp spot can be obtained both in
the centre and also at the edges of the screen. With the astigmatism control the
voltage to accelerating anodes is varied.

Scale Illumination

5.
: Most C.R.O. s have some sort
of plastic screen infront of the cathode ray tube. This screen has a grid engraved on
it, giving it an appearence similar to that of graph paper. This is called graticule. This
scale facilitates the measurement on the oscilloscope. The scale illumination control,
illuminates the scale and hence the lines on the
scale can be seen very easily.

4.5.2

Vertical Section

Most oscilloscopes have two vertical inputs. These are usually called inputs 1 and
2 or A and B. Two input signals can be applied to these two inputs and thereby both
the signals can be observed on the screen simultaneously. This is very useful for
comparing two signals. The following controls serve for each vertical input.

1.
Volts
division

Scale

: This control sets

the vertical scale; that is, it determines
how much the spot will be deflected by an
input signals applied to vertical input
terminals. The usual units are either volts
per centimeter or volts per division, where
division refers to the grid marks on the
screen. The actual input voltage can be
found by measuring the deflection and
Rotary switch
multiplying it by the scale factor. Thus, if
Fig. 4.11 Volts/Div
the scale control was set to 5 V/cm and
selection
deflection is 1.3 cm, the input would be
6.5 V.
The control is shown in the Fig. 4.11.
Suppose the alternating voltage signal of amplitude 10 V is to be displayed. Then
if volts/division are selected as 10 then it will be displayed as shown in the Fig.
4.12(a) while if volts/division = 5 is selected, it will be displayed as shown in the Fig.
4.12(b).

Invert

(a)
Fig. 4.12 Effect of volts per division

(b)

2.
: This control inverts the input signal ; that is, it multiplies it by
-1. Then positive input voltages become negative and cause downward deflections.
The effect of invert is shown in the Fig. 4.13.
Fig. 4.13 The effect of invert

Position
X 10

3
: With the help of this control, the pattern obtained on the
screen can be shifted, as a whole, vertically upwards or downwards. This is achieved
by adding a d.c. offset voltage to the input signal.
4
: This control makes the gain of the vertical amplifier 10 times as
great as
normal, it changes the scale factor by factor of 10. Thus if the X 10 switch is turned
'ON' and the scope is set on 0.05 V/cm, if the actual scale factor is 0.005 V/cm or 5
mV/cm.

Vertical Coupling

5.
:
This switch controls the
coupling to the vertical amplifier. The
usual choices are A.C.', D.C., or ground. The meaning of these various positions are
as follows :

AC

i.
:
The vertical amplifier is a.c. coupled to the input. Thus the d.c.
component of the
input is blocked, and only the a.c. components of the input signal deflect the beam
vertically. This allows to observe small a.c. signals or large d.c. background.

DC

ii.
:
The vertical amplifier has d.c. coupling throughout, so that the
deflection
corresponds to both the a.c. and the d.c. components of the input.

GROUND

iii.
: The input to the amplifier is grounded. There
will be no vertical deflection. If no voltage is applied to horizontal plates, the spot will
be at the position corresponding to ground. It is useful for measuring voltage with
respect to ground.

Vertical Mode Control

6.
:
The
control
serves for the vertical section of the scope as a
whole.
Assume that two input signals are simultaneously applied to the two vertical
inputs of the scope. Then this switch determines what is displayed on the screen.
Thus usual choices are :
1 only, 2 only, I + 2 ; 1 - 2, Alternate, and Chop. The meaning of each of these
is described briefly below :
1
0
Only the signal at input 1 is displayed.
only
ii)
2
only
Only the signal at input 2 is displayed.
1+
iii)
2
Sum : The sum of the inputs 1 and 2 is displayed.
iv)
1 - 2 Sum : Difference : The difference between input 1 and input 2 is
displayed.
v) Alternate : Input 1 is displayed first, then input 2 is
displayed, then input 1 again and so on. By using the vertical position
control, the two traces can be separated vertically, and thus, relations
between the two signals can be studied.
vi) Chop : In this mode first input 1 is displayed for a fraction of a microsecond ,
then input 2 for a fraction of microsecond, then input 1 again, and so on. In
this way, plots of both inputs can be drawn at the same time. The chop mode
is useful with low frequency signals, while the alternate mode is useful for
high frequency signals.

Time Base Control

4.5.3

Horizontal Section

1.
:
Very
often
the
oscilloscope is used to observe the waveform of
time varying signals. Most of the horizontal section of the scope is devoted to
generating a
time base for such signals. The
time base control is calibrated in
msec
terms of time per centimeter
or time per division. A typical
Scale
unit might be 0.1. msec/cm,
meaning
that
horizontal
deflection of the spot will be 1 cm
in 0.1 msec. The usual range on a
scope is from about
Fig. 4.14 Times/Div selection

-*.! Time period I 4 divisions ! T

= 5 x 4 = 20 msec

1.

1 sec/cm to 20 to 50 nsec/cm. This is shown in the Fig. 4.14.

If signal has time period of 20 msec then with two different time base control
selections, it can be displayed as shown in the Fig. 4.15 (a) and (b).
10 msec / div
Time i-*period I
divisions

1
2

5 msec / div

.-. T = 10 x 2

(b)

= 20 msec

Position
Synchronization

Fig. 4.15 Effect of time base control

2.
left or right.

(a)

: This knob can be used to shift the display, as a whole to

3.
: It has been mentioned earlier
that to obtain the stationary pattern on the screen, the synchronization is must. It is
used to operate the time base generator such that the frequency of sawtooth
voltage is an integral multiple of input signal frequency. There are various signals
which can be applied to the trigger circuit. The signals can be selected using a
synchronous selector switch. The types of signals which can be selected are :

Internal
Line

i)
: The trigger is obtained from signal being measured
through the vertical amplifier.
ii)
Hz) supply.

The input to the trigger circuit is from a.c mains (say 230 V, 50

This is useful when observing the signals which are synchronized with power line,
such as ripple in a power line.

External
Sweep Selector

iii)
external trigger circuit.

The input to the trigger circuit is from the

4.
: When the sweep selector switch
S2 is in linear position, the horizontal amplifier receives an input from the sawtooth
sweep generator which is triggered by the synchronous amplifier.
The external signal also can be applied to the horizontal deflecting plates, by
putting a selector switch S2 to the external position.

4.5.4

Z-Axis Intensity Control

It is used for brightening the display. Periodic positive pulses are applied to the
grid and alternatively negative pulses are applied to cathode, to brighten the beam
during its sweep period. This control is obtained by inserting a signal between the
ground and the control grid or ground and the cathode.

4.6 Supply Voltages for CRT

The various voltages are necessary to various components of CRT, for its proper
operation. The CRT with various supply voltage levels at various points is shown in
the Fig. 4.16.
First anode

Second anode

Fig. 4.16

4.7 Time Base Generator

It has been mentioned earlier that the time domain oscilloscopes require a
sweep generator that is linear with time for the x-axis display. The motion of spot on
the screen from extreme left to extreme right is called sweep.
The generator which generates a waveform which is responsible for the
movement of spot on screen horizontally is called time base generator or sweep
generator. The sweep circuits along with the display gating functions are called time
bases.
The linear sweep moves the spot from left to right while the movement of spot
from right to left is not visible. This portion of waveform generated by time base is
called flyback or retrace. During this time, the cathode ray tube is blanked.
The time base generator also controls the rate at which the spot moves; across
the screen, this rate is to be adjusted from front panel control.

4.7.1

Why Sweep Generator is Called Time Base Generator ?

All the time dependent waveforms need x-axis to be calibrated as time axis. The
sweep generator produces the movement of spot on screen such that it acts as a
time axis or time base for the waveforms to be displayed. Hence the sweep
generator is also called time base generator.
The two front panel controls which are used to control rate and duration of time
base waveform are i) Time/division and ii) Time variable control.
Key Point: The trigger circuit ensures that the horizontal sweep starts at the
same point of the vertical input signal.

4.7.2

Requirements of Time Base

The time base requirements are :

2. Sweep time variations from 10 nsec to 5 sec per division.
3. Time accuracy better than 3 %.
4. Linearity better than 1 % across the cathode ray tube.
5. Ten times expansion in the horizontal amplifier which allows 1 nsec per
division displays for very high speed transients.
6.

The speed of the spot should be constant across the entire screen.
7. The spot should be invisible while tracing from right to left and should be
visible only from left to right.

4.7.3

Basic Principle of Time Base Generator

The basic sweep generator uses the charging characteristics of a capacitor to

generate linear risetime voltages. Linearly increasing ramp which becomes zero
within very short duration of time ensures that the spot is visible from left to right
and invisible from right to left.
The Fig. 4.17 shows a capacitor charged from a constant current source.

Fig. 4.17 Capacitor charging from constant current source

When switch S, is closed, S 2 is open and capacitor charges to produce linear

ramp at the output. The sweep rate can be controlled by changing the value of
capacitor or charging current.
Reaching to the maximum value of ramp voltage, the switch S 2 is closed and S|
open. Thus capacitor gets discharged through the resistance R. This is called flyback
or retrace. The time t, is called sweep time. The circuit is a sort of relaxation
oscillator which generates saw tooth waveform. But this circuit has less accuracy.
The bootstrap techniques allow much greater linearity but the techniques are much
more costly.

During the sweep time, the spot moves from left to right. During retrace, the
screen is blanked and spot comes back to its starting level but its movement from
right to left is invisible.
Practically a trigger circuit is associated with the time base generator. This
circuit generates a trigger pulse which activates the time base generator to produce
a ramp.
Now when one cycle, sweep and retrace is completed then the time base
generator takes certain time to start the next cycle. This time is divided into two
types as :
i) Hold off time and ii) Waiting time
Hold off time : Though the trigger circuit applies the pulse immediately after
completion of cycle, the time base generator takes some time to start the ramp. This
time is required to stabilise the flyback circuitry. This time is called hold off time.
Waiting time : Now when trigger pulse is generated by trigger circuit, the pulse has
to cross certain reference level so as to activate the time base generator. This
reference level is called trigger threshold.
Now after the end of hold off period, though circuit is ready, due to trigger
threshold crossing, the pulse takes some time to activate time base generator. So
time required by the triggering pulses to cross the trigger threshold is called waiting
time.

4.7.4

Time Base Block Diagram

Fig. 4.18 shows the time base block diagram.

Single sweep

Horizontal
amplifier

Z axis

Fig. 4.18 Time base block

diagram
The Miller integrator is the basic time base generator circuit used commonly in
the laboratory oscilloscopes. This circuit has flexibility of choice of capacitor and
resistor in the feedback loop. The capacitor can be changed from 10 pF to 1 pF while
the resistor can be varied from 100 kSI to 50 MSI
The additional circuitry includes the trigger generator. This uses either internal
signal

i.
e. input applied to tire vertical plates to generate trigger pulse or it uses
some external signal to generate the trigger pulses, hr some cases 50 Hz line
frequency signal also can be used as the synchronous signal.

This trigger generator activates the gate

generator which inturn starts the Miller
integrator circuit. The hold off time is required to
Fig. 4.19 Sweep output
stabilise the Miller integrator circuit when the
sweep cycle is completed. The reset Schmitt is required which sends a signal to the
gate generator whenever the hold off time is completed.
The sweep output waveform is shown in the Fig. 4.19.
The various lime periods are :
t, = Sweep time
t2 = Flyback or retrace
time t3 = Hold off time
This circuit can work in following three modes :
i) Free run mode : In this mode, the Miller integrator is started immediately
after the hold off time without waiting time i.e. without waiting for the trigger
pulses to cross the trigger threshold.
ii) Auto mode : It senses a length of time after a sweep occurs and
automatically provides a trigger pulse if no signal comes either from INT or
EXT, after approximately 20 msec. This function thus gives a base line
presentation without flicker, in the absense of signal and this allows the easy
verification of the ground level or a base line of a voltage level on the CRT.
iii) Single sweep mode : The sweep runs only once from a trigger pulse after
which the gate generator is not reset until the operator desires. This mode is
very useful for displaying and photographing the single occurrence events
when the time of occurrence is undetermined.

4.7.5

Trigger Generators

The circuit which is responsible for starting the sweep at the desired point on a
waveform is called trigger generator. Tire trigger generator includes trigger sources,
a variable comparator to set the desired trigger level and a trigger pulse generator.
The Fig. 4.20 shows the trigger generator circuit block.

Fig. 4.20 Trigger generator circuit

The three typical trigger sources are :
i) INT : It provides replica of the signal applied to the vertical amplifier. Hence
it is internal source.
ii) EXT : It is external source and it is derived from an external input signal. In
this case, the sweep is started at a time determined by an external
conditions rather than by a transition of the signal being displayed. This is
preferred when the input waveform is of small magnitude and when we
sample the waveforms from several different points within a circuit.
iii) LINE : It is derived from the power line having 50 Hz frequency. This is used
when a waveform is having a fixed time relationship with a line frequency.
The trigger coupling has four different positions A.C., D.C., ACS and ACF. With the
help of A.C. and D.C. coupling and polarity selection, one should be able to derive a
signal that will give a stable display on the screen.

