P A R T

Market Structures

his part focuses on different

types of markets, each defined
by a set of characteristics that determine corresponding demand and
supply conditions. Chapter 8 describes
a highly competitive market consisting of an extremely large number
of competing firms, and Chapter 9
explains the theory for a market
with only a single seller. Between
these extremes, Chapter 10 discusses
two markets that have some characteristics of both competition and
monopoly. The part concludes by
developing labor market theory in
Chapter 11.

CHAPTER
Perfect Competition

strich farmers in Iowa, Texas,

Oklahoma, and other states
in the Midwest stuck their necks
out. Many invested millions of
dollars converting a portion of
their farms into breeding grounds
for ostriches. The reason was that
mating pairs of ostriches were selling for $75,000. During the late
1980s, ostrich breeders dubbed
ostrich meat the low-cholesterol
health treat of the 1990s, and
ostrich prices rose. The high prices
for ostriches fueled profit expectations, and many cattle ranchers
deserted their cattle and went into
the ostrich business.
Adam Smith concluded that
competitive forces are like an
invisible hand that leads people
who simply pursue their own
interests and, in the process, serve
the interests of society. In a competitive market, when the profit
potential in the ostrich business
looked good, firms entered this
market and started raising

ostriches. Over time more and

more ostrich farmers flocked to
this market, and the ostrich population exploded. As a result, prices
and profits tumbled, and the
number of ostrich farms declined
in the late 1990s. In 2001, demand
increased unexpectedly because
with the mad cow disease plaguing Europe, people bought alternatives to beef. Profits rose again,
causing farmers to increase supply
by investing in more ostriches.

This chapter combines the

demand, cost of production, and
marginal analysis concepts from
previous chapters to explain how
competitive markets determine
prices, output, and profits. Here
firms are small, like an ostrich
ranch or an alligator farm, rather
than huge, like Sears, ExxonMobil,
or IBM. Other types of markets in
which large and powerful firms
operate are discussed in the next
two chapters.

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

173

In this chapter, you will learn to solve these

economics puzzles:

Why is the demand curve horizontal for a firm in a perfectly competitive market?

Why would a firm stay in business while losing money?

In the long run, can alligator farms earn an economic profit?

Perfect Competition
Firms sell goods and services under different market conditions, which economists call market structures. A market structure describes the key traits of
a market, including the number of firms, the similarity of the products they
sell, and the ease of entry into and exit from the market. Examination of the
business sector of our economy reveals firms operating in different market
structures. In this chapter and the two chapters that follow, we will study
four market structures. The first is perfect competition, to which this entire
chapter is devoted. Perfect, or pure, competition is a market structure characterized by (1) a large number of small firms, (2) a homogeneous product,
and (3) very easy entry into or exit from the market. Lets discuss each of
these characteristics.

Characteristics of Perfect Competition

Large Number of Small Firms. How many sellers is a large number? And
how small is a small firm? Certainly, one, two, or three firms in a market
would not be a large number. In fact, the exact number cannot be stated.
This condition is fulfilled when each firm in a market has no significant
share of total output and, therefore, no ability to affect the products price.
Each firm acts independently, rather than coordinating decisions collectively. For example, there are thousands of independent egg farmers in the
United States. If any single egg farmer raises the price, the going market
price for eggs is unaffected.
Conclusion The large-number-of-sellers condition is met when each
firm is so small relative to the total market that no single firm can
influence the market price.
Homogeneous Product. In a perfectly competitive market, all firms produce a standardized or homogeneous product. This means the good or service of each firm is identical. Farmer Browns wheat is identical to Farmer
Joness wheat. Buyers may believe the transportation services of one independent trucker are about the same as anothers services. This assumption
rules out rivalry among firms in advertising and quality differences.
Conclusion If a product is homogeneous, buyers are indifferent as to
which sellers product they buy.

Market structure
A classification system for the key
traits of a market, including the
number of firms, the similarity
of the products they sell, and the
ease of entry into and exit from
the market.

Perfect competition
A market structure characterized
by (1) a large number of small
firms, (2) a homogenous product,
and (3) very easy entry into or exit
from the market. Perfect competition is also referred to as pure
competition.

174

Part 3 / Market Structures

Very Easy Entry and Exit. Very easy entry into a market means that a
new firm faces no barriers to entry. Barriers can be financial, technical, or
government-imposed barriers, such as licenses, permits, and patents. Anyone who wants to try his or her hand at raising ostriches needs only a plot
of land and feed.
Conclusion Perfect competition requires that resources be completely
mobile to freely enter or exit a market.
No real-world market exactly fits the three assumptions of perfect competition. The perfectly competitive market structure is a theoretical or ideal
model, but some actual markets do approximate the model fairly closely.
Examples include farm products markets, the stock market, and the foreign
exchange market.

The Perfectly Competitive Firm as a Price Taker

Price taker
A seller that has no control over
the price of the product it sells.

Auctions are often considered to be competitive

markets. Auctions over the
Internet are now quite common.
For example, visit eBay (http://
pages.ebay.com/) and click on
Live Auctions. To see another live
Internet auction, visit ON-SALE
Interactive Marketplace, a live
Internet auction house offering
computers and electronics (http://
www.onsale.com/). For more
about how auctions work, visit the
Auction Marketing Institute (AMI),
a nonprofit professional educational organization (http://www
.auctionmarketing.org/).

For model-building purposes, suppose a firm operates in a market that conforms to all three of the requirements for perfect competition. This means
that the perfectly competitive firm is a price taker. A price taker is a seller
that has no control over the price of the product it sells. From the individual
firms perspective, the price of its products is determined by market supply
and demand conditions over which the firm has no influence. Look again at
the characteristics of a perfectly competitive firm: a small firm that is one
among many firms, sells a homogeneous product, and is exposed to competition from new firms entering the market. These conditions make it impossible for the perfectly competitive firm to have the market power to affect the
market price. Instead, the firm must adjust to or take the market price.
Exhibit 1 is a graphical presentation of the relationship between the market supply and demand for electronic components and the demand curve facing a firm in a perfectly competitive market. Here we will assume that the
electronic components industry is perfectly competitive, keeping in mind that
the real-world market does not exactly fit the model. Exhibit 1(a) shows
market supply and demand curves for the quantity of output per hour. The
theoretical framework for this model was explained in Chapter 4. The equilibrium price is $70 per unit, and the equilibrium quantity is 60,000 units
per hour.
Because the perfectly competitive firm takes the equilibrium price, the
individual firms demand curve in Exhibit 1(b) is perfectly elastic (horizontal) at the $70 market equilibrium price. (Note the difference between the
firms units per hour and the industrys thousands of units per hour.) Recall
from Chapter 5 that when a firm facing a perfectly elastic demand curve
tries to raise its price one penny higher than $70, no buyer will purchase its
product [Exhibit 2(a) in Chapter 5.] The reason is that many other firms are
selling the same product at $70 per unit. Hence, the perfectly competitive
firm will not set the price above the prevailing market price and risk selling
zero output. Nor will the firm set the price below the market price because
the firm can sell all it wants to at the going price; therefore, a lower price
would reduce the firms revenue.

