S2 Cheat Sheet

Chapter
1 Binomial
Distribution

Usual types of questions

Finding the probability of a
certain number of
successes.
Finding the probability of
some range of successes,
),
e.g. (
(
) (
)
Be able to list the
assumptions made in order
to model a scenario using a
Binomial Distribution.
Calculating mean
and
variance
(where
)
Sneaky Geometric
distribution questions (see
right)
Calculating an unknown
value of from context.
Calculating an unknown
value of from context.
Solve problems in which
tables have to be used, but
the probability of success is
(i.e. not in table), by
instead counting the
number of failures.
Solving double
inequalities, e.g. smallest
value of such that
(
)

Tips

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( )

Remember the two edge cases where you dont need to use the full formula:
)
a. 0 successes: (
b.
successes:
(
)
c. Thus at least 1 success:
For worded questions, always start your working by writing out your distribution, e.g.
(
)
Sometimes you require the probability of a range when the cumulative table cant be used,
because the value of is not a nice number. This involves subtracting the opposite cases from 1:
)
(
)
(
)
e.g. (
). See on the right
Remember your table requires , so if you have (
), use (
regarding problems of flipping your inequality.
Assumptions of a Binomial Distribution:
a. Fixed number of trials.
b. Probability of success constant.
c. Each trial is independent (ensure you put in context!)
d. Each trial has two outcomes (success and failure)
When is unknown: An unfair coin with probability of heads is tossed 20 times. The
probability of seeing no heads is 0.1. Determine .
) (
) . Thus:
Since this is an edge case: (
(
)

When is unknown: I play a game for which the probability of winning is 0.7. If I win every
game, what is the smallest number of times I play such that the probability of winning every
game is less than 0.01?
)
Again an edge case so: (

What can go ugly

Misreading terms like at
least or more than.
Make sure you get vs
right.
Incorrectly flipping a
probability for > and , i.e.
being one off when you like
up a value in the
cumulative Binomial table.
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
Just think logically about
what the opposite of
more than 1 is and so on.
Similarly, incorrect
switching from the number
of successes to the number
of failures, usually by
forgetting to replace the
value with minus it, or
not preserving the
strictness/non-strictness of
the inequality.

Thus at least 13 games required. Notice that the direction of the inequality reversed because we
divided by a negative number (
).
Sometimes youll get a part of a question which requires some non-Binomial probabilistic
calculation, particularly involving some number of failures before a success is obtained, e.g. Bob
keeps firing arrows at a target until he gets a Bullseye. The probability he gets a Bullseye is 0.4.
th
Whats the probability he hits the Bullseye on the 4 shot:

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This is related to something called the Geometric Distribution which isnt formally covered in the
syllabus.
When switching from the number of successes to the number of failures (so that the
probability is less than 0.5 for the purposes of using tables), flip the inequality (but preserve vs
) and if the number of successes was , use
for number of failures:
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
e.g. In Joes caf 70% of customers buy a cup of tea. In a random sample of 20 customers find
the probability that more than 15 buy a cup of tea.
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
), find the smallest value of such that (
)
Given

We can only use the table if the probability is less than 0.5. This question requires a great deal of
care, particularly with the effect of switching from to and getting vs right!
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)

2 Poisson
Distribution

Be able to state the

conditions under which a
Poisson distribution may be
used.
As with the Binomial
Distribution, find the
probability of a particular
number of events
happening within a given
time frame, or within some
range using tables.
State the mean and
variance of a Poisson
distribution.
Be able to scale a Poisson
distribution to a different
time period.
Feed the probability
obtained from a Poisson
distribution into a Binomial
Distribution, and make
subsequent calculations.
Approximate a Binomial
Distribution using a Poisson
Distributions, and be able
to state the conditions
under which we can do so.
Again, forming and solving
double inequalities: e.g.
smallest value of such
)
that (