ACS
ACF

: This is A.C. SLOW which gives low frequency triggering capability in

the presence of high frequency signals.
: This is A.C. FAST which gives high frequency triggering capability in
the presence of low frequency signals. The purpose of ACF is to reject the line
frequency hum mixed with the triggering signal.
The trigger level control adjusts the comparator threshold level to allow the
selection of the input voltage level (of either polarity) which will switch differential
comparator. This produces a time controlled trigger pulse at the output.
The trigger slope can be either positive or negative. The purpose of all the
controls is to get a stable display under any practical condition.

4.7.6

Sweep Modes

Now a days, two time base generators are provided to the oscilloscope. If the
CRT is dual gun tube, the sweeps for each gun is independent. Depending upon the
sophistication of second time base generator different sweep modes can be obtained
which are :
i) Delayed sweep mode ii) Mixed sweep mode iii) Switched sweep mode
4.7.6.1 Delayed Sweep Mode

With the help of two time

bases it is possible to select
the small part of the signal for
the observation. One time base
selects the overall signal by
generating
the
normal
sawtooth waveform while the
second time base produces
delayed sweep due to which it
is possible to view small part of

Fig. 4.21 Delayed sweep

the original signal in the expanded manner.

The Fig. 4.21 shows the block diagram of delayed sweep operation.
From the front panel control, the main sweep is set to view certain number of
cycles of the input signal. The output of the main integrator is given to the sweep
comparator. The second input to the comparator is generally reference voltage
whose setting can be adjusted from the front panel control. This produces a trigger
pulse for the second integrator which generates a sweep signal. This is delayed
sweep signal. The second sweep is faster than the main sweep signal. The delay can
be adjusted from few ps to few seconds or more.
The first main sweep is also called delaying sweep and time base generator as
delaying sweep generator while second is called delayed sweep generator. The
waveforms of two generators are shown in the Fig. 4.22.
Time delay
Trigger
i Division delay

Trigger delay

Fig. 4.22 Delay mode operation waveforms

The delaying generator is started by a trigger at time t. It continues till the

comparator level set by the division delay control. At this time, delaying generator
stops and delayed generator is ready.
Now two modes are possible. In one mode i.e. time delay mode or Auto mode in
which delayed sweep starts immediately as the first generator reaches the division
delay level. It is shown in Fig. 4.22 (a). While in the trigger delay mode, it keeps the
delayed sweep generator ready to run at the next trigger pulse after the division
delay level is reached. Thus after t, when pulse occurs at t b then only delayed sweep
starts. This mode is also called arming mode.
Delayed sweep offers the advantages of the increased accuracy as well as high
resolution for many time interval measurements. It is possible to magnify selected
part of the signal and hence it is possible to measure waveform jitter, rise time etc.
and also possible to check pulse time modulation. It can be used in many other
applications also.
4.7.6.2 Mixed Sweep Mode

The main disadvantage of the delayed sweep mode is that the particular portion
of the waveform is observed in expanded mode but remaining waveform is lost. In
the mixed sweep mode both tire signals, the reference signal as well as the signal of
interest may be viewed with signal of interest in the expanded fashion. In this mode,
the delaying sweep generator is started first. It displays the signal at slower speed.
At some time t,, external trigger or setting time delay, a front panel control activates
the delayed sweep generator. This sweep is faster than the first sweep. Thus on the
left hand side, the normal waveform display exists while on the right hand side the
expanded display exists. The total display is the combination of the two displays, one
slower and one faster. Hence the mode is called mixed sweep mode.
This is important in pulse train studies and some other applications.
4.7.6.3 Switched Sweep Mode

This mode is called dual sweep mode or switched sweep mode or alternate
sweep mode. This mode displays two independently variable sweep modes
alternately. First the waveform is displayed with a slower sweep rate while in next
scan the same waveform is displayed at faster rate, on the full screen. This is
possible by electronically time sharing between the two time bases. The vertical
position in case of both the displays of the waveform remains same. So to avoid a
confusion, with the help of separation control the displays can be separated. Thus
first waveform at slower rate if displayed at top of the screen then the waveform at
faster rate is displayed at the bottom of the screen.

4.7.7

TTL Trigger Mode

The TTL Trigger mode is very useful in case of the effects like ringing. Let us see
what is ringing.
When we use a probe to connect the external test circuit to the CRO input then it
is possible that the grounding is not proper. Due to the ground lead inductance which
is too

Fig. 4.23 Ringing effect

Such ringing provides many

trigger points when the
trigger level is not set
correctly. The level control
needs
continuous
adjustments to get correct
and stable display. For this
purpose TTL trigger mode is
provided. In this mode, the
trigger circuit responds in
the same way as the input
of a TTL circuit. Hence the
sweep can no longer be
initiated by interference
that does not cross the
The advantages of this mode are :
trigger gap.
1) It prevents false triggering caused by the ringing or unwanted transients.
2) No necessity to set the level control or check the correct input coupling
because the level control is made inoperative in this mode.
3) No need to check the TTL levels on the screen. Since the internal triggering
gives a stable display which provides quick and sure indication that the logic
levels are correct.
long and capacitance of probe itself, together forms a resonant circuit which is
excited by the switching transients in the logic. This causes a lot of disturbance in
the displayed waveform, such disturbances which are unwanted oscillations are
called ringing effects. The ringing is shown in the Fig. 4.23.
(a) Waveform to be observed (b) Waveform observed due to ringing

4.8 Deflection Methods in C.R.O.

In a device like cathode ray tube,
number of electrons are
projected by the gun, in the
form of anelectron beam towards the screen. But due
to variations in energy, the
electrons
diverge and cannot produce dominant spot on the screen. Hence the focusing of an
electron beam is must.
In practice two deflection methods are used in oscilloscopes,
1. Electrostatic deflection

2. Magnetic deflection.

4.8.1

Electrostatic Deflection and Sensitivity

The electrostatic focusing uses two parallel plates called deflecting plates. These
are spaced at a distance d from each other. The plates are subjected to a potential
difference Vd due towhich an electric field E
exists between
the two
plates. While electrons are
emitted by the hot cathode K, which are accelerated
towards
the anode by the potential

Va. Those electrons which are not collected by anode pass through small hole at the
anode. This is shown in the Fig. 4.24. These electrons are then focused with the help
of vertical deflecting plates on the screen coated with fluorescent material. Properly
focused electrons strike the screen and positions where the electrons strike become
visible to an eye. This is called electrostatic deflection of the electrons.
E

Field

The required
deflection D is
then given by,

where / = Length of the plates

L = Distance of screen from centre of
plates d = Distance between plates Va =
Anode voltage Vd = Deflecting voltage

From equation (1), following observations can be made,

1. For a given accelerating voltage Va and for the particular dimensions of
cathode ray tube, the deflection of the beam is directly proportional to the
deflecting voltage Vd. So cathode ray tube can be used as a linear voltage
indicating device.
2. It is assumed that Vd is fixed d.c. voltage but practically it is time varying
and deflection follows it in a linear manner.
3. The deflection is independent of the ratio q/m.
4.8.1.1

Electrostatic Deflection Sensitivity

The electrostatic deflection sensitivity is defined as deflection on the

screen in meters per volt of the deflection voltage. It is denoted as S.
/L
D
m/V
S
2dv;
Vd
1
2dVa
V/m
G
S
IL
Similarly the deflection factor G erf a cathode ray tube is given by the
reciprocal of the sensitivity.
Thus it can be observed that decreasing the accelerating voltage, sensitivity can
be increased. But this decreases the brightness of spot. On the other hand high V a
values, produces a bright spot. But for high V a, high Vd is required and such a beam
which is highly accelerated is difficult to deflect. Such a beam is called hard beam.
The typical values of deflection sensitivities are 1.0 mm/V to 0.1 mm/V
corresponding to the deflection factors of 10 V/cm to 100 V/cm respectively.

4.8.2

Magnetic Deflection and Sensitivity

Consider movement of an electron in a magnetic field. The force exerted on an

electron is constant and is perpendicular to the velocity i.e. motion and the magnetic
field. Due to this, path of electron is circular in the uniform magnetic field having
radius,

where

v = Velocity of electron in m/s

B = Magnetic field intensity in Wb / m2

This principle is used in cathode ray tubes to deflect an electron beam, which is
called magnetic deflection system.
Consider the rectangle ABCD representing the cross-section of a uniform
magnetic field. It is produced in a limited region using current variations in short coil.
This is shown in the Fig. 4.25.

P*

Circular
A
path of
radius R

Magnetic
field coming
out of paper

Fluorescent
screen

Fig. 4.25 Magnetic deflection

The direction of magnetic field is coming out of the paper, having intensity B. It
is restricted in the region ABCD and zero outside this region.
Electron moves in a straight line path with velocity v ox =v from anode which is
controlled by Va.
As electron enters the magnetic field, it experiences a constant force and is
perpendicular to both, direction of motion and magnetic field. So electron moves
along the circular path shown by an arc OM having radius R, whose centre is Q.
Now after leaving the magnetic field at M, the electron travels along straight line
path MP' till it reaches screen at P'. This line is tangent to circular path of an electron
at M. If extended backwards it intersects x axis at O' which is centre of the magnetic
field. This is called apparent origin.
The required deflection D is then given by,

wher
e

/ = Length of the plates L = Distance of

screeen from centre of plates
B = Magnetic field density in Wb/m2
Va = Anode voltage
q = Charge on electron = 1.6 x 10'14
C m = Mass of electron = 9.107 x 1031

kg

Thus the magnetic deflection is inversely proportional to the square root of the
accelerating voltage V,. It is function of the ratio q/m.
4.8.2.1

Magnetic Deflection Sensitivity

The magnetic deflection sensitivity is denoted by S, is defined as the deflection

on
the

screen in meters per tesla of magnetic flux density.

... (3)
Thus magnetic deflection sensitivity is not affected as greatly as the increasing
Va, as does in electrostatic deflection sensitivity. Hence magnetic scheme gives more
brightness and resolution.
It can be noted that :
1. For the same display area, shorter tubes are enough with electromagnetic
scheme of deflection.
2. Tire more brightness and resolution is obtained with magnetic deflection
system.
3. The magnetic deflection system is preferred in T.V. and radar while
electrostatic deflection is preferred for general purpose oscilloscope.

4.8.3

Beam Speed

The beam speed is decided by the velocity of electrons which are accelerated by
the anode voltage. If the anode voltage is V, volts then the electrons initially are rest,
get accelerated with a velocity given by,
v

m/s

Where q = Charge on each electron =

I9

1.6xlO~ C m = Mass of each electron = 9.107xlO

Substituting the values of q and m,

v = 5.94 x 10/V, m/s

-31

kg

4.8.4

Comparison between Deflection Methods

llu> electrostatic deflection and the magnetic deflection methods can be compared
on
the following points :

N
o.
1.
2
3.
4
5.
6.
7.
8
Sr.

The
The
deflection
is
deflection
is
obtained
by
achieved
by
controlling
applying
The
The
deflection
is
deflection
is
inversely
inversely
proportional
The
The
deflection
of
scheme
the
beam
is
gives
wider
smaller,
for
The
The
sensitivity
q is
L by, is sensitivity
given
given
by,
S
=
LlJ
_i_
S=
'
Vm
/
2dV
a
2
V
The
The
a
deflection
is
deflection
is
independent
dependent
of
the
ratio
For
the
The
shorter
given
display
tubes
can
area
longer
be
built
for
tubes
are
For
greater
Though
Va
sensitivity,
if
is
reduced,
V
a isscheme more
The
The
is
used
for
scheme
is
the
general
preferred
for
purpose
Electrostatic deflection

Magnetic deflection

Table 4.2

Thus for CRT also, any of these two methods can be selected depending on the
cost and performance criteria.
Example 4.1 : What should be the accelerating anode voltage in CRT if l = 2 cm,
I - 30 an and deflection for 30 V is I cm on the screen. The plates are
separated bp
I cm.

Solution

1= 2

cm, L = 30 cm, V,, = 50 V, D = 1 cm, d = 1 cm

-2

D 1 xlO . irv4 ...

S = TTV.,
- = =77
50 = 2x10
c

Now

IL
S = 2d V,

m/V
... Required anode1500 V
voltage

2xlO;2 x30xj0j
2x1x10 2 xVd
Example 4.2 : A cathode-ray tube, with magnetic deflection, has its screen 20 cm
from the centre of the magnetic field. The width of the uniform magnetic field

is 3 cm and the final anode potential is 6 kV. Calculate the density of the
magnetic field
to produce a
/ = 3 cm, Va = 6 kV, D = 4 cm /
deflection of 4
l.B
cm
on
the
f2Vf X V m
screen.
Solution :

L = 20 cm,
D

3xl0~2 x20xl0~2 xB I 1.6 xlO"19

V2x6xl03 v 9.107 xlO-31

B = 1.7423 x 10-3 Wb/ m2 = 1.7423 mWb/ni2

Example 4.3 : In a CRT, employing magnetic deflection, the distance from the
screen to the centre of plates is 24 cm. The length of the field along the axis is
4 cm. Calculate the magnetic flux density required to produce a deflection of
1.2 cm on the screen for the final anode voltage of 600 volts.