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 1

The Market Price and Demand for the Perfectly Competitive Firm
(b) Individual firm demand

(a) Market supply and demand

120

Market
supply

80
70

60

Market
demand

40

100
Price per unit
(dollars)

Price per unit

(dollars)

120

100

80
70

Demand

60
40

20

175

20

20

40

60

80

100

120

Quantity of output
(thousands of units per hour)

10

12

Quantity of output
(units per hour)

In part (a), the market equilibrium price is $70 per unit. The perfectly competitive firm in part (b) is a
price taker because it is so small relative to the market. At $70, the individual firm faces a horizontal
demand curve, D. This means that the firms demand curve is perfectly elastic. If the firm raises its price
even one penny, it will sell zero output.

Short-Run Profit Maximization for

a Perfectly Competitive Firm
Since the perfectly competitive firm has no control over price, what does the
firm control? The firm makes only one decisionwhat quantity of output
to produce that maximizes profit. In this section, we develop two profit
maximization methods that determine the output level for a competitive
firm. We begin by examining the total revenuetotal cost approach for finding the profit-maximizing level of output. Next, we use marginal analysis to
show another method for determining the profit-maximizing level of output. The framework for our analysis is the short run with some fixed input,
such as factory size.

The Total RevenueTotal Cost Method

Exhibit 2 provides hypothetical data on output, total revenue, total cost,
and profit for our typical electronic components producerComputech.
Using Computech as our example allows us to extend the data and analysis

176

Part 3 / Market Structures

EXHIBIT 2 Short-Run Profit Maximization Schedule for

Computech as a Perfectly Competitive Firm
(1)
Output
(units per
hour)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Total
revenue

Total
cost

Profit
[(2)
(3)]

$ 0

$100

$100

70

150

80

2
3

140
210

184
208

44

(5)
Marginal
cost
[(3)/(1)]

(6)
Marginal
revenue
[(2)/(1)]

$ 50
$70
34
70
24

70
19

280

227

53

70
23

350

250

100

70
30

420

280

140

70
38

490

318

172

70
48

560

366

194

70
59

630

425

205

70
75

10

700

500

200

70
95

11

770

595

175

70
117

12

840

712

128

70

presented in previous chapters. The total cost figures in column 3 are taken
from Exhibit 3 in Chapter 7. Total fixed cost at zero output is $100.
Total revenue is reported in column 2 of Exhibit 2 and is computed as
the product price times the quantity. In this case, we assume the market
equilibrium price is $70 per unit, as determined in Exhibit 1. Because Computech is a price taker, the total revenue from selling 1 unit is $70, from selling 2 units is $140, and so on. Subtracting total cost in column 3 from total
revenue in column 2 gives the total profit or loss (column 4) that the firm
earns at each level of output. From zero to 2 units, the firm incurs losses,
and then a break-even point (zero economic profit) occurs at about 3 units
per hour. If the firm produces 9 units per hour, it earns the maximum profit
of $205 per hour. As output expands, between 9 and 12 units of output, the
firms profit diminishes. Exhibit 3 illustrates graphically that the maximum
profit occurs where the vertical distance between the total revenue and the
total cost curves is at a maximum.

The Marginal Revenue Equals Marginal Cost Method

A second approach uses marginal analysis to determine the profit-maximizing
level of output by comparing marginal revenue (marginal benefit) and marginal cost. Column 5 of Exhibit 2 gives marginal cost data calculated in

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 3

177

Short-Run Profit Maximization Using the Total

RevenueTotal Cost Method
(a) Total revenue and total cost
800
Total
revenue

700

Total
cost

600
Total
500
revenue
and
400
total
cost
(dollars) 300

Maximum
profit = $205

200
Maximum
profit output

100
Loss
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of output
(units per hour)
(b) Profit

200
150
100
Profit
(dollars)

Profit =
$205

50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
50

Maximum
profit output

100
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

This exhibit shows the profitmaximizing level of output

chosen by a perfectly competitive firm, Computech. Part
(a) shows the relationships
among total revenue, total
cost, and output, given a
market price of $70 per unit.
The maximum profit is
earned by producing 9 units
per hour. At this level of
output, the vertical distance
between the total revenue
and the total cost curves is
the greatest.
Profit maximization is
also shown in part (b). The
maximum profit of $205
per hour corresponds to the
profit-maximizing output of
9 units per hour, represented
in part (a).

178

Marginal revenue (MR)

The change in total revenue from
the sale of one additional unit
of output.

Part 3 / Market Structures

column 5 of Exhibit 3 in Chapter 7. Recall that marginal cost is the change in

total cost as the output level changes one unit. As in Exhibit 3 in Chapter 7,
these marginal cost data are listed between the quantity of output line entries.
Now we introduce marginal revenue (MR), a concept similar to marginal cost. Marginal revenue is the change in total revenue from the sale
of one additional unit of output. Stated another way, marginal revenue is
the ratio of the change in total revenue to a one-unit change in output.
Mathematically,
MR 

change in total revenue

one-unit change in output

As shown in Exhibit 1(b), the perfectly competitive firm faces a perfectly

elastic demand curve. Because the competitive firm is a price taker, the sale
of each additional unit adds to total revenue an amount equal to the price
(average revenue, TR/Q). In our example, Computech adds $70 to its total
revenue each time it sells one unit. Therefore, $70 is the marginal revenue
for each additional unit of output in column 6 of Exhibit 2.
Conclusion In perfect competition, the firms marginal revenue equals
the price that the firm views as a horizontal demand curve.
Columns 2 and 3 in Exhibit 2 show that both total revenue and total
cost rise as the level of output increases. Now compare marginal cost and
marginal revenue in columns 5 and 6. As explained, marginal revenue
remains equal to the price, but marginal cost follows the J-shaped pattern
introduced in Exhibit 3 in Chapter 7. At first, marginal cost is below marginal revenue, and this means that producing each additional unit adds less
to total cost than to total revenue. Economic profit therefore increases as
output expands from zero until the output level reaches 9 units per hour.
Over this output range, Computech moves from a $100 loss to a $205
profit per hour. Beyond an output level of 9 units per hour, marginal cost
exceeds marginal revenue, and profit falls. This is because each additional
unit of output raises total cost by more than it raises total revenue. In this
case, profit falls from $205 to only $128 per hour as output increases from
9 to 12 units per hour.
Our example leads to this question: How does the firm use its marginal
revenue and marginal cost curves to determine the profit-maximizing level of
output? The answer is that the firm follows a guideline called the MR  MC
rule: The firm maximizes profit by producing the output where marginal
revenue equals marginal cost. Exhibit 4 relates the marginal revenue curve
equals marginal cost curve condition to profit maximization. In Exhibit 4(a),
the perfectly elastic demand is drawn at the industry-determined price of
$70. The average total cost (ATC) curve is traced from data given earlier in
column 8 of Exhibit 3 in Chapter 7. Note that Exhibit 4(a) reproduces
Exhibit 4(b) in Chapter 7, except for the omission of the AFC curve.

