SOILS AND FOUNDATIONS

Lesson 08
Chapter 8 Shallow Foundations

Testing

Theory

Experience

Topics
g Topic

1 (Section 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4)

g Topic

2 (Section 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9)

g Topic

3 (Section 8.10)

- General and Bearing Capacity

- Settlement
- Spread footings on embankments, IGMs, rocks
- Effect of deformations on bridge structures
- Construction

Shallow Foundations
Lesson 08 - Topic 1
General and Bearing Capacity

Section 8.0 to 8.4

Learning Outcomes
g At

the end of this session, the participant will

be able to:

- Identify different types of shallow foundations

- Recall foundation design procedure
- Contrast factors that influence bearing capacity
-

in sand and clay

Compute bearing capacity in sand and clay
Describe allowable bearing pressure for rock
foundations

Stresses Imposed by Structures

g Abutment

and piers may have shallow or deep

foundations

General Approach to Foundation

Design
g Duty

of Foundation Designer

- Establish the most economical design that safely

conforms to prescribed structural criteria and
properly accounts for the intended function of
the structure

g Rational

method of design

- Evaluate various foundation types

Recommended Foundation Design

Approach
g Step

1:
Determine:

- Direction, type and magnitude of foundation

-

loads
Tolerable deformations
Special constraints

Underclearance requirements
Structure type, span lengths
Time constraints on construction
Extreme event loading
Construction load requirements

Recommended Foundation Design

Approach
g Step

2:
Evaluate subsurface investigation and
laboratory testing data for reliability and
completeness
Choose design method consistent with
quality and quantity of subsurface data

Recommended Foundation Design

Approach
g Step

3:
Consider alternate foundation types

Foundation Alternatives
g Shallow

Foundations
g Deep Foundations

- Piles, shafts

Foundation Cost
g Express

foundation capacity in terms of $

g TOTAL

cost of foundation system divided by the

load supported by the foundation in tons

g TOTAL

cost of a foundation must include ALL

costs associated with the foundations
- Need for excavation support system, pile caps, etc.
- Environmental restrictions
- All other factors as applicable

Foundation Cost
g If

estimated costs of alternative foundation

systems during design are within 15%, the
alternate foundation designs should be
considered for inclusion in contract
documents

Loads and Limit States

g Loads

- Permanent and Transient

- Codes specify load combinations

g Foundation

limit states

- Ultimate

Bearing capacity, eccentricity, sliding, global stability,

structural capacity

- Serviceability

Excessive settlement, excessive lateral displacement,

structural deterioration of foundation

Types of Shallow Foundations

g Isolated

Spread Footings

- Length (L) to width (B) ratio, L/B < 10

Types of Shallow Foundations

g Combined

Strip Spread Footings

- Length (L) to width (B) ratio, L/B 10

Shallow Foundations for Bridge

Abutments

Shallow Foundations for Retaining

Walls

Combined Footings

Abutment Fill
2
1

Original Ground

Toe of Side Slope

Toe of End Slope

Mat Foundations

REINFORCED CONCRETE MAT

Spread Footing Design Procedure

g Geotechnical

design of spread footing is a

two part process

g First

Part:

- Establish an allowable stress to prevent shear

failure in soil

g Second

Part:

- Estimate the settlement under the applied stress

Allowable Bearing Capacity

g Allowable

bearing capacity is lesser of:

Applied stress that will result in shear failure

divided by FS
- Ultimate limit criterion
OR
Applied stress that results in a specified amount of
settlement of the structure
- Serviceability criterion

Bearing Capacity Chart

Ultimate Bearing Capacity, qult
Allowable Bearing Capacity,

Allowable Bearing Capacity, ksf (kPa)

q
q all = ult
FS

Contours of Allowable
Bearing Capacity for a
given settlement
S1
S2
S3

Effective Footing Width, ft (m)