Solution : =
L

24 cm, / = 4 cm, D

1.2 cm, Va = 600 V

For magnetic deflection system,

/LB
V2V7 Vm

4xl0~ 2 x24x!0~ 2 xB w 1.6xIQ19

V2x600 X V9.107xlO" 31

1.2xl02

B = 1.033x10

Wb/m2 = 0.1033 mWb/m2

Example 4.4 : The electron beam in a CRT is displaced vertically by a magnetic

field of flux density 2 x!0~4 Wb/m2. The length of the magnetic field along the
lube axis is the same as that of the electrostatic deflection plates. The final
anode voltage is 800 V. Calculate the voltage which should be applied to the Ydeflection plates 1 cm apart, to return the spot back to the centre of the
screen.

Solution

Case 1 : Magnetic deflection

B = 2X10-4 Wb/m2, V., = 800 V

n=

/LB (If = /Lx2xlQ-4 ^ j 1.6xKr'~ flVf v m y'2x 800

9.107x10 M

^V

Case 2 : Electrostatic deflection such that spot returns back to the centre. So V d
must be applied to create opposite deflection but equal to magnitude of D. For the
plates, d = I cm and I, L are same as before.
D = /LVd /LVd 2 d Vd 2x1 xlO-2 x800
0.0625 / L Vd m ... (2)
Equating (1) and (2),
0.0625 / L Vd
2.0957 / L
VD = 2.0957
00625 * 3353,2 V
: A n electrically deflected CRT has a final anode voltage of 2000
V and parallel deflecting plates 2.5 cm lo)tg and 5 mm apart. If the screen is
50 cm from the center of deflecting plates, find : i) Beam speed, ii) The
deflection sensitivity of the tube and Hi) The deflection factor of the tube.

!> Example 4.5

Solution

: For electrically deflected C.R.O. the deflected is

given
by,V.n _
u= 2d
a

/LV

Where / =Length of plates = 1.5 cm

L =Distance of screen = 50 cm
VA = Anode voltage = 2000 V
d =Distance between plates = 5 mm

VD = Deflecting voltage
)^s =

- = sensitivity va
IL 1.5x 10-2 x 50x 10-2 ,n 4
= -------------- ----------= 3.75x 10
2dVa 2x5x10 3 x 2000

m/V

/ 2q V
^ ^ V = rBeam speed = ,i Vm
Where q =Charge of electron = 1.6x 10 ,lJC
in = Mass of electron = 9.1 x 10 11 kg
|2x 1.6x 10'19 x 2000 ,
V = . ------------------ ------ = 26.519 x 10b m/s
v 9.1x10-31
Deflection factor = * =---- -----T = 2.667x 103 V/m.
S 3.75x10-4 /

4.9 Intensity and Velocity Modulation

The intensity modulation is also called z-axis intensity modulation. It is used for
brightening the display. Periodic positive pulses are applied to the control grid and
alternatively negative pulses are applied to the cathode, to brighten the beam
during its sweep period.
The beam can be positioned anywhere on the screen by controlling the voltages
applied to the horizontal and vertical plates. This is called velocity modulation. The
deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates called vertical and
horizontal. One of the plates in each set is connected to ground. Other plate
terminals are taken out called X and Y to which the external voltages can be
applied. A positive voltage when applied to Y input causes beam to deflect vertically
upward while negative voltage applied to Y causes beam to deflect downwards.
Similarly the positive voltage applied to X terminal causes beam to deflect
horizontally towards right. The negative voltage applied to X causes beam to deflect
horizontally towards left. The amount of deflection is directly proportional to the
applied voltage. This is called velocity modulation.

4.10

Dual Trace Oscilloscope

The comparison of two or more voltages is very much necessary in the analysis
and study of many electronic circuits and systems. This is possible by using more
than one oscilloscope but in such a case it is difficult to trigger the sweep of each
oscilloscope precisely at the same time. A common and less costly method to solve
this problem is to use dual trace or multitrace oscilloscopes. In this method, the
same electron beam is used to generate two traces which can be deflected from two
independent vertical sources. The two methods are used to generate two
independent traces which are alternate sweep method and other is chop method.
The block diagram of dual trace oscilloscope is shown in the Fig. 4.26.

Fig. 4.26 Block diagram dual trace CRO

There are two separate vertical input channels A and B. A separate preamplifier
and attenuator stage exists for each channel. Hence amplitude of each input can be
individually ontrolled. After preamplifier stage, both the signals are fed to an
electronic switch. The switch has an ability to pass one channel at a lime via delay
line to the vertical amplifier. The time base circuit uses a trigger selector switch S 2
which allows the circuit to be triggered on either A or B channel, on line frequency or
on an external signal. The horizontal amplifier is fed from the sweep generator or
the B channel via switch S, and S v The X-Y mode means, the oscilloscope operates
from channel A as the vertical signal and the channel B as the horizontal signal.
Thus in this mode very accurate X-Y measurements can be done.
Depending on the selection of front panel controls several modes of operation
can be selected such as channel A only, channel B only, channel A and B as
separate traces, signals A + B, A - B, B - A or - (A + B) as single trace.
Let us study the two modes, alternate sweep and chop mode of operation.

4.10.1

Alternate Mode

When the display mode selector is in the alternate mode the electronic switch
alternately connects the vertical amplifier to channel A and to channel B. Initially
each vertical amplifier is adjusted with the help of attenuator and position control
such that the two images are positioned separately on the screen. An electronic
switch is controlled by using a toggle flip-flop. The switching takes place at the start
of each new sweep. The switching rate of an electronic switch is synchronised to the
sweep rate so that CRT spot traces channel A signal on one sweep and channel B
signal on the next succeeding sweep. Thus two channels are alternately connected
to the vertical amplifier. The change over of an electronic switch takes place during
the flyback period of the sweep. During the flyback, the electron beam is invisible
and the change over is also invisible i.e. without flicker. Thus the alternate mode
displays one vertical channel for a full sweep and the next vertical channel for next
sweep. The time relationship in alternate mode of dual trace CRO is shown in the
Tig. 4.27.
The sweep trigger signal is
available from channels A or B
and the trigger pick-off takes
place before the electronic
switch.
This
technique
maintains the correct phase
relationship between the A and
B signals.
The main limitation of this
method is that the display is
not the actual representation of
two events taking place
Fig. 4.27 Time relations in alternate mode

simultaneously. The signals aredisplayed as if they were existing at two different

times. Similarly, the alternate mode cannot be used for displaying very low
frequency signals.

4.10.2

Chop Mode

In this method, there is a switching from one vertical channel to other, many
times during a single sweep.This switching from one vertical channel to other is at
such a rapid rate that the display is created from small segments of the actual
waveform.
The electronic switch is free running oscillator at a rate of 100 to 500 kHz
entirely independent of the sweep generator frequency. Thus the switch
successively connects the small segments of the channel A and B waveforms to the
main amplifier. At the chopping rate of 500 kHz, for example 1 psec segments of
each waveform are fed to the display.
If the chopping rate is faster than horizontal sweep rate, then the individual
little segments fed to the vertical amplifier together reconstitute the original A and
B waveforms on the CRT screen, without any visible interruptions. The little chopped
segments merge to appear continuous to the eye.
Key Point. But if the chopping rate is small, the continuity of the display is lost. In
such
case, it is better to use alternate mode.
Tire time relationship of dual trace CRO iir chop mode is shown in the Fig. 4.28.

Fig. 4.28 Time relations in chop mode

There are advantages and disadvantages of both the methods hence most
oscilloscopes have a switch which is capable of selecting either of the modes.

4.10.3

Front Panel Controls of Dual Trace Oscilloscope

Fig. 429 shows the front panel controls of dual trace oscilloscope. The controls
can be divided into four major groups.
i) Control group ii) Horizontal group iii) Vertical group iv) Trigger group

i)

Control Group :

Fig. 4.29 Front panel controls of dual trace oscilloscope

:

This group includes following controls

a) Power on/off : The power to the device can be turned on or off using this
control.
b) Intensity : It is generally the part of on/off control and brightness of the CRT
can be controlled using this control.
c) Focus : This controls the size of the electron beam spot on the screen.

d) Trace rotation : Due to external fields or internal disturbance, if the trace is

not horizontal then using the screw driver adjustment beam can be made
horizontal.
e) Calibration : It provides standard signal to calibrate the vertical amplifier
controls. In most of the CROs it is a square wave of 1 V peak to peak.
ii)

Horizontal Group

: This group includes the following controls :

a) Sweep time : It is the main horizontal timing control. The time per division
required to sweep the beam from left to right on CRT screen, can bedetermined using this control.
Thus the period and hence the frequency of the signal can be determined using
this control. This control is calibrated in units of times per division i.e. s/div, ms/div
or ps/div.
Thus if a signal one cycle is occupying 5 divisions on screen and this control is
2gs/div then the period of the signal is 5 div X 2 gs/div =10 gs.
b) Horizontal position : It moves the trace left and right on the screen.
c) Sweep mode : The sweep mode control selects the various modes such as
automatic (AUTO), normal (NORM) and single sweep (SINGLE).
iii)

Vertical Group

: The various controls in this group are as follows :

a) Input connector : It is the point at which the signal is applied from the
external circuit to the CRO. There are two input connector CHA(X) and
CHB(Y) shown in the Fig. 4.29.
b) Input coupling : This includes a switch marked as AC-GND-DC. This decides
how the input connector is connected to the input of vertical amplifier i.e. as
a.c. blocking d.c. with a capacitor or as d.c. or is shorted w'ith ground.
c) Position : It is used to move the beam upwards or downwards as per
requirement on the screen.
d) Step attenuator : The sensitivity of the vertical amplifier depends on its gain
and expressed as volts/div or mvolts/div. This control gives the multiplying
factor by which actual divisions occupied by the signal is to be multiplied to
obtain the information about the amplitude or peak to peak value of the
signal.
e) X5 Mag : This control increases the gain of the vertical amplifier by five
times.
f)

Vertical mode : This is important control which includes the controls such as
CHA, CHB, ALT, CHOP, ADD and X-Y.

iv)

Trigger Group

: This includes following controls.

a) Trigger 'LEVEL' : It decides what minimum amplitude vertical signal is

required to trigger the horizontal sweep.
b) Slope : Occurring of a trigger on a negative going or positive going edge of
the input waveform is decided by this control.
c) Source : This includes following sub controls :
LINE : This indicates that 50 Hz a.c. line will cause the triggering.
EXT : This means an external triggering signal is to be used.
(NT : It is the internal selection which indicates that the source is selected
by HA/CHB/NORM switch in the vertical selection.
d) Coupling : The coupling control allows us to tailor the triggering. It has sub
selections such as AC, DC, HER, LFR and TV.
e) External trigger input : When external signal is to be used for triggering, this
control provides the input connector.

4.10.4

Multiple Trace Oscilloscopes

This oscilloscope uses a single electron gun and produces multiple traces by
switching the Y deflection plates from one input signal to other.
The Y channel is time shared by many signals in this case.
The eyes interpret this as a continuous simultaneous display of the input signals
although it is a sampled display.
This method reduces the cost of manufacturing multiple channel oscilloscopes.

4.11 Specifications of a Typical Dual

Trace C.R.O.

Maximum sensitivity
Bandwidth

5 mV/div 15

Operating temperature

MHz 5 C to

Cathode Ray Tube :

40 C

Measuring area
Total accelerating

8 x 10 Div (1 Div = 1 cm)

voltage Screen

2 kilovolt

Vertical Amplifier :

P31 medium persistence green trace.

Display mode
CHL A, B, A and B.
Input coupling

ALTERNATE OR CHOP MODE

A.C. / D.C.

Bandwidt
h

D.C. : 0 to 15 MHz
:

A.C.

10 Hz to 15 MHz
Input impedance

i M2 / 35 pF

Maximum rated input voltage : 400 V (d.c. + a.c. peak)

Time Base :
Time base scale
Trigger :
Source
Trigger
frequency Power
Supply :
Operation
Power
Size

0.2 ps/div to 0.5 s/div in suitable

calibrated steps.
CH A, B, or Ext
100 kHz
Operation from 230 V A.C., 50
Hzmainssupply. 30 VA
378 x 348 x 142 (L x W x H)
5 kg (approx).

Weight

4.12 Dual Beam Oscilloscope

Another method of studying two voltages simultaneously on the screen is to use

special cathode ray tube having two separate electron guns generating two
separate beams. Each electron beam has its own vertical deflection plates.
But the two beams are deflected horizontally by the common set of horizontal
plates. The time base circuit may be same or different. Such an oscilloscope is
called Dual Beam Oscilloscope.
The block diagram of dual beam oscilloscope is shown in the Fig. 4.30.
Two sets of

Fiq. 4.30 Dual beam oscilloscope

The oscilloscope has two vertical deflection plates and two separate channels A
and B for the two separate input signals. Each channel consists of a preamplifier and
an attenuator.
A delay line, main vertical amplifier and a set of vertical deflection plates
together forms a single channel.
There is a single set of horizontal plates and single time base circuit.
The sweep generator drives the horizontal amplifier which inturn drives the
plates. The horizontal plates sweep both the beams across the screen at the same
rate.
The sweep generator can be triggered internally by the channel A signal or
channel B signal.
\
Similarly it can also be triggered from an external signal or line frequency signal.
This is possible with the help of trigger selector switch, a front panel control.
Such an oscilloscope may have separate timebase circuit for separate channel.
This allows different sweep rates for the two channels but increases the size and
weight of the oscilloscope.
The dual beam oscilloscope with separate time base circuits is shown in the Fig.
4.31.