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 4

179

Short-Run Profit Maximization Using the Marginal

Revenue Equals Marginal Cost Method
(a) Price, marginal revenue, and cost per unit

120

MC

100
Price and 80
cost per
70
unit
(dollars) 60

MR = MC
MR
Profit
= $205

ATC
AVC

40
20

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of output
(units per hour)
(b) Profit

200
150
100
Profit
(dollars)
50

Profit
= $205

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
50
100
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

In addition to comparing
total revenue and total cost,
a firm can find the profitmaximizing level of output
by comparing marginal revenue and marginal cost. As
shown in part (a), profit is
at a maximum where marginal revenue equals marginal
cost at $70 per unit. The
intersection of the marginal
revenue and the marginal cost
curves establishes the profitmaximizing output at 9 units
per hour.
A profit curve is depicted
separately in part (b) to
show that the maximum
profit occurs when the firm
produces at the level of output corresponding to the
marginal revenue equals
marginal cost point.

180

Part 3 / Market Structures

Using marginal analysis, we can relate the MR  MC rule to the same

profit curve given in Exhibit 3(b), which is reproduced in Exhibit 4(b).
Between 8 and 9 units of output, the MC curve is below the MR curve
($59  $70), and the profit curve rises to its peak. Beyond 9 units of output, the MC curve is above the MR curve, and the profit curve falls. For
example, between 9 and 10 units of output, marginal cost is $75, and marginal revenue is $70. Therefore, if the firm produces at 9 units of output
rather than, say, 8 or 10 units of output, the MR curve equals the MC
curve, and profit is maximized.
You can also calculate profit directly from Exhibit 4(a). At the profitmaximizing level of output of 9 units, the vertical distance between the
demand curve and the ATC curve is the average profit per unit. Multiplying
the average profit per unit times the quantity of output gives the profit
[($70
$47.22)  9  $205.22].1 The shaded rectangle also represents the
maximum profit of $205 per hour. Note that we have arrived at the same
profit maximization amount ($205) derived by comparing the total revenue
and the total cost curves.

Short-Run Loss Minimization for

a Perfectly Competitive Firm
Because the perfectly competitive firm must take the price determined by
market supply and demand forces, market conditions can change the prevailing price. When the market price drops, the firm can do nothing but
adjust its output to make the best of the situation. Here only the marginal
approach is used to predict output decisions of firms. Our model therefore
assumes that business managers make their output decisions by comparing
the marginal effect on profit of a marginal change in output.

A Perfectly Competitive Firm Facing a Short-Run Loss

Suppose a decrease in the market demand for electronic components causes
the market price to fall to $35. As a result, the firms horizontal demand
curve shifts downward to the new position shown in Exhibit 5(a). In this
case, there is no level of output at which the firm earns a profit because any
price along the demand curve is below the ATC curve.
Since Computech cannot make a profit, what output level should it
choose? The logic of the MR  MC rule given in the profit maximization
case applies here as well. At a price of $35, MR  MC at 6 units per hour.
Comparing parts (a) and (b) of Exhibit 5 shows that the firms loss will be
minimized at this level of output. The minimum loss of $70 per hour is
equal to the shaded area, which is the average loss per unit times the quantity of output [($35
$46.66)  6 
$70].
1In Exhibit 3 in Chapter 7, the average total cost figure at 9 units of output was rounded to
$47. It also should be noted that there is often no level of output for which marginal revenue
exactly equals marginal cost when dealing with whole units of output.

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 5

181

Short-Run Loss Minimization

(a) Price, marginal revenue, and cost per unit

120

MC
100
Price and 80
cost per
unit
(dollars) 60
50

Loss
= $70

ATC
AVC

35
20

MR
MR = MC
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of output
(units per hour)
(b) Loss

Minimum loss output

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
50
Loss
100
(dollars)

Loss = $70

150
200
250
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

Note that although the price is not high enough to pay the average total
cost, the price is high enough to pay the average variable cost. Each unit sold
also contributes to paying a portion of the average fixed cost, which is the
vertical distance between the ATC and the AVC curves. This analysis leads us
to extend the MR  MC rule: The firm maximizes profit or minimizes loss
by producing the output where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.

If the market price is less

than the average total cost,
the firm will produce a level
of output that keeps its loss
to a minimum. In part (a),
the given price is $35 per
unit, and marginal revenue
equals marginal cost at an
output of 6 units per hour.
Part (b) shows that the
firms loss will be greater at
any output other than where
the marginal revenue and the
marginal cost curves intersect. Because the price is
above the average variable
cost, each unit of output sold
pays for the average variable
cost and a portion of the
average fixed cost.

182

Part 3 / Market Structures

C
CH
H EE C
CK
KP
PO
O II N
NT
T

Should Motels Offer Rooms at the

Beach for Only $50 a Night?
Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, with its famous Grand Strand and Calabash
seafood, is lined with virtually identical motels. Summertime rates run about
$200 a night. During the winter, one can find rooms for as little as $50 a night.
Assume the average fixed cost of a room per night, including insurance, taxes,
and depreciation, is $50. The average guest-related cost for a room each night,
including cleaning service and linens, is $45. Would these motels be better off
renting rooms for $50 in the off-season or shutting down until summer?

A Perfectly Competitive Firm Shutting Down

What happens if the market price drops below the AVC curve, as shown in
Exhibit 6? For example, if the price is $25 per unit, should Computech produce some level of output? The answer is no. The best course of action is
for the firm to shut down. If the price is below the minimum point on the
AVC curve, each unit produced would not cover the variable cost per unit,
and, therefore, operating would increase losses. The firm is better off shutting down and producing zero output. While shut down, the firm might
keep its factory, pay fixed costs, and hope for higher prices soon. If the firm
does not believe market conditions will improve, it will avoid fixed costs by
going out of business.

Short-Run Supply Curves Under

Perfect Competition
The preceding examples provide a framework for a more complete explanation of the supply curve than was given earlier in Chapter 3. We now
develop the short-run supply curve for an individual firm and then derive it
for an industry.

The Perfectly Competitive Firms

Short-Run Supply Curve
Exhibit 7 reproduces the cost curves from our Computech example. Also
represented in the exhibit are three possible demand curves the firm might
faceMR1, MR2, and MR3. As the marginal revenue curve moves upward
along the marginal cost curve, the MR  MC point changes.
Suppose demand for electronic components begins at a market price
close to $30. Point A therefore corresponds to a price equal to MR1, which
equals MC at the lowest point on the AVC curve. At any lower price, the
firm cuts its loss by shutting down. At a price of about $30, however, the
firm produces 5.5 units per hour. Point A is therefore the lowest point on
the individual firms short-run supply curve.

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 6

183

The Short-Run Shutdown Point

120

MC

110
100
90
Price and 80
cost per
70
unit
(dollars) 60

ATC
Shutdown
point

50

AVC

40

The shutdown point of $30

per unit is the minimum
point on the average variable
cost curve. If the price falls
below this price, the firm
shuts down. The reason is
that operating losses are now
greater than the total fixed
cost. In this exhibit, the price
of $25 per unit (MR) is
below the average variable
cost curve at any level of output, so the firm would shut
down at this price.