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While this is in the formula booklet, the easy way to remember it is that reading left to right and
then down, the repeats consecutively, as does the .
( )
( )
and
. The fact these are the same sometimes provides a justification for
why a Poisson distribution would be suitable to model certain data. See Wordy Questions page.
As with the Binomial Distribution, ensure you state the distribution for any wordy question, e.g.
( ).
Conditions required for Poisson:
a. Events occur independently (e.g. volcano eruptions might not be modelled using Poisson
because volcano less likely to erupt immediately after previous eruption, thus eruptions
not independent).
b. Events occur singly in time.
c. A fixed rate for which events occur.
A very common occurrence is that you will need to scale to another time period. e.g. A printer
jams on average 0.3 times an hour. Find the probability over a 5 hour period the printer jams at
least 4 times.
Just scaling the 3 times an hour to a 15 times every 5 hours:
(
)
( )
(
)
(
)
Another common question is to feed the value calculated from a Poisson question, into a
Binomial Distribution. e.g. Defects occur in planks of wood with rate 0.5 per 10cm. If Bob buys 6
blanks each of length 100cm, find prob that fewer than 2 of planks contain at most 3 defects.
First find probability a plank of 100cm contains at most 3 defects:
( )
(
)
Then feed into a Binomial Distribution:
(
)
Let be the number planks with at most 3 defects.
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)

Since these questions are

very similar to Binomial
questions (except we use a
different table and
evaluate the probabilities
differently), the same
potential problems can
arise, e.g. not correctly
flipping an inequality from
(
) to
(
)
and so on.
Not realising a Poisson
question is a Poisson
question! Remember that
any mention of rate
implies Poisson rather than
Binomial.
Also not realising when
both a Poisson Distribution
and a Binomial Distribution
have to be used within the
same question!

Notice that we couldnt use tables for the Binomial here because of the non-nice p value.
As with the Binomial Distribution, we can get nasty double inequality questions: While a
popcorn bag is in the microwave, an average of 5 pops can be heard per second. Whats the
minimum number of pops heard such that theres less than a 10% chance of hearing more than
this number of pops?
( )
(
)
(
)
(
)
Note we had to take care with
vs
and
vs
.
For Binomial Poisson approximations, see notes on Normal Approximations.

3 Continuous
Random Variables

Find the probability of

some range of values given
a probability density
function or cumulative
distribution function. e.g.
(
) (
)
Appreciate that
(
)
if is a
continuous random
variable.
State the probability
density function given a
graph.
Comment on the skew of a
distribution.
( ),
Calculate ( )
the median/quartiles and
the mode of a probability
density function.
Convert from ( ) to ( )
and vice versa, potentially
involving multiple ranges.
Be able to calculate ( )
(surprisingly common!)
Be able to calculate the
median and quartiles.
Be able to calculate the
mode, either by finding the
turning point, or by
inspection of the graph.

Remember that ( ) is the probability density function for continuous variables, and that this is
not a probability as such: we only get a probability when we integrate ( ) over some range.
)
Relatedly, if is a continuous variable, then (
because the probability of a specific
value is infinitely small (e.g. no one has an exact height of 1.5m).
Think of ( ) as the running total of the probability up to .
( )
(
)
To find a probability over a range:
(
(

( )

( )

For the latter, if you know the probability is 0 after some value (this will always be the case in
exams), we can use instead of .
) using (
)
(
)
If ( ) is known, then you could calculate say (
( )
When asked to find the value of some constant used in a p.d.f., use the fact that
( )
, i.e. the area under the whole probability function is 1.

However, if the cumulative distribution function is given, then there is no need to integrate, just
)
use ( )
where is the highest possible value (since (
).
Remember that it doesnt matter for continuous variables if you use
or
(but it does
matter for discrete variables!).
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

To go from ( ) to ( ), integrate. e.g.

( )
Then in the

range:
( )

Therefore the full cumulative distribution function is:

( )

Note the extra 1 row required since the running total of the probability by the time you get to 2
is 1. Note that the use of was to avoid a clash with the used as the upper limit of the integral.
But the mark scheme permits
, so do this way if you find it less confusing.

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A common error is doing

(
)
(
) for continuous variables.
This is true for discrete
variables, but the opposite
of more than 10m tall is
not under 9m tall!
(
)
(
)
Note that the vs does
not matter since is
continuous.
Note paying attention to
whether the question gives
the cumulative distribution
function ( ) or the
probability distribution
function ( ). This will
completely change the
approach to use for
answering a question! If
youre finding the
median/quartiles and
youre already given ( ),
dont integrate!
When finding the
cumulative distribution
function, forgetting the
rows for the two ends of
the ranges. You should
have one more row in ( )
than ( ). The same
applies when going from
( ) to ( ): you should
have one less row.
When finding the
cumulative distribution
function, then in the
example on the left, it
might have been tempted
to go straight from
to