Fig. 4.31 Dual beam CRO with separate time bases

4.12.1 Multiple Beam Oscilloscopes

Multiple beam oscilloscope has a single tube but several beam producing systems
inside. Each system has separate vertical deflecting pair of plates and generally a
common time base system.
The triggering can be done internally using either of the multiple inputs or externally
by an external signal or line voltages.

Dual
trace Dual
beam
CRO
CRO
Two
electron
electron
1. One
beams
are
beam
is
used.
used
to is Two
One
vertical
vertical
2
amplifier
amplifiers
are
.3
used.
used.
The
two
The
two
. signals
signals
are
are simultaneousl
displayed
not
displayed
y.
4. simultaneou
Same
beam
Two
is
sharedthe separate
between
beams
are
two
signals
used
hence
5
two are The
twomust
. As
signals
signals
displayed
have
same
separately,
frequency
or
The
size
and
The
size
and
6
weight
is
weight
is
.7
Cannot
beat more.
Can
be at
. less.
operated
operated
fast
speeds
very
high
hence
two
speed
hence
8
cost
is
The
cost
is
.9The
less
due
to
more
due
to
single
beam.
two
beams.
The
two
The
two
different
. different
modes of
types are

4.13

Comparison of Dual Trace and Dual Beam Oscilloscopes

4.14

Electronic Switch
The electronic switch used in dual trace oscilloscope.is a
device which enables two signals to be displayed simultaneously
on the screen by a single gun CRT. The circuit diagram of an
electronic switch is shown in the Fig. 4.32.

Each signal is applied to separate gain control and gate stage.

The resistance R, and R2 adjust the amplitudes of channel A and B
signals. Q, and are the amplifiers while Q, and Q 4 are the
switches.

Input from channel A is applied to Q, after proper gain control

by R,. Input from channel B is applied to Q 2 after proper gain
control by R-,.
Fig. 4.32 An electronic switch

The square wave generator provides alternate biasing signal to Q, and Q 4, alternately. When 0, is conducting, O4
is cutoff and vice-versa. When Q, is cutoff, Q 4 sends channel B signal to output while when Q 4 is cutoff, the 0, sends
the channel A signal at the output.
V When the square wave generator switching frequency is much higher than the either signal frequency, bits of
each signal are alternately presented to the oscilloscopes vertical input to reproduce the two signals on the screen.
R5 controls the position. The signals on the screen can be overlapped, for the easy comparison.

4.15

C.R.O. Measurements

The various characteristics of an input signal and the properties of the signal can be measured using C.R.O. The
various parameters which can be measured using C.R.O. are voltage, current, period, frequency, phase, amplitude,
peak to peak value, duty cycle etc. Tet us discuss the amplitude, frequency and phase measurements using C.R.O.

4.15.1

Voltage Measurement

The C.R.O. includes the amplitude measurement facilities such as constant gain amplifiers and the calibrated shift
controls. The waveform can be adjusted on the screen by using shift controls so that the measurement of divisions
corresponding to the amplitude becomes easy. Generally to reduce the error, peak to peak value of the signal is
measured and then its amplitude and r.m.s. value is calculated.
To measure the amplitude use the following steps :
1. Note down the selection in volts/division from the front panel, selected for measurement.
2. Adjust shift control to adjust signal on screen so that it becomes easy to count number of divisions
corresponding to peak to peak value of the signal.
3. Note down peak to peak value in terms of the number of divisions on screen.
4. Use the following relation to obtain peak to peak value in volts.
= (Number of divisions or units noted ) x( vo'ts ~]
P'P
v divisions J
5. The amplitude can then be calculated as,
V,p-p
Vm = Amplitude =
While the r.m.s. value of sinusoidal signal can be obtained as,

VRMS

-p-

V v v,

= only for sinusoidal signals v 2

Key Point : The volts/div is nothing hut deflection sensitivity of C.R.O.

2V2

: Calculate the amplitude and rails, value of the sinusoidal voltage, the waveform of which is observed
on C.R.O. as shown in the Fig. 4.33. The vertical attenuation selected is 2 mV/div.
Solution : It can be observed that the screen is divided such that one part is subdivided into 5 units.
llm

^ Example 4.6

Fig. 4.33

1 subdivision = ^ = 0.2 units

It can be observed that positive peak of signal corresponds to two full divisions and three subdivisions. Hence
positive peak is 2 + 3 x 0.2 = 2.6 units while the negative peak also corresponds to 2.6 units.

4.15.2

Current Measurement

p-p

pp

Peak to peak = 2.6 + 2.6 = 5.2

divisions
Number of divisions x ,V^S division
5.2x2x10

= 10.4 mV

.
... , VPP 10.4
Amplitude
=
5.2 mV
V
an
d

VRMS

V2

5.2
= = 3.6769 mV
V2

The C.R.O. is basically voltage indicating device. Hence to measure the current, the current is passed through a
known standard resistance. The voltage across resistance is displayed on C.R.O. and is measured. This measured
voltage divided by the known resistance gives the value of the unknown current. The arrangement is shown in the Fig.
4.34.

[cre
S
en
0Inp
0
i
1
V
|
j<
ut resista
Sta

- (To be measured)
oi

C.R.O.

Fig.
* 4.34

Then
,

4.15.3

V meas d on C.R.O.
ure
R

Period and Frequency Measurement

In such measurement, the waveform is displayed on the screen such that one complete cycle is visible on the
screen. Thus accuracy increases if a single cycle occupies as much as the horizontal distance on the screen.
Note the time/division selected on the front panel. Then the period of the waveform can be obtained as,
T = (Number of divisions occupied by 1 cycle) xj

Time period

The frequency is the reciprocal of the period.

This is the method of frequency measurement without Lissajous pattern.

)> EXAMPLE 4.7 : In an experiment, the voltage across a 10 kil resistor is applied to C.R.O. The screen shows a
sinusoidal signal of total vertical occupancy 3 cm and total horizontal occupancy of 2 cm. The front-panel
controls of V/div and time/div are on 2 V/div and 2 tns/div respectively. Calculate the r.m.s. value of the voltage
across the resistor and its frequency.
Solution : Volts/div = 2 V/div, Time base = 2 ms/div
Vertical occupancy = 3 cm = 3 divisions

^
1
> 1

Assume that one cycle is displayed on the screen.

/

*
>
| II

PV
V

2 2
3

M 2_ V 2
V

Horizontal occupancy = 2 cm = 2 divisions

T = (time/div) x [Number of divisions occupied by one cycle] = 2 x 10
I
4x10

4.15.4

x 2 = 4 x HT3 sec

= 250 Hz

Need of C.R.O. in Electronic Practicals

While performing electronic practicals it is necessary to do the following functions.

1. Measurement of a.c. and d.c. voltages.
2. Measurement of currents.
3. Measurement of frequency and phase shift between input and output waveforms.
4. Testing of various components.
5. Measurement of distortions in the waveforms.
All these functions can be conveniently done by the C.R.O. Hence C.R.O. is necessary while performing the
electronic practicals.

4.16

Lissajous Figures

The Lissajous pattern method is the quickest method of measuring the frequency. In Ihis method, the standard
known frequency signal is applied to horizontal plates and simultaneously unknown frequency signal is applied to the
vertical plates.
Such patterns obtained by applying simultaneously two different sine wave to horizontal and vertical deflection
plates are called Lissajous Figures or Lissajous Patterns. The shape of Lissajous figures depends on :
1) Amplitudes of two waves
2) Phase difference between two waves

3) Ratio of frequencies of two waves.

Consider the two signals applied, having same amplitude and frequency having phase difference of 0 between
them.
e, = Em sin co t
and

e2 = Em sin (cot + c|> )

The phase difference 0 produces the various patterns which vary from straight diagonal lines to the ellipses of
different eccentricities.
The shapes of Lissajous figures for various values of 0 are shown in the Fig. 4.35.

Fig. 4.35 Lissajous patterns for same frequency different phase shifts

4.16.1

Measurement of Phase Difference

Consider the Lissajous Fig. obtained on C.R.O. with an unknown phase difference
0 as shown in the Fig. 4.36 (a). The frequency and amplitude of two waves is same.
The parameters x;/ x2 or y, , y2 can be measured in the Fig. 4.36 (a).
The phase angle then can be obtained as,

Solution

Example 4.8 : The Lissajous figure obtained on the C.R.O. is shown in the Fig.
4.37 Find the phase difference between the two waves applied.
: It can be observed from the Lissajous figures that,
y! =8 units
y2 = 10 units

and

(}> = sin-1
y2
8 = Sin jg

Fig. 4.37

4.16.2

Measurement of Frequency

To measure the unknown frequency, the signal with unknown frequency is

applied to vertical deflection plates called f v. Then signal applied to horizontal
deflection plates is obtained from a variable frequency oscillator of known frequency
fH.
Thus, fH = Frequency of signal applied to horizontal plates which is known.
fv = Frequency of signal applied to vertical plates which is unknown.

Using the shift control, stationary LISSAJOUS FIG. T.O.H OBTAINED on

screen such that to the figure vertical and horizontal axes ARE TANGENTIAL TO

tan
gen
ent
t lanq
IX
000
fv
Verti
=H tang
cal
2f

|1111
CXX
'v
4f=
H

Fig. 4.38

ONE OR more points. The patterns depends on the ratio of two frequencies f,, AND
f\ IS SHOWN IN THE Fig. 4.38.

HiMiiOnial tangencies

The ratio of two frequencies can be obtained as,

fv Number of horizontal tangencies f,, Number of
vertical tangencies

As fH is known, the unknown frequency can be calculated.

If the ratio of two frequencies is not integral
then the pattern is obtained as shown in the Fig.
4.39.
It can be seen that the horizontal tangencies
are 3 while vertical tangencies are 2.
Hence, \r =
1.5
z
H

fv = 1,-f fn
EXAMPLE 4.9 : The Lissajous pattern obtained on the screen by applying
horizontal signal of frequency I kHz, as shown in the Fig. 4.40. Determine the
unknown frequency of vertical signal.

Now,

Solution : It can be observed that,

Number of vertical tangencies = 2
Number of horizontal
tangencies = 5 fy_
5
fH 2

l =

^ x 1 kHz
fv = 2.5 kHz
This is the unknown frequency.
)> Example 4.10 : Draw the various Lissajous patterns for i) fv - fn
ii) )\ = 2 fn Hi) fv = 3 flt iv) fv - 4 fH

Solution
v

) fv = 5 / , / vi)f v - 2 / H P W # * 4F T
vHVfv = $/ H

: For Lissajous pauem,

fv Number of horizontal tangencies fH Number of
vertical tangencies

i) For fv = fM, there is one horizontal tangency

and one vertical tangency. ['he shape is
circle as shown in the Fig. 4.41 (a).
ii) For fv = 2 fH, -- = }
r
nJ

V.T.U. :
jan./Feh.ZOP1), 8
Marks

Fig. 4.41
(a)
2

/X

-OCT
Fig. 4.41 (b)

So there are 2 horizontal tangencies and 1

vertical tangency. The pattern is as shown in the Fig.
4.41 (b).
Similarh for other ratios of fv /fM, the patterns are shown below :

'OOOOO

4.17

Applications of C.R.O.

There are variety of applications in which CRO is used. Some of these

applications
are:
1.

2.
3.
4.

5.

6.

7.
8.
9.

It is used to measure a.c. as well as d.c. voltages and currents. It is useful to

calculate the parameters of the voltages as peak to peak value, r.m.s. value,
duty cycle etc.
In laboratory to measure the frequency, period, phase relationships between
the signals and to study periodic as well as nonperiodic signals.
In radar, it is used for giving the visual representation of target such as
aeroplane, ship etc.
In radio applications, it is used to trace and measure a signal through out the
RF, IF and AF channels of radio and television receivers. It provides the only
effective way of adjusting FM receivers, broadband high frequency RF
amplifiers and automatic frequency control circuits.
In medical applications, it is used to display the cardiograms which are useful
for the diagnosis of heart of the patient. Similarly electromyograms are
useful to study muscle condition of the patient.
In industry, it is used for many purposes. It is used to observe B-H curves, P-V
diagrams and other effects. Used to study the response of various
transducers which measure strain, pressure, temperature etc. It is used to
observe the radiation pattern generated by transmitting antenna.
It is used to determine the modulation characteristics and to detect the
standing waves in transmission lines.
Curve tracers use the oscilloscope technique for testing the active devices
such as vacuum tubes, transistors and integrated circuits.
It is used to measure capacitance, inductance and also used to check the
diodes. It can be used to check the faulty components in the various circuits.

Review Questions
1.

Draw ami explain the structure and main components of conventional cathode rap tube.

2.

Why phosphor screen is provided with an aluminium layer ?

3.

State the various phosphors having different persistence and colours. State their
application areas.

4.

State the various characteristics of P31 phosphor.

5.

Draw the block diagram of general purpose C.R.O. Explain the functions of various blocks.

6.

Draw and explain the block diagram of the vertical amplifier used in oscilloscopes.

7.

Explain the function of delay line in oscilloscopes. Which are the two types of delay lines ?

8.

State and explain various front panel controls of a simple C.R.O.

9.

What is z-axis intensity control ?