Design Process Flow Chart

g Figure

8-10

Bearing Capacity
g Bearing

capacity failure occurs when the

shear strength of foundation soil is exceeded
g Similar to slope stability failure
Q
L=
A

q
E

III

I
II
C

(a) GENERAL SHEAR

LOAD
SETTLEMENT

g General

(b) LOCAL SHEAR

LOAD
SETTLEMENT

shear
g Local shear
g Punching shear

LOAD
SETTLEMENT

Bearing
Capacity
Failure
Mechanisms

(c) PUNCHING SHEAR

TEST AT
GREATER
DEPTH
SURFACE TEST

Footing Dimension Terminology

g Bf

= Width of footing

- Least lateral dimension

Df

g Lf
g Df

Bf

= Length of footing

= Depth of
embedment of footing

Lf

Basic Bearing Capacity Equation

g Equation

8-8

q ult = c (N c ) + q (N q ) + 0.5 ( )(B f )(N )

c = cohesion
q = surcharge at footing base
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing capacity factors
= unit weight of foundation soil

Assumptions of Basic Bearing

Capacity Equation (Section 8.4.3)
g Strip

(continuous) footing
g Rigid footing
g General shear
g Concentric loading (i.e., loading through the
centroid of the footing)
g Footing bearing on level surface of
homogeneous soil
g No impact of groundwater

Bearing Capacity Factors

Bearing Capacity Factors

1000

Figure 8-15
Table 8-1

100

Nc

10

Nq

1
0

10

15

20

25

Friction Angle, degrees

30

35

40

45

Example 8-1
T = 125 pcf

d = D = 5

B = 6

sub = 63 pcf

= 20
c = 500 psf

Example 8-1
g Solution

Effect of Variation of Soil Properties

and Footing Dimensions (Table 8-2)
Properties and Dimensions
= a = effective unit weight
b = submerged unit weight
Df = embedment depth
Bf = footing width (assume strip footing)
A. Initial situation: = 120 pcf, Df = 0',
Bf = 5', deep water table
B. Effect of embedment: Df = 5', =120
pcf, Bf = 5', deep water table
C. Effect of width: Bf = 10' = 120 pcf,
Df = 0', deep water table
D. Effect of water table at surface:
= 57.6 pcf, Df = 0', Bf = 5'

Cohesive
Soil

Cohesionless
Soil

=0
c = 1000 psf
qult (psf)
5140

= 30o
c=0
qult (psf)
6720

Effect of Variation of Soil Properties

and Footing Dimensions (Table 8-2)
Properties and Dimensions
= a = effective unit weight
b = submerged unit weight
Df = embedment depth
Bf = footing width (assume strip footing)
A. Initial situation: = 120 pcf, Df = 0',
Bf = 5', deep water table
B. Effect of embedment: Df = 5', =120
pcf, Bf = 5', deep water table
C. Effect of width: Bf = 10' = 120 pcf,
Df = 0', deep water table
D. Effect of water table at surface:
= 57.6 pcf, Df = 0', Bf = 5'

Cohesive
Soil

Cohesionless
Soil

=0
c = 1000 psf
qult (psf)
5140

= 30o
c=0
qult (psf)
6720

5740

17760

5140

13440

5140

3226

Student Exercise 5
g Find

the allowable bearing capacity assuming

a FS=3 for the condition shown below for a
10x50 footing with rough base
Final Grade
4
30

10

Sand
= 115 pcf
= 35
C=0

Bearing Capacity Correction Factors

g Footing

shape

- Adjusted for eccentricity

g Depth

of water table
g Embedment depth
g Sloping ground surface
g Inclined base
g Inclined loading

Student Exercise 5
g Solution

Modified Bearing Capacity Equation

Equation 8-11
q ult = cN c s c b c + qN q C Wq s q b q d q + 0.5 B f N C W s b
g

sc, s, sq

shape correction factors

bc, b, bq base inclination correction factors

Cwq, Cw

groundwater correction factors

dq

embedment correction factor

Nc, N, Nq bearing capacity factors as function of

Estimation of for Bearing Capacity

Factors (Table 8-3)
Description
Corrected N-value
N160

Very
Very
Loose Medium Dense
Loose
Dense
0

10

30

50

Friction angle
Degrees

25
30

27
32

30 35

35
40

38
43

Moist unit weight

() pcf

70
100

90
115

110
130

120
140

130
150

Shape Correction Factors

g Basic

equation assumes strip footing which

means Lf/Bf 10

g For

footings with Lf/Bf < 10 apply shape

correction factors

g Compute

the effective shape of the footing

based on eccentricity

Effective Footing Dimensions

Bf = Bf 2eB ; Lf = Lf 2eL ; A= Bf Lf

Pressure Distributions
Structural design

Sizing the footing

Shape Correction Factors

Factor

Shape
Factors,
sc, s, sq
g In

Friction
Angle

=0
>0

Cohesion
Term (sc)
Bf
1 +
5L f
Bf
1 +
Lf

N q

N c

Unit
Weight
Term (s)