When ( ) has multiple rows, see the note on the right about ensuring you add the running total
up to that range.
To go from ( ) to ( ) just differentiate. Dont forget that the 1 row disappears.
( )
( )
To find median or quartiles: use ( )
. Either ( ) will
already be given, or you will have to determine it from ( ) first.
Sometimes you have to determine which range the quartile/median occurs in first by evaluating
the borderline values (although this is not necessary if you only have one range).
e.g. If:

without properly

( )
{
and we wished to find the median , then it might be in the
range or
range. However ( )
, i.e. the running total of the probability up to 1 is 0.25, thus the median
wouldnt have yet occurred, and thus its in the
range.
Then using ( )
:

and so on.
The mode is the value of such that ( ) is at its maximum. The mode can be calculated in two
different ways: (and usually you can only use one of the two)
a. For curved graphs, finding the turning points using
( )
b.

Using the graph. e.g. If ( )

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, then we can see from the sketch

that the probability is greatest when

, so the mode is 0.
If asked to find the probability density function of a given graph,
ensure you dont just give the equation of the line you see: you need
to use the full curly brace construction covering all values:
Then ( )
is not enough, we need to write:
( )

evaluating
This will result in a missing
constant.
When finding the
cumulative distribution
function from ( ) where
there are multiple ranges,
forgetting to add on the
running total up to the
start of the range being
considered. e.g. If you had
ranges
and
in ( ), then
when finding ( ) in the
latter range, ( )
( ) ( ) . This is
because you want the area
up to 1 and then the area
between 1 and .
i.e. Dont forget the ( )!
When finding the mode,
accidentally giving the
probability density of the
mode as the answer rather
than the mode itself (e.g.
Jan 2011 Q5d: answer is 0
not 4).

When asked to find skew of a probability density function, if two of

the mode, median and mean have been found, compare in the usual S1 way (remembering if
positive skew that
). If you only have the graph look at the shape: a
positive tail mean positive skew.

4 Continuous
Uniform
Distribution

Find the probability of a

range for a continuous
uniform distribution, e.g.
(
) or
(
).
Sketch the probability
function of a continuous
uniform distribution.
Find the mean or variance
of a continuous uniform
distribution:
Find the and of
(
) when the mean
and variance of the
distribution is given.
Be able to calculate ( )
The probability calculated
from a uniform distribution
may be fed into a Binomial
distribution.

If

( )
(

( )

We can then solve these simultaneously.

The key is just remembering the area of the rectangle (when you sketch the p.d.f.) is 1. Therefore
if
( ) then since the width is 2, the height is clearly . We would specify the probability
density function as:

Suppose that
( ).
Then what is
(
)? You
might be tempted to
)
calculate (
, but
the probability above a
value of 5 is 0, thus:
(
)
(
)
(
)
. i.e. we
truncate any part of the
range which is outside the
range of the uniform
distribution.

For the example above, we could then find (

involved:
(
)
( )
( )
For the above example, (

are unknown. Then:

( )

I remember the variance as a twelfth of the squared difference.

( )
(
) where and
Suppose ( )
and
and
(

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) then:

) by just considering the rectangular area

I pick 10 real numbers randomly from 12 to 17. Find the probability that at least 5 of these
numbers are greater than 15.5.
) (
)
If is the number picked each time, (
. Then if is the
number of times a number greater than 15.5 was picked,
(
), and calculate (
Dont forget your rules of coding from S1:
( )
( )
(
)
( )

).

5 Normal
Approximations

Be able to approximate a
Binomial Distribution using
a Normal Distribution.
Be able to approximate a
Poisson Distribution using a
Normal Distribution.
Be able to approximate a
Binomial Distribution using
a Poisson Distribution.
Be able to give the
conditions under which
such approximations can
be made.
Justify why we need
continuity corrections.

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This diagram may seem like quite a lot to memorise, but all you need to memorise for carrying
out the majority of approximations is this: If you have a Binomial Distribution, is
? If yes
use Poisson, else use Normal. In terms of converting between the distributions, the mean and
variance of the Normal/Poisson approximation is just the mean and variance of the original
distribution.
If asked why a continuity correction is needed (and suppose the original distribution is Poisson),
say: Poisson is discrete, but Normal is continuous.
For continuity corrections, we want to go from a discrete to a continuous version of it .
You will never get a continuity correction wrong if you carry out these two simple steps:
a. Make sure your inequality uses or instead of < or >. i.e. Ensure inequality is nonstrict.
b. Extend your range by 0.5 at each end. i.e. If you visualise your inequality as a line on
the number line, it should be 0.5 longer each end.
)
(
)
Examples: (
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
I prefer to do the continuity correction immediately, i.e. before you either reverse the direction
of the inequality or standardise. e.g.
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
(
)
The number of marks effectively tells you what approximation you are using: If at least 6 marks,
its a Normal Approximation (because of the many steps of converting the distribution,
standardising and continuity corrections), otherwise its Binomial Poisson.