MR

25
10
0

10 11 12

Quantity of output
(units per hour)
CAUSATION CHAIN

Price (MR ) is below

minimum average
variable cost

Firm will
shut down

If the price rises to $45, represented in the exhibit by MR2, the firm
breaks even and earns a normal profit at point B with an output of 7 units
per hour. As the marginal revenue curve rises, the firms supply curve is
traced by moving upward along its MC curve. At a price of $90, point C is
reached. Now MR3 intersects the MC curve at an output of 10 units per
hour, and the firm earns an economic profit. If the price rises higher than
$90, the firm will continue to increase the quantity supplied and increase its
maximum profit.
We can now define a perfectly competitive firms short-run supply curve.
The perfectly competitive firms short-run supply curve is its marginal cost
curve above the minimum point on its average variable cost curve.

Perfectly competitive
firms short-run supply
curve
The firms marginal cost curve
above the minimum point on its
average variable cost curve.

Part 3 / Market Structures

184

EXHIBIT 7

The Firms Short-Run Supply Curve

The exhibit shows how the

short-run supply curve for
Computech is derived. When
the price is $30, the firm will
produce 5.5 units per hour
at point A. If the price rises
to $45, the firm will move
upward along its marginal
cost curve to point B and
produce 7 units per hour. At
$90, the firm continues to set
price equal to marginal cost,
and it produces 10 units per
hour. Thus, the firms shortrun supply curve is the marginal cost curve above its
average variable cost curve.

MC

120
110

Supply curve

100

90
Price and
80
cost per
70
unit
(dollars 60
per day)

MR 3

ATC
AVC
MR 2

45

A
30

MR1

20
10
0

5.5

9 10 11 12

Quantity of output
(units per hour)

The Perfectly Competitive Industrys

Short-Run Supply Curve
Perfectly competitive
industrys short-run
supply curve
The supply curve derived from
the horizontal summation of all
firms marginal cost curves in
the industry above the minimum
point of each firms average
variable cost curve.

Understanding that the firms short-run supply curve is the segment of its
MC curve above its AVC curve sets the stage for derivation of the perfectly
competitive industrys short-run supply curve. The perfectly competitive
industrys short-run supply curve is the horizontal summation of the marginal cost curves of all firms in the industry above the minimum point of
each firms average variable cost curve.
In Exhibit 7 in Chapter 3, we drew a market supply curve. Now we will
reconstruct this market, or industry, supply curve using more precision.
Although in perfect competition there are many firms, we suppose for simplicity that the industry has only two firms, Computech and Western Computer Co. Exhibit 8 illustrates the MC curves for these two firms. Each
firms MC curve is drawn for prices above the minimum point on the AVC
curve. At a price of $40, the quantity supplied by Computech is 7 units, and
the quantity supplied by Western Computer Co. is 11 units. Now we horizontally add these two quantities and obtain one point on the industry supply curve corresponding to a price of $40 and 18 units. Following this procedure for all prices, we generate the short-run industry supply curve.
Note that the industry supply curve derived above is based on the
assumption that input prices remain unchanged as output expands. In the
next section, we will learn how changes in input prices affect derivation of
the supply curve.

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 8

Deriving the Industry Short-Run Supply Curve

Computech MC curve

Western Computer Co.

MC curve

MC
Price
and
marginal
cost per
unit
(dollars)

185

Industry supply curve

S = MC

MC

90

90

90

40

40

40

7
11
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

11
15
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

18
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

26

Assuming input prices remain constant as output expands, the short-run supply curve for an industry is
derived by the horizontal summation of the quantities supplied at each price by all firms in the industry.
In this exhibit, we assume there are only two firms in an industry. At $40, Computech supplies 7 units of
output, and Western Computer Co. supplies 11 units. The quantity supplied by the industry is therefore
18 units. Other points forming the industry short-run supply curve are obtained similarly.

Short-Run Equilibrium for a Perfectly Competitive Firm

Exhibit 9 illustrates a condition of short-run equilibrium under perfect competition. Exhibit 9(a) represents the equilibrium price and cost situation for
one of the many firms in an industry. As shown in the exhibit, the firm earns
an economic profit in the short run by producing 9 units. Exhibit 9(b) depicts
short-run equilibrium for the industry. As explained earlier, the industry
supply curve is the aggregate of each firms MC curve above the minimum
point on the AVC curve. Including industry demand establishes the equilibrium price of $60 that all firms in the industry must take. The industrys
equilibrium quantity supplied is 60,000 units. This state of short-run equilibrium will remain until some factor changes and causes a new equilibrium
condition in the industry.

Long-Run Supply Curves Under

Perfect Competition
Recall from Chapter 7 that all inputs are variable in the long run. Existing
firms in an industry can react to profit opportunities by building larger or
smaller plants, buying or selling land and equipment, or varying other
inputs that are fixed in the short run. Profits also attract new firms to an
industry, while losses cause some existing firms to leave the industry. As you
will now see, the free entry and exit characteristic of perfect competition is
a crucial determinant of the shape of the long-run supply curve.

Part 3 / Market Structures

186

EXHIBIT 9

Short-Run Perfectly Competitive Equilibrium

120
110
100

(b) Industry

90
80
70
60
50
40
30

E
Profit

MR
ATC
AVC

110
100
90
80
70

60
50
40
30
20

20
10
0

S = MC

120

MC
Price and cost per unit
(dollars)

Price and cost per unit

(dollars)

(a) Individual firm

10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

20

40

60

80

100

120

Quantity of output
(thousands of units per hour)

Short-run equilibrium occurs at point E. The intersection of the industry supply and demand curves
shown in part (b) determines the price of $60 facing the firm shown in part (a). Given this equilibrium
price, the firm represented in part (a) establishes its profit-maximizing output at 9 units per hour and
earns an economic profit shown by the shaded area. Note in part (b) that the short-run industry supply
curve is the horizontal summation of the marginal cost curves of all individual firms above their minimum average variable cost points.

Long-Run Equilibrium for a Perfectly Competitive Firm

As discussed in Chapter 7, in the long run a firm can change its plant size or
any input used to produce a product. This means that an established firm
can decide to leave an industry if it earns below normal profits (negative
economic profits) and that new firms may enter an industry in which earnings of established firms exceed normal profits (positive economic profits).
This process of entry and exit of firms is the key to long-run equilibrium. If
there are economic profits, new firms enter the industry and shift the shortrun supply curve to the right. This increase in short-run supply causes the
price to fall until economic profits reach zero in the long run. On the other
hand, if there are economic losses in an industry, existing firms leave, causing the short-run supply curve to shift to the left, and the price rises. This
adjustment continues until economic losses are eliminated and economic
profits equal zero in the long run.
Exhibit 10 shows a typical firm in long-run equilibrium. Supply and
demand for the market as a whole set the equilibrium price. Thus, in the long
run, the firm faces an equilibrium price of $60. Following the MR  MC

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 10

187

Long-Run Perfectly Competitive Equilibrium

130
120
110
100
Price and 90
cost per 80
unit
70
(dollars)
60
50

SRMC
SRATC
LRAC
E

MR

40
30
20
10
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of output
(units per hour)
CAUSATION CHAIN

Entry and
exit of
firms

Zero long-run
economic
profit

Long-run
equilibrium

rule, the firm produces an equilibrium output of 6 units per hour. At this
output level, the firm earns a normal profit (zero economic profit) because
marginal revenue (price) equals the minimum point on both the short-run
average total cost (SRATC) curve and the long-run average cost (LRAC)
curve. Given the U-shaped LRAC curve, the firm is producing with the optimal factory size.
With SRMC representing short-run marginal cost, the conditions for longrun perfectly competitive equilibrium can also be expressed as an equality:
P  MR  SRMC  SRATC  LRAC
As long as none of the variables in the above formula changes, there is no reason for a perfectly competitive firm to change its output level, factory size, or
any aspect of its operation. Everything is just right! Because the typical firm is
in a state of equilibrium, the industry is also at rest. Under long-run equilibrium conditions, there are neither positive economic profits to attract new
firms to enter the industry nor negative economic profits to force existing
firms to leave. In long-run equilibrium, maximum efficiency is achieved. The

Long-run equilibrium occurs

at point E. In the long run,
the firm earns a normal
profit. The firm operates
where the price equals the
minimum point on its longrun average cost curve. At
this point, the short-run marginal cost curve intersects
both the short-run average
total cost curve and the longrun average cost curve at
their minimum points.