10. What is the role of a time base generator ? What are the basic time base requirements ?

11. Draw and explain the block diagram of time base used in normal C.R.O.
12. Explain the following modes of operation of time base generator
i) Free run mode ii) Auto mode iii) Single sweep mode
13. Draw the block diagram of a trigger generator. Explain the various controls associated
with it.
14. What is the use of ACS and ACF controls ?
15. Which are the typical trigger sources ? Explain their significance.
16. Explain the use of folloiving controls :
i) INT ii) EXT

iii) LINE

17. Explain the following siueep modes in detail:

i) Delayed sweep

ii) Mixed sweep iii) Switched or alternate sweep

IS. What is TTL trigger mode? Explain its advantages.

19. Draw and explain the block diagram of
i) Dual trace oscilloscope

ii) Dual beam oscilloscope

20. Describe the following modes available in a dual trace oscilloscope :

i) ALTERNATE mode

ii) CHOP mode

21. Draw and explain the operation of an electronic switch.

22. Which are the various front panel controls of a dual trace oscilloscope ?
23. Compare dual trace and dual beam oscilloscope. State the specifications of typical dual
trace oscilloscope. List the application areas of C.R.O.
24. Explain the following measurements on C.R.O. :
i) Voltage measurement ii) Current measurement
iii) Period measurement iv) Frequency
measurement v) Inductance measurement.
25. Explain the method of Lissajous patterns used for the frequency measurement.
26. Write a note on CRO measurements.
27. Explain the deflection methods used in C.R.O.

University Questions
Q.1 Draw the basic block diagram of an oscilloscope. Explain the function of
each block.

Jan./Fcb.-2008, 2009, 2010, 8 Marks;

Jan./Feb.-20ll,
Marks in a dual trace
Q.2 Describe the following modes
of operation 7
available
oscilloscope : i) ALTERNATE mode ii) CHOP mode.

Jan./Feb.-2008, 6 Marks, Julv/Aug.2009,

4 Marks
Q.3 Explain the operation of an electronic
switch
with the help of a
block diagram.

Q.4 Explain why time delay is necessary in

oscilloscopes.

Jan./Feb.-2008, 2010,
2011, 6 |an./Feb.-2008,
Marks
4
Marks

Q.
5
Q.
6
Q.
7

Write typical CRT connection details and explain different control knobs on
July/Aug.-2008, 10
the front panel of the C.R.O.

Marks
Marks
the
horizontal

July/Aug.-2008,
What is the difference between dual beam and dual trace
CRO?|

Explain what are Lissajous pattern. In the CRO

signal is
designated as fh and vertical signal as fv, with' reference to this explain in
brief the various Lissajous pud terns for,
i) fv = /H "> fv = 2/H

i) fv = 3/H iv> fv =4fi-i v> fv

vi) fv=\.fH vii) fv =i/H vii i )f v =j f H ix) fv= \ f H

Q.9

Explain the working of dual trace

CRO.
Write a note on following controls available on
CRO panel : i) Time-base ii) X-shift Hi) Y-shift.

Q.1
0

Explain the C.R.T. features briefly.

Q.8

=5

/H

Jan./Feb.-2009, 12
Marks

July/Aug.-2U09, 10
Marks

Speciart Oscilloscopes
5.1 Introduction
In many applications it is necessary to investigate the waveforms having very
high frequency or the signals which are nonrepetitive and single event. In some
applications, the data is required to be stored and to be used later whenever
necessary. Such special functions can not be achieved using conventional
oscilloscopes. The special oscilloscopes are necessary to perform such special
functions. The various special oscilloscopes are delayed time base oscilloscope,
analog storage oscilloscope, sampling oscilloscope and digital storage oscilloscope.
This chapter explains these special oscilloscopes.

5.2 Delayed Time Base Oscilloscope

In a conventional oscilloscope, the signal to the vertical plates is delayed by
some time, using a delay line circuit. The waveform before the delay circuit is used
to trigger the time base. This allows the study of all the leading or lagging edges of a
pulse type waveform. This is shown in the Fig. 5.1.
Amplifier

To
vertical
section

Input i.e. signal before

delay triggers time
base
Display of
delayed
waveform

To
horizontal
section
Sweep triggered

Fig. 5.1 Need of time delay

Due to triggering of time base by input signal, sweep starts well in time and
when input appears at vertical sections, the sweep is triggered and delayed
waveform is displayed. The delay ensures that no part of the waveform gets lost.
In delayed time base oscilloscope, two time base generators are used. The one
is normal time base while an additional time base generator is used which is
superimposed
(5 - 1)

Electronic Instrumentation

5-2

Special Oscilloscopes

on the normal time base generator output. Due to this additinoal time base, any part
of the waveform can be brightened when oscilloscope is running on a normal time
base. The delayed time base then can be used to fill the screen completely with the
brightened part of the waveform. The user then can study that part of the waveform
in great detail.
In a delayed time base oscilloscope, a variable time delay circuit is used in the
basic time base circuit. This allows the triggering of sweep time after the delay time.
Thus the delay time is variable. This time is denoted as t d. After this, the sweep is
triggered for the lime tx. Then the portion of the waveform for the time t x gets
expanded on the complete oscilloscope screen, for the detail study.
If input is pulse waveform and leading edge is used to trigger the delay time,
then lagging edge can be displayed to fill the entire oscilloscope screen. This is
shown in the Fig. 5.2(a). Similarly if the lagging edge is used to trigger the delay
time then leading edge can be displayed on the entire screen for the time t x. This is
shown in the Fig. 5.2 (b). If the time delay is perfectly adjusted, then any portion of
the waveform can be extended to fill the entire screen. This is shown in the Fig. 5.2
Delay
time is
triggere
d

Sweep is
triggered

Input
pulse

x
!

(a)
Study of
lagging
edge

Portion A-B
is enlarged
on
the
screen

B
A B

rr-

(b)
Study of
(c)leading
Study of
anyedge
portion
of
waveform
l
-

(c).
Fig. 5.2 Use of additional time delay

5.2.1

Block Diagram of Delayed Time Base Oscilloscope

The Fig. 5.3 shows the block diagram of the delayed time base oscilloscope
which uses main time base (MTB) and delayed time base (DTB).

Electronic Instrumentation

5-3

Special Oscilloscopes

Electronic Instrumentation

5-4

Special Oscilloscopes

deflection
amplifier

Fig. 5.3 Delayed time base oscilloscope

The normal time base circuit is main time base (MTB) circuit which functions same
as a conventional oscilloscope. Tire function of MTB blanking circuit is to produce
an unblanking pulse which is applied to CRT grid to turn on an electron beam in
the CRT, during the display sweep time. The ramp output of MTB is given to the
horizontal deflection amplifier via switch S. It is also given as one input to the
voltage comparator. The other input to the voltage comparator is derived from
the potentiometer whose level is adjustable.
Key Point : When the levels of ramp output of MTB and trigger level set by
potentiometers are equal, then the voltage comparator produces a negative or
positive output spike at that instant.
This spike is used to trigger the delayed time base (DTB) circuit. The time
required by the ramp output to reach the level set by potentiometer is the delay
time Td, which is adjustable.
Similar to MTB, DTB also has a blanking circuit which produces an unblanking
pulse, during the ramp time of DTB.
The unblanking pulses from MTB and DTB are added by summing circuit and
given to the CRT grid. The unblanking pulse of MTB produces a trace of uniform
intensity. But during ramp time of DTB, the addition of two pulses decides the

Electronic Instrumentation

5-5

Special Oscilloscopes

intensity of the trace on the screen. Hence during DTB time, the voltage applied to
CRT grid is almost twice than the voltage corresponding to MTB time. This increases
the brightness of the displayed waveform for the DTB time.
This brightened part of the displayed waveform can be moved across as per the
requirement, by adjusting td with the help of the potentiometer.
When the part of the waveform to be brightened is identified, then the DTB ramp
output is connected to the input of the horizontal deflection amplifier through switch
S. The DTB ramp time is much smaller than MTB period but its amplitude (- V to + V)
is same as MTB ramp. Hence it causes the oscilloscope electron beam to be
deflected from one side of the screen to the other, during short DTB time. By
adjusting DTB time/div control, the brightened portion can be extended, so as to fill
the entire screen of the oscilloscope. The horizontal deflection starts only after the
delay time td from the beginning of the MTB sweep. Thus very small part of the
waveform can be extended on the entire screen.

5.2.2

Waveforms of the Delayed Time Base Oscilloscope

The waveforms of the delayed time base oscilloscope are shown in the Fig. 5.4.

time

Electronic Instrumentation

5-6

Special Oscilloscopes

By using the alternate mode, selection of MTB and DTB is possible and hence
entire waveform as well as intensified portion of the waveform can be
simultaneously displayed on the screen as two separate waveforms. This is shown in
Brightened
portion
Entire waveform with
portion for time tv is
itensified

Brightened portion displayed

during DTB time

Fig. 5.5 Both the waveforms displayed simultaneously

the Fig. 5.5.

5.2.3

Application

The basic application of delayed time base oscilloscope is to extend any part of
the waveform on the entire screen of the oscilloscope and make it bright, so that
detail analysis of that portion can be done. The lagging edge and leading edge of the
pulse are best examples which can be investigated thoroughly with the help of
delayed time base technique.

5.3 Analog Storage Oscilloscope

The conventional cathode ray tube has the persistence of the phosphor ranging
from a few millisecond to several seconds. But some times it is necessary to retain
the image for much longer periods, upto several hours. It requires storing of a
waveform for a certain duration, independent of phosphor persistence. Such a
retention property helps to display the waveforms of very low frequency.
Mainly two types of storage techniques are used in cathode ray tubes
which are : i) Mesh storage and ii) Phosphor storage

5.3.1

Mesh Storage

Basically mesh storage consists of a dielectric material deposited on a storage

mesh. This is called storage target. It is placed between the deflecting plates and
the phosphor screen. The writing beam i.e. normally focused electron beam charges
the dielectric material of storage target positively where hit.

Electronic Instrumentation

5-7

Special Oscilloscopes

Now the low velocity electrons are bombarded on storage target from the flood
gun. The positively charged storage target material allows these electrons to pass
through, to the phosphor screen. Thus the image stored with the help of storage
mesh gets reproducedon the screen. Thus the storage technique has both storage
target and a phosphor display target used for storing and displaying the image.
The construction of storage cathode ray tube is shown in the Fig. 5.6.

Fig. 5.6 Mesh storage CRT

In addition to the standard CRT, this CRT consists of dielectric material deposited
on storage mesh, a collector mesh, a flood gun and a collimator. The dielectric
material such as magnesium fluoride is deposited in a thin layer on the storage
mesh. This is called storage target. This technique uses the principle of secondary
emission. An electron gun producing an electron beam is called the writing gun.
When the target is bombarded by the stream of primary electrons, an energy
transfer takes place. This separates other electrons from the surface of the target.
This process is called secondary emission. The number of secondary electrons
depends on the velocity of the primary electrons, the intensity of the electron beam,
the chemical composition of the target and the condition of its surface. The ratio of
secondary emission current and primary beam current is called the secondary
emission ratio denoted as,

The writing gun produces a beam of electrons which contains the information of
signal. This beam hit the storage surface, with secondary emission ratio much
greater than unity. Thus the areas where electron beam hit, loose the electrons due
to secondary emission. Thus the write beam deflection pattern is traced on the
storage surface as a positive charge pattern. Since the insulation of the dielectric
material is adequate to prevent charge migration for a considerable length of time
and thus the pattern is effectively stored.
Now to make this pattern visible, special electron gun known as flood gun is
switched on even after many hours. The collimator electrodes act like focusing
electrodes and thus adjust the electron paths. The collimator electrodes constitute a
low voltage electrostatic lens system.
Most of the electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh. But the
electrons can pass through the positively charged areas of the storage target while

Electronic Instrumentation

5-8

Special Oscilloscopes

the areas where the image is not stored are negatively charged and electrons repel
from those areas. Thus
the electrons near stored positive charge only can pass through to the post
accelerator region and finally upto the display target phosphor. These electrons hit
on the phosphor screen, producing the image which is stored. The display of image
remains as long as the flood guns are on. The display of stored charged pattern on a
mesh storage is shown in the Fig. 5.7.
Collimated
flood

electrons

o+m

Post accelerator electrode

o+m

<5?

o + an
- CD

CD

___ Storage
mesh

4 V"

Collector mesh Storage surface

Faceplate
display of
CRT

Phosphor display
target

Fig. 5.7 Display of stored charge pattern on a mesh storage CRT

The function of collimator is to align the flood electrons so that they approach
the storage surface perpendicularly.
To erase the pattern on the storage mesh, a negative voltage is applied to
neutralise the stored positive charge. For erase cycle the ERASE button is provided.
For typical CRT, the normal storage mesh voltage is + 3.3 V while potential of
storage surface is - 10 V. To erase the trace, when erase button is pressed, storage
mesh potential becomes equal to collector mesh which is about 156 V. When the
erase button is released, the storage mesh potential falls to 3.3 V. This level remains
constant for 100 msec. During this time the surface is charged back to 0 V. Then the
storage mesh is raised to 13.3 V and
due to ca

Pacitive coupling,
surface
potential raises to

ERASE ERASE
press release
+ 1 5 6 V- + 152.7 V-- +
142.7 V--

100
+ 13.3 V--

+10V--

+ 3 . 3 V- - 0

+ 10 V.