If asked to give the

conditions under which a
Binomial Distribution can
be approximated using a
Poisson Distribution, do
NOT say
. This
condition is a rule of thumb
only: the actual condition is
is large, is small (from
which
stems).
All manner of things can go
wrong with continuity
corrections. This might be
forgetting to convert to
or first (i.e. incorrectly
going from (
) to
(
)), or making
your range 0.5 smaller
rather than 0.5 larger, e.g.
incorrectly from (
)
to (
).
See note on the left about
the perils of scaling the
value instead of in the
case of the Poisson
Distribution.
In the formula for ,
accidentally dividing by the
variance rather than the
standard deviation.

Example Normal Approximation: The number of houses sold by an estate agent follows a Poisson
distribution, with a mean of 2 per week. The estate agent will receive a bonus if he sells more
than 25 houses in the next 10 weeks. Use a suitable approximation to estimate the probability
that the estate agent receives a bonus.
a. Note first that you might be tempted to scale the 25 houses in 10 weeks to 5 houses in 2
weeks and stick with the original
. The catastrophic flaw in doing this is that the
continuity correction affects the range differently depending on whether youre using
the original or scaled value.
)
(
)
If not scaling: (
(
)
)
(
)
If scaling: (
(
)
In the latter incorrect case the 0.5 has a greater effect on the smaller value of 6
compared with the larger value of 26, so the probability will be too high.
b. Step 1: Determine what approximation to use.
In this example we have a Poisson Distribution, which always goes to Normal. If it were
Binomial, youd first determine if
.
c. Step 2: Identify original distribution.
As discussed, we scale (rather than the 25), so:
( )
d. Step 3: Write the approximation, potentially with reference to a new continuous
variable which is the continuous version of , i.e.:
(
)
As discussed, use the mean and variance of the original distribution.
e. Step 4: If necessary, carry out continuity correction to get a probability in terms of :
(
)
(
)
(
)
f. Step 5: Use your S1 knowledge and find the probability by first standardising. Dont
forget that youre dividing by the standard deviation, not the variance:
(

6 Populations
and Samples

Be able to define key terms

such as sampling
distribution, sampling
frame, population,
sample, statistic.
Be able to describe what
the population is or
sampling frame is given the
context, and identify
reasons for differences
between the two.
Be able to list possible
samples.
Be able to calculate the

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(
)
Key definitions:
a. Statistic: A random variable (1) which is some function of the sample and not
dependent on any population parameters (1) - I think the random variable bit is a bit
pernicious (as does Wikipedia), but cest la vie! If 1 mark, the second part is important.
b. Population: The collection of all items.
c. Sample: Some subset of the population which is intended to be representative of the
population.
d. Census: When the entire population is sampled.
e. Sampling unit: Individual member or element of the population or sampling frame.
f. Sampling frame: A list of all sampling units or all the population.
g. Sampling distribution: All possible samples are chosen from a population (1); the values
of a statistic and the associated probabilities is a sampling distribution (1).
Its important you get your head around what the sampling distribution actually is: It gives the
distribution over possible values of the statistic as we take different samples. So if for example

When finding the sampling

distribution, forgetting that
different orderings are
different possibilities, e.g.
(1,1,2) and (1,2,1) should
both be considered.
Even though you can
subtract from 1 to find the
last probability in your
sampling distribution, if
you have time, you might
want to calculate it the
long way to check your
answer, as probabilities

sampling distribution for a

variety of statistics, such as
median (very common!),
range, maximum and
mode.
Be able to identify when
the sampling distribution is
a Binomial Distribution or
otherwise, and specify this
distribution.