188

Part 3 / Market Structures

C
CH
H EE C
CK
KP
PO
O II N
NT
T

Are You in Business for the Long Run?

You are considering building a Rent Your Own Storage Center. You are trying to
decide whether to build 50 storage units at a total economic cost of $200,000,
100 storage units at a total economic cost of $300,000, or 200 storage units at
a total economic cost of $700,000. If you wish to survive in the long run, which
size will you choose?

adjustment process of firms moving into or out of the industry is complete,

and the firms charge the lowest possible price to consumers. Next, we will
discuss how the firm and industry adjust when market demand changes.

Three Types of Long-Run Supply Curves

Perfectly competitive
industrys long-run
supply curve
The curve that shows the quantities
supplied by the industry at different equilibrium prices after firms
complete their entry and exit.

There are three possibilities for a perfectly competitive industrys long-run

supply curve. The perfectly competitive industrys long-run supply curve
shows the quantities supplied by the industry at different equilibrium prices
after firms complete their entry and exit. The shape of each of these longrun supply curves depends on the response of input prices as new firms
enter the industry. The following sections discuss each of these three cases.

Constant-Cost Industry
Constant-cost industry
An industry in which the expansion of industry output by the
entry of new firms has no effect
on the individual firms cost curve.

In a constant-cost industry, input prices remain constant as new firms enter

or exit the industry. A constant-cost industry is an industry in which the
expansion of industry output by the entry of new firms has no effect on the
firms cost curves. Exhibit 11(a) reproduces the long-run equilibrium situation from Exhibit 10.
Begin in part (b) of Exhibit 11 at the initial industry equilibrium point
E1 with short-run industry supply curve S1 and industry demand curve D1.
Now assume the industry demand curve increases from D1 to D2. As a
result, the industry equilibrium moves temporarily to E2. Correspondingly,
the equilibrium price rises from $60 to $80, and industry output increases
from 50,000 to 70,000 units.
The short-run result for the individual firm in the industry happens this
way. As shown in part (a) of Exhibit 11, the firm takes the increase in price
and adjusts its output from 6 to 7 units per hour. At the higher price and
output, the firm changes from earning a normal profit to making an economic profit because the new price is above its SRATC curve. All the other
firms in the industry make the same adjustment by moving upward along
their SRMC curves.
In perfect competition, new firms are free to enter the industry in
response to a profit opportunity, and they will do so. The addition of new
firms shifts the short-run supply curve rightward from S1 to S2. Firms will
continue to enter the industry until profit is eliminated. This occurs at equilibrium point E3, where short-run industry demand curve D2 intersects
short-run supply curve S2. Thus, the entry of new firms has restored the ini-

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 11

189

Long-Run Supply in a Constant-Cost Industry

120
110
100
90
80
70

(b) Industry

SRATC
SRMC

LRAC
MR2

E
MR1

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Price and cost per unit

(dollars)

Price and cost per unit

(dollars)

(a) Individual firm

S1

120
110
100
90
80
70

E2
E1

E3

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

S2

Long-run
supply curve

D2

D1
20

40 50 60

80 90 100

120

Quantity of output
(thousands of units per hour)

Quantity of output
(units per hour)
CAUSATION CHAIN
Increase in
demand sets
a higher
equilibrium price

Entry of new
firms
increases
supply

Initial
equilibrium
price is
restored

Perfectly
elastic longrun supply
curve

Part (b) shows an industry in equilibrium at point E1, producing 50,000 units per hour and selling them
for $60 per unit. In part (a), the firm is in equilibrium, producing 6 units per hour and earning a normal
profit. Then industry demand increases from D1 to D2, and the equilibrium price rises to $80. Industry
output rises temporarily to 70,000 units per hour and the individual firm increases output to 7 units per
hour. Firms are now earning an economic profit, which attracts new firms into the industry. In the long
run, the entry of these firms causes the short-run supply curve to shift rightward from S1 to S2, the price is
reestablished at $60, and a new industry equilibrium point, E3, is established. At E3, industry output rises
to 90,000 units per hour, and the firms output returns to 6 units per hour. Now the typical firm earns a
normal profit, and new firms stop entering the industry. Connecting point E1 to point E3 generates the
long-run supply curve.

tial equilibrium price of $60. The firm responds by moving downward

along its SRMC curve until it once again produces 6 units and earns a normal profit.
As shown in the exhibit, the path of these changes in industry short-run
equilibrium points traces a horizontal line, which is the industrys long-run
supply curve.

190

Part 3 / Market Structures

Conclusion The long-run supply curve in a perfectly competitive

constant-cost industry is perfectly elastic.
Now we reconsider Exhibit 11 and ask what happens when the demand
curve shifts leftward from D2 to D1. Beginning in part (b) at point E3, the
decrease in demand causes the price to fall temporarily below $60. As a
result, firms incur short-run losses, and some firms leave the industry. The
exodus of firms shifts the short-run supply curve leftward from S2 to S1,
establishing a new equilibrium at point E1. This decrease in supply restores
the equilibrium price to the initial price of $60 per unit. Once equilibrium is
reestablished at E1, there is a smaller number of firms, each earning a normal profit.

Decreasing-Cost Industry
Decreasing-cost industry
An industry in which the expansion of industry output by the
entry of new firms decreases the
individual firms cost curve (cost
curve shifts downward).

Input prices fall as new firms enter a decreasing-cost industry, and output
expands. A decreasing-cost industry is an industry in which the expansion
of industry output by the entry of new firms decreases each individual firms
cost curve (cost curve shifts downward). For example, as production of electronic components expands, the price of computer chips may decline. The
reason is that greater sales volume allows the suppliers to achieve economies of scale and lower their input prices to firms in the electronic component industry. Exhibit 12 illustrates the adjustment process of an increase
in demand based on the assumption that our example is a decreasing-cost
industry.
Conclusion The long-run supply curve in a perfectly competitive
decreasing-cost industry is downward sloping.

Increasing-Cost Industry
Increasing-cost industry
An industry in which the expansion of industry output by the
entry of new firms increases the
individual firms cost curve (cost
curve shifts upward).

Firms in increasing-cost
industries, such as housing construction, in the
long run encounter increased costs
as output expands. To learn more
about the economics of housing
construction, visit the National
Association of Home Builders
(NAHB) (http://www.nahb.com/).