\
W TJ
T

ms*

-200 ms Storage mesh

V - /-j
-5VT -10

y/A

Storage surface

The
storage
surface
decays again to 0 V in a time
less than 200 msec. After this
time, the storage mesh is
again returned to + 3.3 V
while the storage surface goes
to its normal potential 10 V.
This completes the erase
cycle. The mesh and surface
potentials during the erase
cycle are shown in the Fig. 5.8.

Electronic Instrumentation

5-9

Special Oscilloscopes

5.3.2
Glass >
envelope

Phosphor Storage
Electron beam

Conductive___^
backplate

J)

Faceplate

=
'
J

Fig. 5.9 Target structure of bistable storage tube

In this technique of
storage, tire tube used is
a bistable storage tube.
The same material is
used
for
both
the
storage target and the
display phosphor. Infact
the thin phosphor layer
acts as storage target as
well as the display target
hence the name bistable
tube.

The target structure of bistable storage tube is shown in the Fig. 5.9.
The material used for both storage and display targets is P1 phosphor to achieve good secondary emission
characteristics. The boundary migration of stored charge should be eliminated which is achieved by having scattered
phosphor particles. The layer may be more than one particle thick which allows a phosphor viewing in a continuous
manner. But beyond a particular threshold thickness, the storage is not possible.
The controlling electrode is the conductive backplate. This is the thin layer of metal film deposited inside the
faceplate. This deposition is done before the phosphor material deposition. The storage characteristics is controlled
by the voltage applied to the conductive backplate. Below 100 V is the level required for erasing while above 200 V is
for uniform writing on the
target.
The bistable nature of
the tube means that the trace is either stored or it
is not i.e. the brightness is
thus on or off. For this purpose, the split screen
version is used. Two independent conductive plates
5
are depositive, one covering the upper half portion
Flood
Writinc
Faceplate
of CRT while other the bottom half portion
guns
gun
of CRT. The upper half is operated at about 150 V
while the lower half at about
50 V. Hence the upper portion acts as a storage
target layer
tube while the lower half as a
standard refreshed phosphor display.
(Phosphor
The schematic view of a bistable phosphor particles) storage tube is shown in the Fig. 5.10.
\Storage
target
backplate
(Conductive)

The flood guns are switched on to provide a stream of low energy electrons towards the screen. These electrons
have low energy and they cannol penetrate phosphor and are gathered due to collimator. The screen becomes
negatively charged until it reaches at a potential where it repels all further flood gun electrons. When writing gun is
switched on, its electrons have very high energy required to cause the secondary emission from the areas traced on
the screen. The trace is therefore at high positive potential. This is stored due to low leakage of the phosphor. The low
energy electrons from flood gun are now attracted to the positive areas of the screen and pass through the phosphor
to reach the metal film at the back. While passing through the phosphor, they cause it to glow, displaying the area
traced out by the writing gun electron beam i.e. stored image. The erasing of stored waveform is possible by applying
a negative voltage to the metal film due to which the electrons are repelled back.

5.3.3

Comparison of Mesh and Phosphor Storage

The two storage techniques can be compared as below :

Sr.

Based
on
on
1. Based
the
principle
the
dielectric
bistable
material and of
Storage
and
2. Storage
target
display
target
target
is
same
There
is
no
It
is
3. display
possibility
of
susceptible
reduction
in
to
light
output
Variable
Variable
4
is
persistence
.. persistence
possible.
is
not
Grey
scales
Half
tones
5
or
half
tones
are
not
possible.
possible.
Continuous
Continuous
6.7are
persistence
persistence
control
is
control
is not
The
material
The
same
. used
for
material
storage
mostly
P1
target
and
phosphor
is
Relatively
Relatively
8
long
CRT
short
CRT
life
9.. life.
Comparison
Comparison
of
previous
of
previous
waveform
waveform
and present and present
No.

Mesh Storage

Phosphor Storage

5.4 Sampling Oscilloscope

As mentioned earlier, as the frequency of the input signal to the vertical amplifier increases, the writing speed of
the electron beam increases. This reduces the image sensitivity on the screen. For high frequency signals the electron
beam is required to accelerate more. Such increase in velocity is possible by increasing the voltage of accelerating
anodes but it requires higher deflection potential and puts higher demands on the vertical amplifier.
The solution to such problem is the sampling technique. Using this technique, higher frequency signal is
converted to low frequency signal. In this technique, instead of monitoring the input signal continuously, it is sampled
at the regular intervals. These samples are presented on the screen in the form of dots. Many thousands of dots may
be displayed on the screen. Such samples are merged to reconstruct the input signal. Due to merging of samples,
observer receives a continuous signal on the screen. Thus a very high frequency more than 300 MHz performance can
be achieved using this technique.

o----oX''o,A^\A-

The Fig. 5.11 shows the basic sampling circuit which uses a diode switch.
This is also called sampling gate.
=PC Output samples
It consists of a sampling switch, a
Fig. 5.11 Basic sampling circuit
series resistor and a shunt
capacitor. When switch is closed,
the capacitor charging starts. But switch is closed for very short duration of time so that sample of the input signal is
presented at the output.
The sampling pulse is required to turn on the sampling circuit, i.e. to close the switch for very short duration of
time. The input voltage at that instant is available at the sampler output and presented as a dot on the CRT screen.
The next sample is taken during a subsequent cycle of the input waveform at a slightly later position. Thus the spot
on the screen moves horizontally by a small distance and repositioned to the new value of the input.
In this way, 1000 samples i.e. dots are presented on the screen which together reconstruct the original input
signal. The separate time base circuit provides the sampling pulses required by the sampling gate. The principle of
sampling is shown in the Fig. 5.12.

Diode Input
switch

The Fig. 5.13 shows the display of the dots on the CRT screen, due to sampling operation.

5.4.1

Sampling Time Base

The time base circuit of the sampling oscilloscope is different than the conventional oscilloscope. The time base of
sampling oscilloscope has two functions :
i) To move the dots across the screen
ii) To generate the sampling command pulses for the sampling circuit.
It consists of synchronous circuit, which determines the sampling rate and establishes a reference point in time
with respect to the input signal.
The time base generates a triggering pulse which activates the oscillator to generate a ramp voltage. Similarly it
generates a stair case waveform. The ramp generation is based on the output of the synchronizing circuit.

compares

Both the ramp as well as staircase waveforms are applied to a voltage comparator. This comparator
the two voltages and whenever these two voltages are equal, it generates a sampling
pulse. This pulse then momentarily bias the diodes of the sampling gate in the forward direction and thus diode
switch gets closed for short duration of time. The capacitor charges but for short time hence, it can charge to only a
small percentage of the input signal value at that instant. This voltage is amplified by the vertical amplifier and then
applied to the vertical deflecting plates. This is nothing but a sample. At the same time, the comparator gives a signal
to the staircase generator to advance through one step. This is applied to horizontal deflecting plates, thus during
each step of the stair case waveform, the spot moves across the screen.
Thus the sampling time base is called a staircase-ramp generator in case of a sampling oscillosope.

5.4.2

Block Diagram of Sampling Oscilloscope

The block diagram of sampling oscilloscope is shown in
the Fig. 5.14.

The input signal is applied to the diode sampling gate. At

the start of each sampling cycle a trigger input pulse is
generated which activates the blocking oscillator. The
oscillator output is given to the ramp generator which
generates the linear ramp signal.

Since the sampling must be synchronized with the input

signal frequency, the signal is delayed in the vertical
amplifier.
Trigger
input

Fig. 5.14 Block diagram of sampling

oscillscope

The staircase generator produces a staircase waveform which is applied to an attenuator. The attenuator controls
the magnitude of the staircase signal and then it is applied to a voltage comparator. Another input to the voltage
comparator is the output of the ramp generator. The voltage comparator compares the two signals and produces the
output pulse when the two voltages are equal. This is nothing but a sampling pulse which is applied to sampling gate
through the gate control circuitry.
This pulse opens the diode gate and sample is taken in. This sampled signal is then applied to the vertical
amplifier and the vertical deflecting plates.
The output of the staircase generator is also applied to the horizontal deflecting plates. During each step of
staircase the spot moves on the screen. The comparator output advances the staircase output through one step.
After certain number of pulses about thousand or so, the staircase generator resets. The smaller the size of the
steps of the staircase generator, larger is the number of samples and higher is the resolution of the image.
Tire waveforms of sampling oscilloscope are shown in the Fig. 5.15. In sampling oscilloscope, a staircase
generator is used as input to horizontal section instead of ramp. The sampling of the waveform is done at the
beginning of each step of the staircase waveform. The sampled output is used for the vertical section. When this
sampled output is combined with the unblanking pulses, a dot waveform is obtained on the screen.

nnnn

Triggering pulses to
staircase and ramp generators

Staircase waveform

Ramp waveform

I?I
I

Output of comparator
to sampling gate and
unblanking circuit

Input sine wave

Sampled input signal

5.4.3

Different Circuits used in Sampling Oscilloscope

The main operation of the sampling oscilloscope is related with production of the staircase waveform, a voltage
comparison and a sampling gate circuit operation.
5.4.3.1

Staircase Generator Circuit

The circuit is shown in the Fig. 5.16.

(a) Circuit

(b) Waveforms
Fig. 5.16 Staircase generator

The transistor Q, is in constant current mode and p-n-p transistor. Thus output of pulse generator is connected to its
base. For every negative going pulse, the transistor Q, is switched on for short period of time. During this period, it
gives current pulse to capacitor C,. This charges C, to certain voltage level, till next pulse occurs. During next pulse,
the transistor Q] further charges C, to next voltage level. This produces the staircase waveform at the output. When
the voltage level of capacitor C, exceeds the required upper level, the Schmitt trigger circuit operates and Q 2
becomes on. The capacitor C, discharges through Q2 to its starting level.
5.4.3.2

Voltage Comparator Circuit

The circuit is shown in the Fig. 5.17.

The transistors Q, and Q 2 are connected in the emitter coupled differential amplifier mode. The collector voltages
of Q| and Q2 are given to the amplifier A which amplifies their difference upto supply voltage saturation levels. The
ramp input is given to Q, while staircase input is given to Q 2.

(a) Circuit

(b) Waveforms
Fig. 5.17 Voltage comparator

When the instantaneous voltage level of ramp is lower than the staircase voltage level, then Q, is off and Q 2 is on.
The collector voltage VC] of Qj is high while the collector voltage V C2 of Q2 is low. For the polarities of the amplifier
shown, the output is low. The input level of Q, matches with the input level of Q 2, VCJ decreases while VC2 increases.
Due to this, the amplifier produces a positive going voltage. Due to this , the amplifier produces a positive going
voltage. Due to this, the normal comparator output is low. This amplifier output then can be connected to another
stage which produces spike S at the instants when the two inputs become equal.
5.4.3.3

Sampling Gate Circuit

The circuit is shown in the Fig. 5.18.

The circuit consists of FET Qj and the capacitor C,. The voltage follower is used at the output to provide low output
impedance. The op-amp used as a voltage follower has very high input impedance and very low output impedance.
The base of Q, is normally negative and Q, is off. It acts as an open switch in normal condition. When the positive
pulse occurs at its input, it drives Q, into saturation. As the drop across FET in saturation is very low, it acts as a
closed switch for short duration of time. During this time, capacitor gets charged upto the voltage level of the input at
that time. This happens each time when FET is on. When Q, is off, the capacitor C, maintains its voltage level reached,
at the time of previous sample. Thus the output is sampled input signal.

FET

Fig. 5.18 Sampling gate circuit

5.4.4 Expanded Mode Operation of Sampling Oscilloscope

The purpose of this mode is to enlarge the portion of the sampled
waveform on the screen, from detail investigation point of view. It uses
the technique similar to the delayed time base oscilloscope.
Consider a sampled signal shown in the Fig. 5.19 of sinusoidal waveform
obtained with 16 step staircase waveform. Thus there are 16 samples i.e.
dots shown on the sampled signal. The staircase waveform has 16 steps
to get 16 samples.

(a) Sampled waveform

(b)
Normal
Staircase
waveform
Fig. 5.19 Sampled signal with normal staircase waveform
Now consider that the normal staircase waveform is modified
with 16 smaller steps which are superimposed on a d.c. bias
voltage. Then in such a case, 16 samples are taken during later
part of the waveform and only that part of the signal is displayed
on the screen. This is shown in the Fig. 5.20.

(a) Part of the original signal

(b) Use of bias voltage

Fig. 5.20 Expanded mode operation

Thus controlling the bias voltage level and number of steps of staircase
waveform, any portion of the input signal can be displayed and studied. By adjusting
time/div of the horizontal section, the identified portion can be extended so as to
occupy the full screen of the oscilloscope.

5.4.5

Advantages

The advantages of the sampling oscilloscope are :

i)

Very high frequency performance can be achieved.

ii)
High speed electrical signals can be analysed.
iii) The technique allows the design of the oscilloscope with wide bandwidth,
high sensitivity even for low duty cycle pulses.
iv) A clear display is produced.
v) Controlling the size of the steps of the staircase generator, the number of
samples and hence the resolution can be controlled.
The only limitation of the sampling oscilloscope is that it cannot be used to
display the transient waveforms.