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the statistic was the range of the sample, then this range is likely to vary as we take different
samples. As these ranges vary across samples, it forms a distribution.
The sampling frame is the list of things in the population that are available for sampling, e.g. The
ID numbers, The list of car registration numbers. The mark scheme seems to particularly like it
when you refer to some identifying property of the things in the sampling frame.
The sampling frame may be different from the population, because some things in the
population may not be available for sampling. e.g. If sampling people whove visited a medical
practice, some people may have left the area but hadnt deregistered.
When listing outcomes, it helps to be systematic in listing them so you dont miss any. Note that
different orderings count as distinct possibilities.
e.g. You have a large collection of 1p, 2p and 5p coins, and take 3 coins. Find all samples in
which the maximum is 5. We may want to first list the possibilities where 5 appears once, 5
appears twice, and so on (5,1,1), (1,5,1), (1,1,5), (5,1,2), (5,2,1), (1,5,2), (2,5,1), (1,2,5), (2,1,5),
(5,2,2), (2,5,2), (2,2,5), (5,5,1), (5,1,5), (1,5,5), (5,5,2), (5,2,5), (2,5,5), (5,5,5)
e.g. A bag contains a large number of 1p and 2p coin, of which 40% are 1p and 60% are 2p. A
sample of 2 coins. Find the sampling distribution of the sample maximum.
When finding the sampling distribution, it may help to have a table as follows to organise your
working, such that the outcomes for each possible value of the statistic are grouped:

should obviously all add up

to 1.

Possibilities
Statistic (Maximum)
Probability
(1,1)
1
(1,2), (2,1), (2,2)
2
Notice that we didnt need to do any complicated calculation for the last probability, because it
was just 1 minus the others! Had we had to calculate it fully, then
On the rare occasion you get a question asking for the sampling distribution, where you dont
actually have to do any calculation, but just have to consider what well-known distribution you
get as the sample varies:
A factory produces components. Each component has a unique identity number and it is
assumed that 2% of the components are faulty. On a particular day, a quality control manager
wishes to take a random sample of 50 components. A statistic represents the number of faulty
components in the sample. Specifying the sampling distribution of .
We know a sampling distribution is the possible values of the statistic as we take different
samples of 50 light bulbs. If the statistic is the count of light bulbs, we can see this count varies
Binomially between 0 and 50. Thus
(
)

7 Hypothesis
Testing

Be able to define key terms

such as critical region,
hypothesis test,
significance level of a test.
Determine a critical region
(one or two ranges
depending on whether one
or two tailed)
Understand when we need
the probability to be
strictly within the
significance level, and
when to be close to it as
possible either side.
Be able to calculate the
actual level of
significance.
Carry out a hypothesis test
involving Binomial and
Poisson distributions.
Carry out a hypothesis test
where a normal
approximation is required.

Example: Under the null hypothesis

5%, what are the critical values?
Looking at the tables, at left end
0.975 is 7, thus going one above

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Key terms whose definitions you need to remember:

a. Critical Region: The range of values such that the null hypothesis is rejected.
b. Hypothesis Test: a procedure to examine a value of a population parameter proposed
by the null hypothesis
c. Significance level: the probability of rejecting
if
is true, or the probability of
incorrectly rejecting .
The or more extreme thing often confuses people: is more extreme below the value or above
it? We can always tell this by what side of the mean were on. If
and were interested in
seeing 10 hits to a website or more extreme, then since 10 is above the mean of 7, clearly we
want 10 or above to get the tail. Ensure 10 or above is
not
.
Identifying the critical values from a table:
Firstly, note if the test is one-tailed (involving or ) or two-tailed (involving ), as you need to
halve the significance level each side in the latter case.
At the left tail, find the closest value under the significance level (or half it) in the table, or if you
are explicitly told to use the closest value to the significance level, do that. This is the lower end
of the critical region.
However, at the right tail, first find the closest value above it (or again if explicitly told, the
closest value either side), but then go one above it. This is the critical value.
(

Forgetting to halve the

significance level for twotailed tests.
Being one off the critical
value (particularly at the
right tail). See notes on the
left. Pay careful attention
to whether it says use the
closest value, or not.
Getting your continuity
correction wrong (see
notes for Chapter 5).

). For a two-tailed test with significance level

, and at right end, closest value with probability above

.

If we had been asked for the closest value to 0.025 and 0.975, then wed then get
and
instead.
It is vitally important you specify the probability of being in each tail to evidence that you have
)
used the table, e.g. (
For the critical region, dont forget to provide a lower limit or upper limit in the case of the
Binomial Distribution, as the outcomes are finite.
For the previous example:
. Mark schemes usually condone the lack of
, but dont take any chances.
The actual level of significance is the actual probability of being in the critical region. You should
have already written out the probabilities of being in each part of the critical region, so its then
just a case of adding the two probabilities.
The mark scheme for a hypothesis test without a normal approximation is as follows:
a. Specifying
and
(1 mark)
b. Specifying the distribution for under the null hypothesis, e.g.
(
) (1 mark)
The or will be your population parameter under the null hypothesis.
c. 2 marks for either: Determining the probability of the observed value or more extreme
)
(
)
(e.g. (
or determining the critical region.