In an increasing-cost industry, input prices rise as new firms enter the industry, and output expands. As this type of industry uses more labor and
machines, the demand for greater quantities of these inputs drives up input
prices. An increasing-cost industry is an industry in which the expansion of
industry output by the entry of new firms increases the individual firms cost
curve (cost curve shifts upward). Suppose the electronic component disc
business uses a significant proportion of all electrical engineers in the country. In this case, electrical engineering salaries will rise as firms hire more
electrical engineers to expand industry output. In practice, most industries
are increasing-cost industries, and, therefore, the long-run supply curve is
upward sloping.
Exhibit 13 shows what happens in an increasing-cost industry when an
increase in demand causes output to expand. In part (b), the industry is initially in equilibrium at point E1. As in the previous case, the demand curve
shifts rightward from D1 to D2, establishing a new short-run equilibrium at
E2. This movement upward along short-run industry supply curve S1 raises
the price in the short run from $60 to $80, resulting in profit for the typical
firm. Once again, new firms enter the industry, and the short-run supply
curve shifts rightward from S1 to S2. Part (a) of Exhibit 13 shows that the

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

EXHIBIT 12

191

Long-Run Supply in a Decreasing-Cost Industry

120
110
100

(b) Industry

SRATC2

90
80

MR2

70

MR1
MR3

60
50
40
30

S2

110
100

20
10
0

S1

120

SRATC1
Price and cost per unit
(dollars)

Price and cost per unit

(dollars)

(a) Individual firm

E2

90
80
70

E1

E3

60
50
40
30
20

D2

10
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Longrun
supply
curve

D1
20

40 50 60

80

100

120

Quantity of output
(thousands of units per hour)

Quantity of output
(units per hour)
CAUSATION CHAIN
Increase in
demand sets
a higher
equilibrium price

Entry of new
firms
increases
supply

Equilibrium
price and
ATC
decrease

Downwardsloping
long-run
supply curve

The long-run supply curve for a decreasing-cost industry is downward sloping. The increase in industry
demand shown in part (b) causes the price to rise to $80 in the short run. Temporarily, the individual firm
illustrated in part (a) earns an economic profit. Higher profits attract new firms, and supply increases. As
the industry expands, the average total cost curve for the firm shifts lower, and the firm reestablishes longrun equilibrium at the lower price of $50.

response of the firms SRATC curve to the industrys expansion differs from
the constant-cost industry case. In an increasing-cost industry, the firms
SRATC curve shifts upward from SRATC1 to SRATC2, corresponding to
the new short-run equilibrium at point E3. At this final equilibrium point,
the price of $70 is higher than the initial price of $60. Normal profits are reestablished because profits are squeezed from both the price fall and the rise
in the SRATC curve.
The long-run industry supply curve is drawn by connecting the two
long-run equilibrium points of E1 and E3. Equilibrium point E2 is not a
long-run equilibrium point because it is not established after the entry of
new firms has restored normal profits.

Part 3 / Market Structures

192

EXHIBIT 13

Long-Run Supply in an Increasing-Cost Industry

(a) Individual firm

(b) Industry

SRATC1

90
80

MR2
MR3

70

MR1

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Price and cost per unit

(dollars)

Price and cost per unit

(dollars)

SRATC2
120
110
100

S1

120
110
100
90
80
70

S2
Long-run
supply
curve

E2
E3
E1

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

D2
D1
20

40 50 60

80

100

120

Quantity of output
(thousands of units per hour)

Quantity of output
(units per hour)
CAUSATION CHAIN
Increase in
demand sets
a higher
equilibrium price

Entry of new
firms
increases
supply

Equilibrium
price and
ATC
increase

Upwardsloping
long-run
supply curve

This pair of graphs derives the long-run supply curve based on the assumption that input prices rise as
industry output expands. Part (b) shows that an increase in demand from D1 to D2 causes the price to
increase in the short run from $60 to $80. The individual firm represented in part (a) earns an economic
profit, and new firms enter the industry, causing an increase in industry supply from S1 to S2. As output
expands, input prices rise and push up the firms short-run average total cost curve from SRATC1, to
SRATC2. As a result, a new long-run equilibrium price is established at $70, which is above the initial
equilibrium price. The long-run supply curve for an increasing-cost industry is upward sloping.

Conclusion The long-run supply curve in a perfectly competitive

increasing-cost industry is upward sloping.
Finally, given the three models presented, you may ask which is the best
choice. The answer is that all three versions are possible for any given
industry. Only direct observation of the industry can tell which type of
industry it is.

Y
YO
OU
U R
R EE T
TH
H EE EE C
CO
ON
NO
OM
M II SS T
T

Gators Snapping Up Profits

Applicable Concepts: short-run and long-run competitive equilibrium

In the late 1980s, many farmers who were tired of milk-

ing cows, roping steers, and slopping hogs decided to try

their hands at a new animal. However, this animal could
require a gun for protection while someone feeds it.
Prior to the late 1980s, alligators were on the endangered species list. Under this protection, their numbers
grew so large that wandering alligators became pests in
Florida neighborhoods and police were exhausted chasing
them around. Consequently, the ban on hunting was
removed, and shrewd entrepreneurs began seeking big
profits by turning gators into farm animals. In fact, gator
farming became one of Floridas fastest-growing businesses.
The gators spawned several hot industries. The lizard
look came back into vogue, and the fashionable sported
gator-skin purses, shoes, and belts. Chic didnt come
cheap. In New York, gator cowboy boots sold for $1,800,
and attach cases retailed for $4,000. And you could
order gator meat at trendy restaurants all along the East
Coast. Why not gator? asked Red Lobster spokesman
Dick Monroe. Todays two-income households are looking for more variety. And they think its neat to eat an animal that can eat them.
To meet the demand, Florida doubled the number of
its licensed alligator farms compared to the previous four
years when they functioned almost entirely as tourist
attractions. In 1985, Florida farmers raised 37,000 gators;
in 1986, that figure increased by 50 percent. Revenues
soared as well. Frank Godwin, owner of Gatorland in
Orlando, netted an estimated $270,000 from the 1,000
animals he harvested annually. Improved technology was
applied to gator farming in order to boost profits even
higher. Lawler Wells, for example, owner of Hilltop Farms
in Avon Park, raised 7,000 gators in darkened hothouses
that accelerated their growth.1
Seven years later, a 1993 article in the Washington
Post continued the gator tale: During the late 1980s,
gator ranching was booming, and the industry was being
compared to a living gold mine. People rushed into the
industry. Some farmers became temporarily rich.2
In 1995, a USA Today interview with a gator hunter
provided evidence of long-run equilibrium: Armed with a
pistol barrel attached to the end of an 8-foot wooden pole,
alligator hunter Bill Chaplin fires his bankstick and dispatches a six-footer with a single round of .44 magnum
ammunition. Whats in it for him? Financially, very little.