Surcharge
Term (sq)

1.0

1.0

Bf
1 0.4
Lf

B
1 + f tan

Lf

routine foundation design, use of effective

dimensions in shape factors is not practical

Location of Groundwater table

g To

correct the unit weight

DW
CW
CWq
0
0.5
0.5
Df
0.5
1.0
> 1.5Bf + Df
1.0
1.0
Note: For intermediate positions of the groundwater table,
interpolate between the values shown above.

Embedment Depth
g To

account for the

shearing resistance in
the soil above the
footing base

Friction
Angle,
(degrees)
32

Note: The depth correction

37
factor should be used only
when the soils above the
footing bearing elevation are
as competent as the soils
42
beneath the footing level;
otherwise, the depth correction
factor should be taken as 1.0. See Note

Df/Bf

dq

1
2
4
8
1
2
4
8
1
2
4
8

1.20
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.15
1.20
1.25
1.30

Sloping Ground Surface

g Modify

the bearing capacity equation as

follows:

q ult = c (N cq ) + 0.5 ( )(B f )(N q )

g Useful

in designing footings constructed

within bridge approach fills

Footing in Slope

Footing Near Slope

Inclined Base
g Footings

with inclined base should be

avoided or limted to angles less than 8-10
g Sliding may be an issue for inclined bases

1 b q

b1q

.3tan
147

Factor

Cohesion
Friction Term (c)
Angle
bc

Unit Weight
Term ()

Surcharge
Term (q)

b
1.0

bq
1.0

Base
=0
Inclination
Factors,
>0
(1-0.017 tan)2 (1-0.017 tan)2
bc, b, bq
= friction angle, degrees;
= footing inclination from horizontal, upward +, degrees

Inclined Loading
g If

shear (horizontal) component is checked

for sliding resistance, the inclination
correction factor is omitted
g Use effective footing dimensions in
evaluation of the vertical component of the
load

Comments on Use of Bearing

Capacity Correction Factors
g For

settlement-controlled allowable bearing

capacity, the effect application of correction
factors may be negligible

g Application

of correction factors is
secondary to the adequate assessment of
the shear strength characteristics of the
foundation soil through correctly performed
subsurface exploration

Local or Punching Shear

c* = 0.67c
*=tan-1(0.67tan)
g Loose

sands
g Sensitive clays
g Collapsible
soils
g Brittle clays

Bearing Capacity Factors of Safety

q ult
q all =
FS
g qall

= allowable bearing capacity

g qult = ultimate bearing capacity
g Typical FS = 2.5 to 3.5
g FS is a function of

- Confidence in shear strength parameter, c and

- Importance of structure
- Consequences of failure

Overstress Allowances
g For

short-duration infrequently occuring

loads, an overstress of 25 to 50 % may be
allowed for allowable bearing capacity

Practical Aspects of Bearing

Capacity

Presumptive Allowable Bearing

Capacity
g NOT

recommended for soils

g See Tables 8-8, 8-9 and 8-10 for rocks

Learning Outcomes
g At

the end of this session, the participant will

be able to:

- Identify different types of shallow foundations

- Recall foundation design procedure
- Contrast factors that influence bearing capacity
-

in sand and clay

Compute bearing capacity in sand and clay
Describe allowable bearing pressure for rock
foundations

Any Questions?
THE ROAD TO
UNDERSTANDING
SOILS
AND
FOUNDATIONS

Shallow Foundations
Lesson 08 - Topic 2
Settlement, footings on embankments, IGMs,
rocks, effect of deformations on bridge structures

Section 8.5 to 8.9

Learning Outcomes
g At

the end of this session, the participant will

be able to:

- Calculate immediate settlements in granular

-

soils
Calculate consolidation settlements in saturated
fine-grained soils
Describe tolerances and consequences of
deformations on bridge structures