10

d.

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Using your probability to state whether

is rejected or not, ensuring you directly
compare your probability with significance level.
e.g. 0.0723 > 0.05, so not significant ( is not rejected) (1 mark)
e. Put this conclusion in context. Bob is not justified in his claim that the rate of flamingo
attacks has increased.
The mark scheme for a hypothesis test with a normal approximation is usually broken down as
the following:
a. Specifying
and
(1 mark)
b. Possibly a mark for specifying your distribution of , i.e.
( ) or
( )
c. Specifying the distribution of for your normal approximation,
(
) (1 mark)
)
d. Doing the continuity correction: (
(
) (1 mark)
e. Standardising to get (
). Note at this stage vs does not matter as variable is
continuous. (1 mark)
f. As above, 2 marks for your two-part conclusion.
Note that it is possible for the actual level of significance to be greater than the level of
significance, if you were asked to find the closest value to 0.025/0.975, etc rather than those
strictly below/above these values.

11

Wordy/interpretation questions:

Definitions (see the respective chapter notes above):

Statistic, population, census, sampling frame, sampling unit, sampling
distribution, critical region, hypothesis test, significance level.
Modelling assumptions:
List the assumptions made when modelling as a Binomial
distribution. See Chapter 1.
State two conditions under which a Poisson distribution is a
suitable model to use in statistical work. See Chapter 2.
(Surprisingly common!) Describe the skewness of , giving a reason for your
answer. The mode and mean had previously been calculated in this question
so Positive skew as
. 1 mark for skew type, 1 for reason.
Approximation related:
Write down the conditions under which the Poisson distribution
can be used as an approximation to the Binomial distribution.
is large
Write down the two conditions needed to approximate the
Binomial distribution by the Poisson distribution.
is large, is small (NOT
)
Write down which of the approximations used in part (a) is the
most accurate estimate of the probability [One was Poisson, one
Binomial]. You must give a reason for your answer.
Normal approximation (1) because is large and close to half (1).
OR Normal because
State the probability of incorrectly rejecting H0 using this critical region.
Add the probabilities of your critical region(s).
). Answer is 0.
[Given that is a continuous variable] Determine (
Identify a sampling frame.
See notes on Chapter 6. Remember the mark scheme likes reference to an
identifier, e.g. list of unique identification numbers of the cookers.
[In context of cookers being tested] Give one reason, other than to save
time and cost, why a sample is taken rather than a census.
There would be no cookers left to sell (i.e. the idea that testing something in a
sample destroys it/makes it unsellable).

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Identify the sampling units. (Using above example) A cooker

A researcher took a sample of 100 voters from a certain town and asked
them who they would vote for in an election. The proportion who said they
would vote for Dr Smith was 35%. State the population and the statistic in
this case. What do you understand by the sampling distribution of this
statistic.
Population is the residents of the town. Statistic is percentage/proportion
who vote for Dr Smith. Sampling distribution here is number of people who
voted for Dr Smith in all possible samples of 100.
[List of possible statistics given] State, giving a reason which of the following
is not a statistic based on this sample.
The one involving the and , because these are population parameters,
whereas a statistic must be based on the sample only.
Suggest a suitable model to describe the number of vehicles passing the
( ) (depending on what the average
fixed point in a 15 s interval.
rate in the question is, which often you have to
scale)
[Using distribution pictured] state, giving your
reason, whether E(X ) < 3, E(X ) = 3 or E(X ) > 3.
( )
because the graph tails to the left (i.e. negative skew).
Find, to 2 decimal places, the value of k so that
(
)
. This means within standard deviations
). Since this
either side of the mean, so be definition, we want (
)
is middle 50%, upper end is upper quartile so find when (
.
Comment on this finding in the light of your critical region found in part
(a). 11 is in the critical region (1 mark) therefore there is evidence of a
change/increase in the proportion/number of customers buying single tins (1
mark).
[Mean and variance of some data was calculated] Explain how the answers
from part (c) support the choice of a Poisson distribution as a model.
For a Poisson model , Mean = Variance ; For these data

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