At $3.50 a pound
for the meat and
$45 a foot for the
hide, an alligator
is worth perhaps
$100 a foot. After
paying for skinning
and processing,
neither hunter nor
landowner gets
rich.3
A 2000 article
in the Dallas Morning News provides
further evidence:
Mark Glass began
raising gators in
1995 south of Atlanta. He stated I can honestly say I
havent made any money yet, but I hope thats about to
change.4

ANALYZE

THE

ISSUE

1. Draw short-run firm and industry competitive equilibriums for a perfectly competitive gator-farming industry before the number of alligator farms in Florida
doubled. For simplicity, assume the gator farm is earning zero economic profit. Now show the short-run
effect of an increase in demand for alligators.
2. Assuming gator farming is perfectly competitive,
explain the long-run competitive equilibrium condition
for the typical gator farmer and the industry as a
whole.

1Ron Moreau and Penelope Wang, Gators: Snapping Up Profits,

Newsweek, Dec. 8, 1986, p. 68.
2William Booth, Bag a Gator and Save the Species, Washington
Post, Aug. 25, 1993, p. A1.
3J. Taylor Buckley, S. Carolina Lets Hunters Go for Gators
Again, USA Today, Sept. 21, 1995, News Section, p. A1.
4More Bite for the Buck, Dallas Morning News, Dec. 6, 2000,
p. 2A.

Part 3 / Market Structures

194

KEY CONCEPTS
Perfectly competitive industrys
long-run supply curve
Constant-cost industry
Decreasing-cost industry
Increasing-cost industry

Perfectly competitive firms

short-run supply curve
Perfectly competitive
industrys short-run
supply curve

Market structure
Perfect competition
Price taker
Marginal revenue

SUMMARY

Market structure consists of three market characteristics: (1) the number of sellers, (2) the nature of the
product, and (3) the ease of entry into or exit from
the market.

Perfect competition is a market structure in which an

individual firm cannot affect the price of the product
it produces. Each firm in the industry is very small
relative to the market as a whole, all the firms sell a
homogeneous product, and firms are free to enter
and exit the industry.

A price-taker firm in perfect competition faces a perfectly elastic demand curve. It can sell all it wishes at
the market-determined price, but it will sell nothing
above the given market price. This is because so many
competitive firms are willing to sell the same product
at the going market price.

The total revenuetotal cost method is one way the

firm determines the level of output that maximizes
profit. Profit reaches a maximum when the vertical
difference between the total revenue and the total
cost curves is at a maximum.

Total revenuetotal cost method

The marginal revenue equals marginal cost method is

a second approach to finding where a firm maximizes
profits. Marginal revenue is the change in total revenue from a one-unit change in output. Marginal
revenue for a perfectly competitive firm equals the
market price. The MR  MC rule states that the firm
maximizes profit or minimizes loss by producing the
output where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.
If the price (average revenue) is below the minimum
point on the average variable cost curve, the MR  MC
rule does not apply, and the firm shuts down to minimize its losses.

Marginal revenue equals marginal

cost method

120

MC

100
Price and 80
cost per
70
unit
(dollars) 60

MR = MC
MR
Profit
= $205

ATC
AVC

40

800
Total
revenue

700

20
Total
cost

600

Maximum
profit = $205

200
100
Loss
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

Total
500
revenue
and
400
total
cost
(dollars) 300

Maximum
profit output

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

The perfectly competitive firms short-run supply curve

is a curve showing the relationship between the price
of a product and the quantity supplied in the short
run. The individual firm always produces along its
marginal cost curve above its intersection with the
average variable cost curve. The perfectly competitive
industrys short-run supply curve is the horizontal
summation of the short-run supply curves of all firms
in the industry.

130
120
110
100
Price and 90
cost per 80
unit
70
(dollars)
60
50

MC

110

Supply curve

100

90
Price and
80
cost per
70
unit
(dollars 60
per day)

ATC

45

SRMC
SRATC
LRAC
E

MR

40
30
20
10

MR 3

AVC
MR 2

Long-run perfectly competitive equilibrium occurs

when the firm earns a normal profit by producing
where price equals minimum long-run average cost
equals minimum short-run average total cost equals
short-run marginal cost.

Long-run perfectly competitive equilibrium

Firms short-run supply curve

120

195

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Quantity of output
(units per hour)

A
30

MR1

In a constant-cost industry, total output can be

expanded without an increase in the individual firms
average total cost. Because input prices remain constant, the long-run supply curve in a constant-cost
industry is perfectly elastic.

In a decreasing-cost industry, lower input prices result

in a downward-sloping industry long-run supply
curve. As industry output expands, the individual
firms average total cost curve declines (shifts downward), and the long-run equilibrium market price falls.

In an increasing-cost industry, input prices rise as

industry output increases. As a result, the individual
firms average total cost curve rises (shifts upward),
and the industry long-run supply curve for an
increasing-cost industry is upward sloping.

20
10
0

5.5

9 10 11 12

Quantity of output
(units per hour)

SUMMARY OF CONCLUSION STATEMENTS

The large-number-of-sellers condition is met when

each firm is so small relative to the total market that
no single firm can influence the market price.

In perfect competition, the firms marginal revenue

equals the price that the firm views as a horizontal
demand curve.

If a product is homogeneous, buyers are indifferent as

to which sellers product they buy.

Perfect competition requires that resources be completely mobile to freely enter or exit a market.

In perfect competition, the firm maximizes profit or

minimizes loss by producing the output where marginal revenue equals marginal cost.

Part 3 / Market Structures

196

In perfect competition, if the price is below the minimum point on the AVC curve, each unit produced
would not cover the variable cost per unit. Therefore,
the firm shuts down.

The long-run supply curve in a perfectly competitive

decreasing-cost industry is downward sloping.

The long-run supply curve in a perfectly competitive

increasing-cost industry is upward sloping.

The long-run supply curve in a perfectly competitive

constant-cost industry is perfectly elastic.

STUDY QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. Explain why a perfectly competitive firm would or
would not advertise.
2. Does a Kansas wheat farmer fit the perfectly competitive market structure? Explain.
3. Suppose the market equilibrium price of wheat is $2
per bushel in a perfectly competitive industry. Draw
the industry supply and demand curves and the
demand curve for a single wheat farmer. Explain why
the wheat farmer is a price taker.
4. Assuming the market equilibrium price for wheat is
$5 per bushel, draw the total revenue and the marginal revenue curves for the typical wheat farmer in
the same graph. Explain how marginal revenue and
price are related to the total revenue curve.
5. Consider the following cost data for a perfectly competitive firm in the short run:

Output
(Q)

Total
fixed
cost
(TFC)

Total
variable
cost
(TVC)

Total
cost
(TC)

Total
revenue
(TR)

Profit

$100

$120

$____

$____

$____

100

200

____

____

____

100

290

____

____

____

100

430

____

____

____

100

590

____

____

____

If the market price is $150, how many units of output

will the firm produce in order to maximize profit in the
short run? Specify the amount of economic profit or
loss. At what level of output does the firm break even?
6. Consider this statement: A firm should increase output when it makes a profit. Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
7. Consider this statement: When marginal revenue
equals marginal cost, total cost equals total revenue,
and the firm makes zero profit. Do you agree or disagree? Explain.
8. Consider Exhibit 14, which shows the graph of a perfectly competitive firm in the short run.
a. If the firms demand curve is MR3, does the firm
earn an economic profit or loss?

b. Which demand curve(s) indicates the firm incurs a

loss?
c. Which demand curve(s) indicates the firm would
shut down?
d. Identify the firms short-run supply curve.