5.5Disadvantages of Analog Storage Oscilloscope

The disadvantages of analog storage oscilloscope are,
i) The waveform can be preserved for finite amount of time only and
eventually the waveform will be lost.
ii) As long as image is required to be stored, the power must be supplied to
the tube.
iii) The trace obtained from the storage tube is not fine as compared to the
conventional oscilloscope tube.
iv) The writing rate of storage tube is less than that of conventional cathode
ray tube, this limits the speed of the storage tube.
v) The storage cathode ray tube is very much expensive than conventional
cathode ray tube.
vi)

The storage cathode ray tube requires additional power supplies.

vii) Only one waveform can be stored in storage tube. If two traces are to be
compared, they are required to be superimposed on the same screen and
must be displayed together.
viii)
The stored waveform cannot be reproduced on the external device
like computer.

5.6 Digital Storage Oscilloscope

The digital storage oscilloscope eliminates the disadvantages of the analog
storage oscilloscope. It replaces the unreliable storage method used in analog
storage scopes with the digital storage with the help of memory. The memory can
store data as long as required without degradation. It also allows the complex
processing of the signal by the high speed digital signal processing circuits.
In this digital storage oscilloscope, the waveform to be stored is digitised and
then stored in a digital memory. The conventional cathode ray tube is used in this
oscilloscope hence the cost is less. The power to be applied to memory is small and
can be supplied by small battery. Due to this the stored image can be displayed
indefinitely as long as power is supplied to memory. Once the waveform is digitised
then it can be further loaded into the computer and can be analysed in detail.

5.6.1

Block Diagram

The block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope is showm in the Fig. 5.21.
Vertical

As done in all the oscilloscopes, the input signal is applied to the amplifier and
attenuator section. The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator
circuitry as used in the conventional oscilloscopes. The attenuated signal is then
applied to the vertical amplifier.

The vertical input, after passing through the vertical amplifier, is digitised by an
analog to digital converter to create a data set that is stored in the memory. The
data set is processed by the microprocessor and then sent to the display.
To digitise the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used. The output
of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter section. The main
requirement of A/D converter in the digital storage oscilloscope is its speed, while in
digital voltmeters accuracy and resolution were the main requirements. The digitised
output needed only in the binary form and not in BCD. The successive approximation
type of A/D converter is most oftenly used in the digital storage oscilloscopes.
The digitising the analog input signal means taking samples at periodic intervals
of the input signal. The rate of sampling should be at least twice as fast as the
highest frequency present in the input signal, according to sampling theorem. This
ensures no loss of information. The sampling rates as high as 100,000 samples per
second is used. This requires very fast conversion rate of A/D converter.
KEY POINT : Hence, generally flash analog lo digital converters are used, whose
resolution
decreases as the sampling rate increases.
If a 12 bit converter is used, 0.025 % resolution is obtained while if 10 bit A/D
converter is used then resolution of 0.1 % (1 part in 1024) is obtained. Similarly with
10 bit A/D converter, the frequency response of 25 kHz is obtained. The total digital
memory storage capacity is 4096 for a single channel, 2048 for two channels each
and 1024 for four channels each.
The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the duration
and the waveform to be recorded.
Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitises it. The signal is
then captured in the memory. Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations
are possible as memory can be read out without being erased.

5.6.2

Modes of Operation

The digital storage oscilloscope has three modes of operation :

i) Roll mode ii) Store mode iii) Hold or save mode.
5.6.2.1

Roll Mode

This mode is used to display very fast varying signals, clearly on the screen.
The fast varying signal is displayed as if it is changing slowly, on the screen. In
this mode, the input signal is not triggered at all.
The stored signal is rolled slowly from right to left across the screen.
5.6.2.2
Store Mode
This is most commonly used and called refresh mode.
In this mode, the input initiates a trigger circuit. This initiates the memory write
cycle. The digital data is transferred to the memory. When the memory is full, the
write cycle stops.

Using digital to analog converter, the memory data is converted to analog and
then displayed on the screen.
When the next trigger occurs the memory is refreshed.
5.6.2.3
Hold or Save Mode
This is called automatic refresh mode. When new sweep signal is generated
by time base generator, the old contents get overwritten by new one.
If a particular signal is to be stored then by pressing hold or save button,
overwriting can be stopped and previously saved signal is locked.
Single shot events, such as the waveform of an explosion are transient in nature
and very quickly lost. The observer cannot see such events, unless the waveform is
photographed or stored. Such events can be stored in memory of digital storage
oscilloscope and reading the memory rapidly and repetitively the continuous
waveform can be obtained.

5.6.3

Acquisition Methods

In the digital storage oscilloscope, it is necessary to capture the digital signal

and store it. Depending upon the particular application, there are three different
acquisition methods used in the digital storage oscilloscopes. The three methods
are :
1. Real time sampling.
2. Random repetitive sampling.
3. Sequential repetitive sampling.
Real Time Sampling
This is the most straight forward method of digital signal capturing. In this
method, in response to single trigger event, the complete record of n m samples is
simultaneously captured on each and every channel. From these samples recorded in
a single acquisition cycle, the waveform is displayed on the screen of digital storage
oscilloscope.
Three important features of this method are,
1. The display and analysis of waveform can he carried out at later stage
while the signal gets recorded in memory at an earlier stage.
2. It is very easy to capture the signals that happen before the trigger event.
3. A truly simultaneous capture of multiple signals is automatic.
5.6.3.1

This method can be used in a continuously repeating mode but each waveform
displayed is captured from a single acquistion cycle. The larger memory and fast
sampling rate plays an important role in the real time sampling. The higher sampling
rate is required to capture long time interval signal capturing. This is possible due to
large memory. The signal fluctuations occurring entirely between samples will not be
captured in the sample record.
The sampling theorem helps to select the proper sampling rate. It states that if a
signal is sampled greater than twice the frequency of highest frequency component

in signal then the original signal can be reconstructed, exactly from the samples.
Half the sampling frequency is called Nyquist limit or Nyquist critical frequency. This
is denoted as fc.
Any signal component having a frequency higher than f c gets falsely translated
to another frequency somewhere between d.c. and f (. by the act of sampling. This is
called aliasing. A signal of frequency f c+ A will be aliased to f c-A for A < fc. Tire 3 dB
bandwidth of the vertical amplifier should be less than f c at the fastest sampling rate.
In practice the 3dB bandwidth is set to f s / 4 with about 5 % over shoot where f s is
sampling frequency.
Random Repetitive Sampling
The bandwidth limited to fs / 4 in real time sampling. The major disadvantage of
this is increasing bandwidth means increasing sampling rate and fast sample rate
digitizers and memory are very expensive. The method in which the bandwidth is not
limited by sampling rate is random repetitive method.
In this method, repeated real time data acquisition cycles are performed. Still
each sample value is plotted independently on display as a dot. Interpolation
between samples is not done. Each acquistion cycle produces random time interval
td between trigger point and sample clock as shown in the Fig. 5.22.
The time between the samples from that capture is t s with an offset of td from
the trigger point. The trigger interpolator measures the time interval t d on each
acquisition cycle. It is located in the time base.
Each successive acquisition is plotted at its measured random offset. This
progressively fills the picture of the waveform.
As the waveform fills in, the gaps between the dots become smaller and
effective sampling rate increases. Accuracy of trigger interpolator while measuring t d
limits the effective sampling rate.
5.6.3.2

Trigger
level

Trigger
pulse-

Fig. 5.22 Random repetitive sampling

The disadvantage of this method is that the abilities to capture a nonrecurring
transient is lost.

5.6.3.3

Sequential Repetitive Sampling

An oscilloscope having bandwidth 20 to 50 GHz need very fast sweep speed

settings. In such case, random repetitive method can not work satisfactorily. Hence
sequential repetitive sampling is used.
In this method, one sample value per
trigger event is captured at a cerefully
controlled time delay tlls after the
triggering pulse, as shown in the Fig. 5.23.

Fig. 5.23
delay which is tdo

This delay is increased by small

amount tMe after each point is captured.
The single sample acquisition cycle is
repeated till the entire waveform has been
plotted. In this method the increase in
is the effective sample time.

This method can not capture trigger event or any pretrigger information. The
major disadvantage of this method is pretrigger view feature gets lost. Hence this
method is used only in microwave bandwidth digital oscilloscopes.

5.6.4 Sample Rate and Bandwidth

The digital oscilloscopes are limited principally by the sampling frequency. The
rate at which the samples are taken is called the sample rate or the sampling
frequency. It is number of samples per second.

The sampling frequency must be higher than 2 times the highest frequency in
the input signal. This is called the Nyquist rate or Nyquist frequency. Theoretically, it
is possible to reconstruct the input signal with more than 2 samples per period but
inpractice, 10 to 20 samples per period are recommended to be able to examine the
signal thoroughly.

If

the sampling rate is lower than 2 times the highest frequency of the input
signal, then signals with frequencies equal to the sum and difference of the signal
frequency and multiples of the sampling frequency appear on the screen. This is
called aliasing due to which the signal is displayed in distorted form on the screen. In
practice, to avoid aliasing, always start measuring at the highest sampling frequency
and lower the sampling frequency if required till signal will not get distorted.
Many digital storage oscilloscopes specify two bandwidths, repetitive signal
bandwidth and real time bandwidth.
The repetitive signal bandwidth represents the highest frequency sine wave
signal that the input circuit of the oscilloscope can accept with 3 dB maximum
attenuation. This limit is applicable to the repetitive waveforms which are the signals
repeating in a regular and reliable fashion.
The real time bandwidth defines the highest frequency sine wave that the digital
storage oscilloscope can capture by sampling in a single pass, using a single trigger.
This is also called single shot bandwidth.
In the repetitive time sampling, the oscilloscope uses a series of successive
trigger events to gradually build up a picture of the waveform. With each trigger,
new set of samples is added to the picture, till enough samples are collected as per
the Nyquist requirement. This method allows the digital storage oscillioscope to have
a bandwidth that is higher than its sampling rate. Such a sampling is also called
equivalent time sampling. This is only used for repetitive signals. The single shot
events, transients or glitches cannot be accurately captured by this method.
In real time sampling, the oscilloscope must gather all the samples for a
waveform from a single trigger event. This requires higher sampling frequency to
achieve same bandwidth, as compared to equivalent time oscilloscope. Thus the real
time bandwidth is less, for the same sampling frequency.
Example 5.1 : Calculate the sampling rate for 1 kHz and the 10 kHz signal if the
time base setting is adjusted to display 10 cycles on the screen.

Solution

: For 1 kHz signal, to display 10 cycles.

Number of cycles 10
2
Time period of sampling = ------------ ------ ---------------
= 10 sec.
Signal frequency 1 x 101 2 3

For 10 kHz signal, Sampling period =

10

=1
lOx 10 msec.
1i
2Sampling frequency =
= 1
- 100 samples/sec.
= 1000
Sampling frequency
3
lx
10'
samples/sec.
=

5.6.5

Pulse Rise Time and Sampling Rate

For investigation of pulse waveform, the pulse rise time is important parameter.
The pulses having a smaller rise time than the sampling time interval cannot be
displayed accurately. Hence to measure the rise time accurately, atleast a sample
must be taken during the rise time i.e. rise time must be more than sampling time
interval. This is shown in the Fig. 5.24.
Fig. 5.24 Accurate measurement of tr limited by sampling rate

r(min> Sampling rate

Thus for a pulse waveform,

Example 5.2 : For a DSO, investigating a pulse xoax'eform, the sampling rate is
200 MS/s (megasamples per second). Find the minimum rise time of the pulse,

Solution

: For a pulse waveform,

_____________1_________ 1
(mm) Sampling rate 200x10'

t=
r

= 5 x10~9s = 5 ns

5.6.6

Trigger Circuits in D.S.O.

The block diagram of the dual level trigger circuits used in digital storage
oscilloscope (D.S.O.) is shown in the Fig. 5.25.
The data for the trigger circuits is available from channel A, channel B or from
external trigger input E. The ta and tb are threshold levels for the comparators KA
and KB. Both the comparators produce the binary signals for Primary Trigger Source
Selector (PTSS) and Secondary Trigger Source Selector (STSS). If the actual output
voltage is higher than the threshold, the output of the comparator is 1 while if it is
lower than the threshold then output of the comparator is 0. It is possible to select
the source of triggering signal

Fig. 5.25 Block schematics of trigger circuits

for each level independently. In addition to source selection, PTSS and STSS can
invert any of the input signal. The trigger event is generated with respect to the
change of the selector (PTSS, STSS) output signal from 0 to 1. Constant level of the
signal cannot start the measurement.
In case that only one of the signals is selected, trigger event is generated
corresponding to the polarity, which is symbolically presented by direction of change
of the signal (0 to 1 means no inversion). When there are several inputs selected, the
selector makes a logical addition (OR) of all of the selected inputs. Before adding the
signals together, ones are adjusted with respect to the polarity settings. Trigger
event is generated only when the change of result of the logical addition occurred
from 0 to 1 (FALSE to TRUE).
The digital pulse filters are implemented in both primary and secondary trigger
levels. If activated, they filter out pulses shorter than the value 4xNxT s, where Ts is
the actual real time sampling period and N is the value set by the user (1 <= N <=
32767). The outputs of digital pulse filters are connected to the event counters. It
counts the unfiltered pulses.
If the MS switch is set to primary level, the output of primary event counter will
change from 0 (FALSE) to 1 (TRUE) to indicate the valid trigger event after reaching
the terminal count, which is user settable in the range of 1 to 32767. If the MS switch
is set to secondary level, the output of primary event counter activates the
secondary trigger level. The input selector, digital filter and event counter can be set
for secondary level independently to define the valid trigger event.