Settlement of Spread Footings

g Immediate

(short-term)
g Consolidation (long-term)

Immediate Settlement
g Houghs

method

- Conservative by a factor of 2 (FHWA, 1987)

g Schmertmanns

method

- More rational
- Based on nonlinear theory of elasticity and
measurements

Charts
Figure 2-11
g Ds

= 4B to 6B
for continuous
footings where
Lf/Bf 10

g Ds

= 1.5B to 2B
for square
footings where
Lf/Bf = 1

Trend of Analytical
Results and
Measurements

Square footings
where Lf/Bf =1
Continuous footings
where Lf/Bf 10

Depth below Footing

Legend:

Vertical Strain, %

2B

4B

Schmertmann Method
n

S i = C1C 2 p H i
i =1

po
C1 = 1 0.5

p
g Iz

gE
gX
g C1
g C2

0 .5

Iz
H i = H c

XE
t (years)
C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log10

0.1

Strain Influence Factor

Elastic Modulus, Table 5-20
Modification factor for E
Correction factor for strain relief
Correction factor for creep deformation


p
I zp = 0 . 5 + 0 . 1
p op

0 .5

see ( b ) below
Axisymmetric
Lf/Bf =1

Lf = Length of footing
Bf = least width of footing
Bf

p = p po
po

Plane Strain Lf/Bf 10

Bf /2 (for axisymmetric case)

Bf (for plane strain case)
Depth to Peak Strain
Influence Factor, Izp

p op

Example 8-2
g Given:

6x24 footing on soil profile shown

below. Determine settlement at end of
construction and 10 years after construction
Ground Surface

3 ft

t = 115 pcf; N160 = 8

3 ft

t = 125 pcf; N160 = 25

Coarse Sand

5 ft

t = 120 pcf; N160 = 30

Sandy Gravel

25 ft

t = 128 pcf; N160 = 68

Clayey Silt
Sandy Silt

Bf = 6 ft

Draw Strain Influence Diagram

Axisymmetric
Lf/Bf =1

Depth below footing

0.1

0.2

Influence Factor (Iz)

0.3
0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

2B

12

16

12

16

3B

20

20
0.0

Plane Strain Lf/Bf 10

0.1

0.2

0.3
0.4
Influence Factor (Iz)

g Calculate

0.5

0.6

peak Iz = 0.64

0.7

Strain Influence Diagram

Divide into layers
0

0.1

0.2

Influence Factor (Iz)

0.3
0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

Depth below footing (ft)

Layer 1
Layer 2

Layer 3

12

12
Layer 4

16

16

20

20
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3
0.4
Influence Factor (Iz)

0.5

0.6

0.7

Determine Elastic Modulus, Es

g Use

Table 5-20, Page 5-90

Layer 1: Sandy Silt: E = 4N160 tsf

Layer 2: Coarse Sand: E = 10N160 tsf
Layer 3: Coarse Sand: E = 10N160 tsf
Layer 4: Sandy Gravel: E = 12N160 tsf
g Calculate

X-factor, X = 1.42

Setup Table for Settlement

Computation
Layer

Hc

N160

(inches)
1
2
3
4

36
12
48
96

25
30
30
68

XE

Z1

(tsf)

(tsf)

(ft)

100
300
300
816

142
426
426
1,159

1.5
3.5
6
12

IZ at Zi

IZ
Hi =
Hc
XE

(in/tsf)
0.31
0.56
0.55
0.22

0.0759
0.0152
0.0599
0.0176

Hi=

0.1686

Compute Correction Factors C1 , C2

po
3 ft 115 pcf
= 1 0.5
C1 = 1 0.5
1655 psf
p

= 0.896

t (years)
C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log10

0.1
g At

end of construction, t=0.1 year

0.1
C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 = 1.0
0.1
g At

t=10 years

10
C 2 = 1 + 0.2 log10 = 1.4
0.1

Determine Immediate Settlement

g At

end of construction, t = 0.1 year

S i = C1C 2 p H i

1655psf
in
S i = (0.896)(1.0)
0.1686 tsf
psf

2000

tsf

S i = 0.125 inches

g At

t = 10 years

1.4
S i = 0.125 inches = 0.175 inches
1.0

Consolidation Settlement
g Same

procedures as in Chapter 7 (Approach

Roadway Deformations)