Exhibit 14 Perfectly Competitive Firm

MC
ATC
AVC
MR3

Price per
unit
(dollars)

MR2
MR1

Quantity of output
(units per hour)

9. Consider this statement: The perfectly competitive

firm will sell all the quantity of output consumers will
buy at the prevailing market price. Do you agree or
disagree? Explain your answer.
10. Suppose a perfectly competitive firms demand curve is
below its average total cost curve. Explain the conditions under which a firm continues to produce in the
short run.
11. Suppose the industry equilibrium price of residential
housing construction is $100 per square foot and the
minimum average variable cost for a residential construction contractor is $110 per square foot. What
would you advise the owner of this firm to do?
Explain.
12. Suppose independent truckers operate in a perfectly
competitive industry. If these firms are earning positive
economic profits, what happens in the long run to the
following: the price of trucking services, the industry
quantity of output, the profits of trucking firms?
Given these conditions, is the independent trucking
industry a constant-cost, an increasing-cost, or a
decreasing-cost industry?

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

197

ONLINE EXERCISES
Exercise 1

Exercise 3

View the Economic Report of the President at http://w3

.access.gpo.gov/eop/. Click on Economic Report of the
President and then scroll down to Table B-60 on page
343 and follow these steps.

The dream of many people is to start their own business;

to be an entrepreneur. Visit the following Internet sites and
answer the following questions. Home-Based Resource
Center (http://www.be-your-own-boss.com/) contains
information about how to start and operate a home-based
business. Entrepreneurs Help page (http://www.tanned
feet.com/) is created by a group of corporate attorneys,
financial industry professionals, business owners, and
consultants who are all in their twenties or early thirties.

1. Note the apparel and energy prices for the last

20 years.
2. Why does the price of energy fluctuate more than
the price of apparel?

Exercise 2

1. What economic factors do entrepreneurs need to

consider when starting businesses?

Visit USA Today (http://www.usatoday.com). Click on

Markets and study the Dow Jones Industrial Average fluctuation in the chart. Apply the characteristics of a perfectly competitive market structure to the stock market.
Why do stock prices fluctuate so much?

2. How can entrepreneurs maximize the profit generated

by their businesses?
3. What resources are available for entrepreneurs and
small businesses?

CHECKPOINT ANSWERS
Should Motels Offer Rooms at the
Beach for Only $50 a Night?
As long as price exceeds average variable cost, the motel is
better off operating than shutting down. Since $50 is more
than enough to cover the guest-related variable costs of
$45 per room, the firm will operate. The $5 remaining
after covering variable costs can be put toward the $50 of
fixed costs. Were the motel to shut down, it could make
no contribution to these overhead costs. If you said the
Myrtle Beach motels should operate during the winter
because they can get a price that exceeds their average
variable cost, YOU ARE CORRECT.

Are You in Business for the Long Run?

In the long run, surviving firms will operate at the minimum of the long-run average cost curve. The average
cost of 50 storage units is $4,000 ($200,000/50), the
average cost of 100 storage units is $3,000 ($300,000/100),
and the average cost of 200 storage units is $3,500
($700,000/200). Of the three storage-unit quantities
given, the one with the lowest average cost is closest to
the minimum point on the LRAC curve. If you chose
100 storage units, YOU ARE CORRECT.

198

Part 3 / Market Structures

PRACTICE QUIZ
For a visual explanation of the correct answers, visit the
tutorial at http://tucker.swcollege.com.
1. A perfectly competitive market is not characterized by
a. many small firms.
b. a great variety of different products.
c. free entry into and exit from the market.
d. any of the above.
2. Which of the following is a characteristic of perfect
competition?
a. Entry barriers
b. Homogeneous products
c. Expenditures on advertising
d. Quality of service
3. Which of the following are the same at all levels of
output under perfect competition?
a. Marginal cost and marginal revenue
b. Price and marginal revenue
c. Price and marginal cost
d. All of the above
4. If a perfectly competitive firm sells 100 units of
output at a market price of $100 per unit, its
marginal revenue per unit is
a. $1.
b. $100.
c. more than $1, but less than $100.
d. less than $100.
5. Short-run profit maximization for a perfectly competitive firm occurs where the firms marginal cost equals
a. average total cost.
b. average variable cost.
c. marginal revenue.
d. all of the above.
6. A perfectly competitive firm sells its output for $100
per unit, and the minimum average variable cost is
$150 per unit. The firm should
a. increase output.
b. decrease output, but not shut down.
c. maintain its current rate of output.
d. shut down.
7. A perfectly competitive firms supply curve follows the
upward sloping segment of its marginal cost curve
above the
a. average total cost curve.
b. average variable cost curve.
c. average fixed cost curve.
d. average price curve.

8. Assume the price of the firms product in Exhibit 15 is

$15 per unit. The firm will produce
a. 500 units per week.
b. 1,000 units per week.
c. 1,500 units per week.
d. 2,000 units per week.
e. 2,500 units per week.

Exhibit 15 Marginal Revenue and

Cost per Unit Curves

MC
20

Price and
cost per
unit
(dollars)

15

ATC

10

AVC
B

A
0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

Quantity of output
(units per week)

9. In Exhibit 15, the lowest price at which the firm earns

zero economic profit in the short run is
a. $5 per unit.
b. $10 per unit.
c. $20 per unit.
d. $30 per unit.
10. Assume the price of the firms product in Exhibit 15 is
$6 per unit. The firm should
a. continue to operate because it is earning an economic profit.
b. stay in operation for the time being even though it
is incurring an economic loss.
c. shut down temporarily.
d. shut down permanently.
11. Assume the price of the firms product in Exhibit 15 is
$10 per unit. The maximum profit the firm earns is
a. zero.
b. $5,000 per week.
c. $1,500 per week.
d. $10,500 per week.

Chapter 8 / Perfect Competition

12. In Exhibit 15, the firms total revenue at a price of $10

per unit pays for
a. a portion of total variable costs.
b. a portion of total fixed costs.
c. none of the total fixed costs.
d. all of the total fixed costs and total variable costs.
13. As shown in Exhibit 15, the short-run supply curve for
this firm corresponds to which segment of its marginal
cost curve?
a. A to D and all points above
b. B to D and all points above
c. C to D and all points above
d. B to C only
14. In long-run equilibrium, the perfectly competitive
firms price is equal to which of the following?
a. Short-run marginal cost
b. Minimum short-run average total cost
c. Marginal revenue
d. All of the above
15. In a constant-cost industry, input prices remain
constant as
a. the supply of inputs fluctuates.
b. firms encounter diseconomies of scale.
c. workers become more experienced.
d. firms enter and exit the industry.

199

16. Suppose that, in the long run, the price of feature films
rises as the movie production industry expands. We
can conclude that movie production is a(an)
a. increasing-cost industry.
b. constant-cost industry.
c. decreasing-cost industry.
d. marginal-cost industry.
17. Which of the following is true of a perfectly competitive market?
a. If economic profits are earned, then the price
will fall over time.
b. In long-run equilibrium, P  MR  SRMC 
SRATC  LRAC.
c. A constant-cost industry exists when the entry of
new firms has no effect on their cost curves.
d. All of the above are true.