The hold off timer blocks the triggering event for the time period T = 4xNxT s
from the start of data collection where T s is actual real time sampling period and H is
the user defined value between 0 to 32767. The value of H must be selected
properly such that oscilloscope has enough time to gather the sufficient data before
trigger event.

5.6.7

Triggering Modes

The various triggering modes used in the digital storage oscilloscopes are,
1. AUTO : The data acquisition is triggered by a valid trigger event. But if after
certain time the trigger event does not occur, the measurement automatically
starts.
2. NORMAL : The data acquisition is triggered by a valid trigger event only. It
produces sweep only when the trigger signal meets the threshold level and
slope criteria.
3. SINGLE : Tire data acquisition starts after activation from the control panel
and it is synchronized by the valid trigger event. Only one measuring cycle is
executed. It is used for real time sampling.
4. MANUAL : The one measuring cycle is executed immediately after activation
from the control panel.

5.6.8

Special Functions

The digital storage oscilloscope has variety of special functions. These special
functions are,
1. Pretrigger View : The oscilloscope has a special feature called pretrigger
view. This
mode means that the oscilloscope can display W'hat has happened before a
trigger input is applied. This selection is percentage selection. This mode of
operation is useful when a failure occurs. The pretrigger can be 25 %, 50 %,
75 % for the
single shot mode.
2. Channel Difference (A - B) : This depends on the reference cursor state.
When reference cursor is active, the function calculates the difference
between the channel A and the channel B, where the reference cursor level is
considered to be zero.
When reference cursor is inactive, the function calculates the difference
between the channel A and the channel B, where the 0 V level is considered
to be zero.
3. Channel Add (A + B) : Similar to the difference, this function calculates the
addition of the channel A and the channel B, depending on the reference
cursor state.
4. Channel A Inversion (- A) : This calculates the inversion of the channel A.
5. Channel B Inversion (- B) : This calculates the inversion of the channel B.
6. X-Y Function : The X-Y function window is opened after an activation of the X-Y
function. This displays the data visible on the main screen. The zoom

7.

8.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

function affects the amount of the displayed data. The 0 V values for X-axis
and Y-axis are displayed and can be changed by vertical shift for both axes.
Glitch Detect : The digital storage oscilloscope can capture a glitch upto 100
ns
width and also can capture positive, negative or alternate positive and
negative glitches.
"
Trigger Coupling : By selecting proper coupling, the trigger signal can be
processed before applying to the comparator.
D.C. coupling : Useful for low frequency signals.
A.C. coupling : Useful for low level signals having a d.c. component.
H.F. reject : Useful for rejecting high frequency noise while viewing low
frequency signals.
L.F. reject : Useful for rejecting low frequency signals such as jitter due to low
frequency noise.

5.6.9

Automatic Measurements

In the digital oscilloscope, the waveforms can be easily made available to the
computer and due to the involvement of computer the digital oscilloscope can have
variety of useful features. The automatic measurements is one of such powerful
features of a digital oscilloscope. Some of the uses of automatic measurements are,
1. Calibration

2. Auto scale

3. Measurement of parameters 4. Mathematical operations.

1. Calibration : Due to computer, digital oscilloscope can take the measurements
and
analyse them automatically. Hence this feature is used to streamline the process of
calibration of the digital oscilloscope. In earlier days, calibration is carried out by
trained user. But this was time consuming and costly process as many tests,
measurements and adjustments were involved in it.
In the digital oscilloscope, the system embedded computer is used to measure
and analyse the signals automatically. The results are stored in a memory which
retains the information though power is turned off. Such memory is called
nonvolatile memory. Hence manual internal adjustments are not required. This
reduces the oscilloscope operating cost.
2. Auto scale : In a digital oscilloscope, an auto scale control button is provided on
the
front panel. When the button is pressed, the internal controller checks all the
channels for presence of any active signal. If any active signal is recognised then the
auto scale facility adjusts the control settings automatically such that few cycles of
that signal are displayed

Electronic Instrumentation

527

Special Oscilloscopes

on screen. This feature is very useful for the signals whose amplitude, frequency, d.c.
offset etc. are unknown. The operator gets the display of the signal very quickly on
screen.

Measurement of parameters

3.
: In practice it is possible to measure many parameters
of the signals other than amplitude and frequency. This involves a lot of calculations.
In some cases it is difficult to execute such computations. Such calculations are
required to he repeated many times in some cases, which is time consuming.

But in digital oscilloscope, preprogramme for the various parameter

measurements can be fed. The parameters are calculated automatically from the
sampled data record stored in the memory. This built in computing power of digital
oscilloscope is a real time saver. The various built in measurements possible in
digital oscilloscope are, frequency, period, duty cycle, overshoot, maximum and
minimum voltages, peak to peak voltage, average voltage, r.m.s. voltage, rise time,
fall time etc.

Mathematical operations

4.
:
In
some cases it is the requirements to perform a
mathematical operation on the entire sampled data record captured on a single
channel. Such operations are integration, differentiation, fast Fourier transform etc.
The digital oscilloscope can perform such operations automatically and displays the
reslut on screen. Not only this but two records captured on two different channels
can be algebraically manipulated by a digital oscilloscope. Thus such two different
channel signals can be added, subtracted, multiplied, divided and can be displayed
on the screen.

5.6.10

Fourier Transformation Function

The Fourier transformation transforms acquired samples using Fourier

transformation. The FFT (Fast Fourier Transformation) and DFT (Discrete Fourier
Transformation) are implemented. In case the automatic period selection is
activated, one period of waveform is transformed, otherwise the part distinguished
by cursors in oscilloscope software is transformed.
The Fourier transformation window is opened after activation of the FT function.
The main screen is located in the top of the window. The frequency bar divides it
into two parts. The size of the part can be changed by dragging the bar. The
amplitude of harmonics is displayed in the top part (amplitude part), the phase in
bottom one.
The threshold amplitude is represented by grey horizontal line in the amplitude
part. The threshold can be changed by dragging this line. Phase is displayed only for
the harmonics with amplitude above this threshold.
The watched harmonic can be selected by vertical grey cursor.
The status panel with information about analyzed signal is located in the left
bottom comer of the main window.

Tire information about selected harmonic is displayed in the bottom of the main
window.

Status

Period (1 kHz)
Timebase (OK.)
#
Vertical shirt
(OK)
0
Range (OK)

5.6.11

Fig. 5.26 Fourier transformation window

Glitch Mode

The glitch trigger is predominantly used to find glitches, defined as faster

transitions - or shorter pulses - than the normal signal contains.
The system will therefore be set up to trigger on a width smaller than the signals
"normal" pulse width. The desited source and its coupling level and pulse sign positive or negative - can be chosen.
I bis feature offers a wide range of capabilities for applications as diverse as
digital . nd analog electronic development, ATE, EMI, telecommunications, and
magnetic media studies. Catching elusive glitches becomes very easy.

5.6.12

Zoom Mode

The zoom mode is useful to expand stored waveforms in the horizontal axis. This
allows comparison and analysis of waveform details.

5.6.13

Memory Depth

To determine the sampling rate, the memory available per channels tor the
scope must be known. This memory available per channel is called memory depth of
oscilloscope. From the memory depth, the sampling rate can be obtained as,
Sampling rate = Memory depth/Time captured
The samples are stored in memory. More the memory depth, more samples can
be stored. Thus deeper memory allows higher sampling rate. Higher the sustained
sampling rate with deeper memory, more accurate and reliable are the
measurements. The higher memory depth has following advantages,
1. The sampling rate is high so no possibility of missing details.
2. Glitch capturing is possible without distortion.
3. Excellent time and frequency resolution can be achieved.
4. The events which are unpredictable in time can be reliably captured.
5. Between the stored samples, no dead time is possible.

5.6.14

Hanning Window

The mathematical FFT function includes three FFT window options. What to
measure and what type of signal characteristics to observe decides which window is
to be used. The three window options are banning, flattop and rectangular. The
harming window has better frequency characteristics but poorer magnitude
accuracy. The hanning window adds distortion to the waveform to cause the
amplitude error. The hanning window should always be used with continuous signals
but must never be used with transients.

5.6.15

Advantages of D.S.O.

Let us summarize the advantages of the digital storage oscilloscope :

i)
It is easier to operate and has more capability.
ii) The storage time is infinite.
iii) The display flexibility is available. The number of traces that can be stored
and recalled depends on the size of the memory.
iv) The cursor measurement is possible.
v) The characters can be displayed on screen along with the waveform which
can indicate waveform information such as minimum, maximum,
frequency, amplitude etc.
vi) The X-Y plots, B-H curve, P-V diagrams can be displayed.
vii) The pretrigger viewing feature allows to display the waveform before
trigger pulse.
viii) Keeping the records is possible by transmitting the data to computer
system where the further processing is possible.
ix)Signal processing is possible which includes translating the raw data into
finished information e.g. computing parameters of a captured signal like
r.m.s. value, energy stored etc.

x) Brighter and bigger display with colour to distinguish multiple traces.

xi) Equivalent time sampling and average cross consecutive samples lead to
higher resolution down to gV.
xii) Slow traces like the temperature variation across a day can be recorded.
xiii)
Tire digital technique allows a quantitative analysis.
xiv)The memory can be arranged not only as one dimensional list but also as a
two dimensional array.
xv) The built in interfaces such as RS 232 serial port, Centronix parallel, IEEE
488 Bus are available.

5.6.16

Applications of D.S.O.

The various applications of digital storage oscilloscope are,

1. Measurement of various a.c. and d.c. parameters such as currents, voltages etc.
2. Measurement of various parameters of alternating signal such as r.m.s.,
average, crest factor, duty cycle etc.
3. Measurement of frequency, time period, phase, phase difference for periodic
and nonperiodic waveforms.
4. The transient parameters of fast changing waveforms such as overshoot, rise
time, fall time etc. can be measured.
5. Mathematical operations such as addition, subtraction, integration etc. of
various waveforms can be obtained.
6. Used to measure slow moving parameters such as temperature of the day.
7. The operations such as fast Fourier transform, discrete Fourier transform,
inverse Fourier transform etc. can be performed.
8. The parameters like inductance, capacitance, impedance etc. also can be
measured.
9. For component testing and troubleshooting as the transients can be captured
and
stored.
10. For transmission line analysis to obtain standing waves, modulation
characteristics
etc.
11 The visual representation of a target for aeroplane, ship etc. can be obtained.
12. The characteristics of various components such as V-l characteristics of
diodes, transistors etc. can be obtained.
13. To obtain the P-V diagrams, B-H curves, Hysteresis loops etc.

Review Questions
1. Explain why time delay is necessary in oscilloscopes ?
2. Sketch and explain the block diagram of delayed time base oscilloscope.
3. Explain with the help of waveforms, how a portion to be studied is
brightened in delayed time base oscilloscope.
4. Describe the follouing storage techniques used in storage oscilloscopes :
i) Mesh storage
ii) Phosphor storage
5. Compare the mesh and phosphor storage techniques.
6. What is secondary emission ? How it is useful in a storage oscilloscope ?
Z< Explain with suitable diagram the erase cycle in a mesh storage
oscilloscope.
8. State the limitations of analog storage oscilloscopes.
9. Draw and explain the block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope.

10. Explain the modes of operation of digital storage oscilloscope.

11. State the advantages of digital storage oscilloscope.

12. Write a note on sampling oscilloscope.

13. Explain the sampling time base used in the sampling oscilloscopes.

14. Draw and explain the block diagram of the sampling oscilloscope.

15. State the advantages of sampling oscilloscope.

16. Draw and explain staircase generator circuit used in sampling oscilloscope.

17. Draw and explain voltage comparator circuit used in sampling oscilloscope.

18. Draw and explain sampling gate circuit used in sampling oscilloscope.

19. Explain the expanded mode operation of sampling oscilloscope.

20. How sampling rate affects the accurate measurement of rise time ? Explain
with waveforms.

21. Explain the various modes of operation of digital storage oscilloscope.

22. Explain the acquisition methods used in the digital storage oscilloscope.

23. Write about sample rate and bandwidth related to digital storage oscilloscope.

24. Explain the special function which can be performed by digital storage
oscilloscope.
University
Questions

25.
Q.1Explain
Explainthe
theapplications
operation ofofadigital
digitalstorage
storageoscilloscope.
oscilloscope with the help of a block
diagram. Mention the advantages.
|an./Feb.-2008, |uly/Aug.-2008, Jnn./Feb.-2009, 10
Marks

Q.2 Write an explanatory note on sampling

oscilloscopes.
Jan./Feb.-2008, b Marks, Jan./Feb.-2009, 10
Marks

Q.3 Explain the principle and operation of sampling oscilloscope. What are its
advantages and disadvantages
[uly/Aug.-2008,?10 Marks, Jan./Feb.-2010, Jan./Feb.-2011, b
Marks

Q.4
Q.5

Explain the operation of delayed time

July/Aug.-2009, 10
base system.
Marks
Sketch a diagram to show the construction of a variable
persistence storage
JuIy/Aug.-2009, 10
CRT. Explain its operation.

Marks