Example 8-3
g

Calculate consolidation settlement for following case:

130 kips

4
10
10

Gravel
T = 130 pcf
Normally consolidated clay
sub = 65 pcf, e0 = 0.75, Cc = 0.4
Rock

Example 8-3
p0 = (14 130 pcf) + (5 65 pcf) = 2,145 psf
130 kips
130kips
p =
=
= 0.208 ksf = 208 psf
2
625 ft
(10 ft + 15 ft)
p 0 + p
Cc

H = H
log 10
1 + e0
p0
2145 psf + 208 psf
0.4
H = 10ft
log10
2145 psf
1 + 0.75

H = 0.09 = 1.1

Student Exercise 6
g Find

footing settlement (immediate +

consolidation) for the following case
5
25
Sand and Gravel
Avg. N = 40

Clayey Silt
CC = 0.25
e0 = 0.90

45
(Normally Consolidated)

Student Exercise 6

Depth ft.

Pressure - psf

Spread Footings on Embankments

g Section

8.6
g If spread footings are placed on
embankments, structural fills that include
sand and gravel sized particles should be
used that are compacted properly (minimum
95% of standard Proctor energy)

Settlement of Footings on Structural

Fills
g In

absence of other data, use N160 = 32 for

the structural to estimate settlement of
footings on compacted structural fill

Vertical Stress Distribution

0

Bridge
Bridge Pier
Pier

20

Earth
Earth
Embankment
Embankment

Depth

40
h=40
h=40

h=20
h=20

60
80
100
00

11

22

33

44

Vertical
Vertical Stress
Stress

55

Footings on IGMs and Rocks

g Use

theory of elasticity
2

Cd p Bf (1 )
v =
Em
where: v
Cd
p
Bf

Em

=
=
=
=
=
=

vertical settlement at surface

shape and rigidity factors (Table 8-12)
change in stress at top of rock surface due to applied footing load
footing width or diameter
Poissons ratio (refer to Table 5-23 in Chapter 5)
Youngs modulus of rock mass (see Section 5.12.3 in Chapter 5)

Effect of
Deformations on
Bridge
Structures
g Section

Tilt (Rotation)

8.9
Differential
Settlement

Differential
Settlement

Tolerable Movements for Bridges

(Table 8-13)
Limiting Angular
Distortion, /S
0.004
0.005

Type of Bridge
Multiple-span (continuous
span) bridges
Single-span bridges

Note:
is differential settlement, S is the span length. The quantity, /S, is
dimensionless and is applicable when the same units are used for
and S, i.e., if is expressed in inches then S should also be expressed
in inches.

Construction Point Concept for

Evaluation of Settlements
g Divide

the loadings based on sequence of

construction
g Key construction point is when the final load
bearing member is constructed, e.g., when a
bridge deck is constructed
g Table

8-14

- Put in a slide

Learning Outcomes
g At

the end of this session, the participant will

be able to:

- Calculate immediate settlements in granular

-

soils
Calculate consolidation settlements in saturated
fine-grained soils
Describe tolerances and consequences of
deformations on bridge structures

Any Questions?
THE ROAD TO
UNDERSTANDING
SOILS
AND
FOUNDATIONS

Shallow Foundations
Lesson 08 - Topic 3
Construction

Section 8.10

Learning Outcomes
g At

the end of this session, the participant will

be able to:

- Discuss elements of shallow foundation

construction/inspection

Key Elements of Shallow Foundation

Construction
g Table

8-15

g Contractor

set-up

g Excavation
g Shallow

foundation
g Post installation

- Monitoring

Structural Fill
g Tests

for gradation and durability of fill at

sufficient frequency to ensure that the
material meets the specification
g Compaction tests
g If surcharge fill is used for pre-loading verify
the unit weight of surcharge

Monitoring
g Check

elevations of footing, particularly

when footings are on embankment fills
g Periodic surveying during the service life of
the footing, particularly if the subsurface has
soft soils within the depth of influence
g Impacts on neighboring facilities
g Use instrumentation as necessary

Learning Outcomes
g At

the end of this session, the participant will

be able to:

- Discuss elements of shallow foundation

construction/inspection

Any Questions?
THE ROAD TO
UNDERSTANDING
SOILS
AND
FOUNDATIONS

Interstate 0 Apple Freeway

Note: Scale shown in Station Form
S.B.
Apple
Frwy

Baseline
Baseline
Stationing
Stationing

90
90

91
91

N.B.
Apple
Frwy

92
92

93
93

Interstate
Interstate 00

Proposed
Proposed Toe
Toe
of
of Slope
Slope
Proposed
Proposed Final
Final Grade
Grade
2

Existing
Existing
Ground
Ground Surface
Surface

Proposed
Proposed
Abutment
Abutment

Apple Freeway
Exercise
g Appendix

- Section A.7

Subsurface
Investigations

Terrain reconnaissance
Site inspection
Subsurface borings

Basic Soil Properties

Visual description
Classification tests
Soil profile

Laboratory Testing

Po diagram
Test request
Consolidation results
Strength results

Slope
Stability

Design soil profile

Circular arc analysis
Sliding block analysis
Lateral squeeze analysis

Approach Roadway
Settlement

Design soil profile

Magnitude and rate of
settlement
Surcharge
Vertical drains

Spread Footing
Design

Driven Pile Design

Design soil profile

Static analysis pier
Pipe pile
H pile
Static analysis abutment
Pipe pile
H pile
Driving resistance
Lateral movement - abutment

Construction
Monitoring

Wave equation
Hammer approval
Embankment instrumentation

Design soil profile

Pier bearing capacity
Pier settlement
Abutment settlement
Surcharge
Vertical drains

APPLE FREEWAY
PIER BEARING CAPACITY
Assumptions:
Footing embeded 4 below ground
Footing width = 1/3 pier height = 7
Footing length = 100
L/W = 100/7 > 10
9 Continuous
BAF 2

4
6
11
21
22
40
37
33

4
7

10

15

Sand

Clay

Compute N160 values

Depth
(ft.)
5
7
8
10
12
14

p0
(psf)

p0
(tsf)

N
(bpf)

Hammer
Efficiency (Ef)

550
770
880
1100
1195
1290

0.275
0.385
0.440
0.550
0.598
0.645

11
21
22
40
37
33

65
65
65
65
65
65

Ef / 60

N60
(bpf)

Cn

1.083
12
1.43
1.083
23
1.32
1.083
24
1.28
1.083
43
1.20
1.083
40
1.17
1.083
36
1.15
Average corrected blow count =

N160
(bpf)
17
30
30
52
47
41
36

APPLE FREEWAY PIER SETTLEMENT

SAND

CLAY -1

CLAYCLAY-2

Time (days)
50

100

150

200

250

H = 2.85

APPLE FREEWAY
EAST ABUTMENT SETTLEMENT
Pressure (psf)
1000

2000

3000

Sand

4000

5000

4470

Pf

5550

6000

Pabut

10

Depth (ft)

Po

4920

Clay

20

5850

Pc

30

5650

40

50

Gravel Layer
Time (days)
0

100

200

300

400

H
2

H = 2.59

500

6200

APPLE FREEWAY
EAST ABUTMENT SETTLEMENT TREATMENT
Time days
100

200

300

400

0
Assume Wick Drains Installed
5

10

*0.25 Remaining 30 days after abutment loaded

Begin Abutment Footing Construction
12.66 emb.

HABUT

15

15.25 Emb. + Abut

Time Days
100

200

0.83

300
240 days

30 Fill to
10 Surcharge

H
Total
10
13.7 t90
15

15.25Total H

400

500

400 days

*Assume 10
Surcharge Used

SPREAD FOOTING DESIGN

Design Soil Profile
Strength and consolidation values selected for all soil layers.
Footing elevation and width chosen.
Pier Bearing Capacity
Qallowable = 3 tons/sq.ft.
Pier Settlement
Settlement = 2.8", t90 = 220 days.
Abutment Settlement
Settlement - 2.6", t90 = 433 days.
Vertical Drains
t90 = 60 days - could reduce settlement to 0.25" after abutment
constructed and loaded.
Surcharge
10' surcharge: t90 = 240 days
before abutment constructed.

Any Questions?
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