1.

Internetwork
a. Collection of individual networks
i. Connected by intermediate networking devices
b. Functions as a single large network
c. Internetworking refers to the industry, products and
procedures that meet the challenge of creating and
administrating internetworks.
d. Different network technologies can be connected to
create an internetwork.

2.

3.

History of Internetworking
a. 1st networks; time sharing using mainframes and attached terminals.
Implemented by IBMs SNA and Digitals network architecture.
b. LANs evolved around the PC revolution . LANs enabled users in a small
geographical (Office environment) to exchange files, messages and
access shared resources like servers and printers
c. WANs interconnect LANs geographically dispersed users to create
connections.
d. Internetworking evolved to solve problems Isolated LANs, prevent
duplication of resources and the lack of network management.
Internetworking challenges
a. Connectivity, reliability, network management and flexibility.
i. Keys to establishing an efficient and effective internetwork

b.

4.

5.

Configuration, security and performance

i. Its just as important to secure internal network attacks as
external attacks
Open System interconnection Reference Model
a. OSI describes how info from software application moves thru an
network medium to a software application in a another computer
b. OSI a conceptual model consisting of 7 layers
1. Layer 7 Application
All
2. Layer 6 Presentation
People
3. Layer 5 Session
Seem
4. Layer 4 Transport
To
5. Layer 3 Network
Need
6. Layer 3 Data link
Data
7. Layer 1 Physical
Processing
c. Model developed by International Organization of Standardization (ISO)
i. OSI established by ISO in 1984
ii. Now considered primary architecture for intercomputer
communications
Characteristics of the OSI Layers
a. Divided into 2 categories upper and lower layers
i. Upper layer deals with Application

1. Closest to user
ii. Lower layer handle transport of data and issues
relating

6. Protocols
a. Providing conceptual framework for communication
between computers. OSI is not a method of

communication. Communication is done with Protocols.

i. Protocol implements the function of one or more
OSI layers

b. Variety of Protocols exist

i. Lan
1. Lan protocols operate at the physical and
data link layers
2. Define communication over the various Lan
media
ii. Wan
1. Wan protocols operate at the lowest three
layers
a. Network, Data link, Physical
2. Wan protocols define communication over
various wide-area media
iii. Routing
1. Routing protocols are network layer protocols,
responsible for exchanging information
between routers for proper path selection for
network traffic
iv. Network
1. Network protocols are the various upper
layes that exist in a given protocol suite
v. Many protocols rely on others for operation
7. OSI Model and communication Between Systems
a. Information being transferred from a software application in one computer system to a
software application in another must pass through the OSI layers. For example, if a software
application in System A has information to transmit to a software application in System B, the
application program in System A will pass its information to the application layer (Layer 7) of
System A. The application layer then passes the information to the presentation layer (Layer
6), which relays the data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on down to the physical layer
(Layer 1). At the physical layer, the information is placed on the physical network medium and
is sent across the medium to System B. The physical layer of System B removes the
information from the physical medium, and then its physical layer passes the information up to
the data link layer (Layer 2), which passes it to the network layer (Layer 3), and so on, until it
reaches the application layer (Layer 7) of System B. Finally, the application layer of System B

passes the information to the recipient application program to complete the communication
process.

8. Interaction Between OSI Model Layers

a.

A given layer in the OSI model generally communicates with three other OSI layers: the layer
directly above it, the layer directly below it, and its peer layer in other networked computer
systems. The data link layer in System A, for example, communicates with the network layer
of System A, the physical layer of System A, and the data link layer in System B.

b.

9. OSI Layer Services

Figure: Service Users, Providers, and SAPs Interact at the Network and Data Link Layers

a.

10.

OSI model Layers and Information Exchange

a. 7 OSI Layers use various forms of control information to

communicate with their peer layers in other computers.
i. This control information consists of specific
requests and instructions that are exchanged
between peer OSI layers.
b. Control Information typically takes one of two forms
i. Headers prepended to data that has been passed
down from upper layers
ii. Trailers - - appended to data that has been passed
down from upper layers.
iii.

11.

OSI Model Physical Layer

a. Physical Layer defines electrical, mechanical,
procedural and functional specifications for activating,
maintaining and deactivating the physical link between
communicating network systems.
b. Physical Layer specifications define characteristics such
as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical
data rates, maximum transmission distances and
physical connectors.
c. Physical layer can be categorized as either LAN or WAN
specifications.

d.

12.
a.

b.
c.

d.

OSI Model Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides reliable transit of data
across a physical network link
i. Different data link layer specifications define
different network and protocol characteristics,
including physical addressing, network topology,
error notification, sequencing of frames and flow
control.
Physical addressing defines how devices are
addressed at the data link layer.
Network topology consists of data link layer
specifications that often define how devices are to be
physically connected
Error notification alerts upper- layer protocols that a
transmission error has occurred, and the sequencing of
data frames recorders frames that are transmitted out
of sequence.

e. Flow control moderates the transmission of data so

that the receiving device is not overwhelmed with more
traffic than it can handle at one time
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has subdivided the data link
layer into two
1. sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).

2.

Figure: The Data Link Layer Contains Two Sublayers

3.
a. The Logical Link control
i. Sublayer of the data link layer manages
communications between devices over a single
link of a network.
ii. LLC is defined in the IEEE 802.2 specifications and
supports both connectionless and connectionoriented services used by higher higher-layer
protocols.
b. IEEE 802.2 defines a number of fields In data link layer
frames that enable multiple higher layer protocols to
share a single physical data link.
c. Media Access Control MAC sublayer of the data link
layer manages
i. protocol access to the physical network medium
d. IEEE MAC specification defines MAC addresses, which
enable multiple devices to uniquely identify one
another at the data link layer.
4. OSI Model Network Layer
a. The network Layer defines the network address, which
differs from the MAC address. Some network layer
implementations, such as the Internet Protocol (IP),

define network addresses in a way tha t route selection

can be determined systematically by comparing the
source network address with the destination network
address and applying the subnet mask. Because this
layer defines the logical network layout, routers can use
this layer to determine how to forward packets.
Because of this, much of the design and configuration
work for internetworks happen at Layer 3, the Network
Layer.
5. OSI Model Transport Layer
a. The transport Layer accepts data from the session layer
and segments the data for transport across the
network. Generally, the transport layer is responsible
for making sure the data is delivered error-free and in
the proper sequence. Flow control generally occurs at
the transport layer.
b. Flow control manages data transmission between
devices so that the transmitting device does not send
more data than receiving device can proess.
Multiplexing enables data from several applications to
be transmitted onto a single physical link. Virtual
circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by
the transport layer. Error checking involves creating
various mechanisms for detecting transmission errors,
while error recovery involves acting, such as requesting
that data be retransmitted, to resolve any errors that
occur.
c. The transport protocols used on the Internet are TCP
and UDP
6. OSI Model Session Layer
a.