-WATER RESOURCES PLANNING

Question 1
The challenges of water resources Engineers in Uganda.
Water resources Engineering is the study of the occurance of water in nature with the purpose of
pitting it to the beneficial use of man. It refers to the availability in terms of quantity and quality.
Water resources Engineers in Uganda are increasingly faced with the challenge of providing
enough safe water for the ever increasing population.
The basic challenges faced include;
Controlling excess water to prevent inconveniences to the public and loss of property and
life. Applications carried out under this include; flood mitigation (e.g. Construction of
Nakivubo channel to reduce the effect of flood due to storm water in Kampala city), land
drainage, sewerage and high way culvert design.
Venturing into research and develop more economical designs and to ensure that better and
more appropriate materials are found.
Controlling water pollution that threatens the utility of water domestic, industrial and
agricultural use (Irrigation). The main sources of pollutants are untreated industrial wastes,
untreated Sewage, insecticides and pesticides.
Controlling the accumulation of sediment in water channels. Blocked channels like culverts,
pipes, are nuisance and a danger to the general public
Improving water transport and navigation on the water bodies. A Water resources Engineer is
required to collect, process and interpret data used in the design of hydrologic structures. He
is also required to establish key parameters like flood volume, precipitation amounts, surface
runoff volumes, evaporation amounts among others.
Providing safe water for the ever increasing rural and urban populations. Water quality
management is a key field of water resources engineering.
Ensuring that all water systems are properly maintained in a manner affordable to the users of
the water systems.
Finding alternative sources of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural use during
droughts.
Question 2
Examples of projects where a water resources engineers has to plan to control excess water
include;
i. Construction of Spillways (Safe value for a dam).
Maximum outflow rate
Available storage.
Design flood.
Environmental impact assessment
Probable maximum flood.
Economic viability of the project.
ii. Construction of Canals
Slope of canal.
Side slopes.
Environmental impact assessment

 Canal section.
Bed material.
Economic viability of the project.
Design velocity of water.
iii. Design and Construction of culverts.
Minimum diameter of culverts.
Design flow.
Economic viability of the project
Runoff volume.
Environmental impact assessment
Rainfall intensity.
Question 3
Projects where a water resource engineer has to plan to conserve the amount of water include;
i. Reservoir
Storage capacity.
Reservoir yield.
Environmental impact assessment.
Sedimentation.
Project economics
Evaporation rate.
Leakage.
Amount of pollutants.
Maintenance and operational cost.
ii. Valley Dam
Capacity of the valley dam.
Environmental impact assessment.
Evaporation rate.
Inflow rate.
Project economics
Population.
Maintenance and operational cost.
iii. Water supply system
Impurities.
Turbidity.
Coliform count.
Water quality.
Quantity of water available.
Population.
Maintenance and operational cost.
Project economics
Environmental impact assessment.

Question 4
Examples of the three situations where by water resources engineer needs to conserve the quality
of water include;
i. Waste water treatment schemes.
Sewerage should be treated before its released to the water bodies. Industrial wastes should
also be treated.The pollutants if not dealt with may have adverse effects on fish, wildlife
and may affect recreational sites like beaches.
ii. Water Irrigation schemes.
All impurities and micro-organisms are dangerous to humans and should be removed by
either chemical, mechanical or bacteriological means. Tests should be carried out to assess
the quality of water even during distribution.
iii. Water supply schemes.
All chemical impurities should be removed before using the water for irrigation since the pollutants have an
adverse effect on crops.

Question 5
Planning of water-Resources projects.
Steps involved;
Political

Definition of

Technical

Social and Enviromental

incentive.

alternatives

feasibility

acceptability

Financial feasibility

Political practicability

Planning is an important step in the development of a water resources project.

i. Recognition of a need for a project or political incentive.
ii. The next step is the conception of alternative technically feasible solutions which would
satisfy.
iii. The alternative proposals are subjected to an economy study that analyses their benefits
and costs and thus determine their economic feasibility.
iv. Evaluation of social and environmental impacts is an important step in planning.
v. Finally, Financial feasibility (Can the project be paid for?) and the Political practicality
(Is the project acceptable to the public?).
Enter the picture and play an important role in the choice of alternatives.

WATER VISION
Question 1
Green water is the rainfall that is stored in the soil and then evaporates or is incorporated in
plants and organisms. Its the main source of water for natural ecosystems and for rain fed
agriculture, which produces 60% of the worlds food. Green water can also be defined as
the water in the root zone, which is of key interest from an agricultural point of view. The
concept of green water was launched to highlight the significance of soil water and to make
a distinction to the water that is available in rivers, lakes and ground water aquifers
(Falkenmark, 1995). FAO (1997: 4) has defined green water as "... the water supply for all
non-irrigated vegetation, including forests and woodlands, grasslands and rain-fed crops".
A somewhat wider interpretation of green water may also be used, referring also to the
water that is available in the root zone.
Blue water is the renewable surface water run-off and ground water recharge. Is the main
source of human withdrawals and the traditional focus of water resource management.
It can also be defined as the water that is available in streams, lakes and the ground water
aquifers.
Availability:
Blue water available totals about 40,000 km3 a year. Of this, an estimated 3,800 km3,
roughly 10%, were withdrawn for human uses in 1995. of the water withdrawn, about
2,100 km3 were consumed. The remainder was returned to streams and acquifers, usually
with significant reduction in quality.
Question 2.
In tropical climates or tropical basins, a large amount of water is available on average over
the year, but its unequal distribution means that its not usable or that massive infrastructure
is required to abstract and to store it for later use, with considerable social and
environmental impacts.
In temperate climates adequate water resources are relatively evenly distributed over the
year, but they are used so intensively that surface and groundwater resources become
polluted and good-quality water becomes scarce.
Question 3.
Water is mainly used by people for drinking, cooking, bathing, cleaning and for some,
watering food plots. These are the main uses of water for mainly people. This water usage,
though crucial , is only a small part of the total. Worldwide, industry uses about twice as
much water as households, mostly for cooling in the production of electricity. Far more,
water is needed to produce food and fibre( cereals, fruits, meat, cotton) and maintain the
natural environment. Other uses may be irrigation especially on large agricultural lands.
Therefore the main uses for human purposes are water for food and rural development,
water for people and industry.
In conclusion, withdrawals for irrigation are 70% of the total.withdrawn for human uses2500 of 3800km3. withdrawals for industries are about 20% and those for municipal use
are about 10%.

Challenges include uneven distribution of the water sources along the globe, contamination
especially during transportation to consumers, running out of water especially in dry areas,
threats to nature and to people (fresh water ecosystems have been declining in some parts
of the worldfor hundreds of years-threatening the economic, social and environmental
security of human society and terrestrial ecosystems).
Question 4.
World Water Vision: Its Origin and Purpose
Over the past decades it has become gradually evident for those directly involved that there
is a chronic, pernicious crisis in the water world. The participants in the first World Water
Forum in Marrakech in 1997 called for a World Water Vision to increase awareness of the
water crises throughout the population and develop a widely shared view of how to bring
about sustainable use and development of water resources.
The world water vision draws on accumulated experience of the water sector, particularly
through sector visions and consultation for Water for People (or Vision 21), Water for Food
and Rural Development, Water and Nature, and Water in Rivers. It draws on the
contributions of regional groups of professionals and stakeholders from different subsectors
that have developed integrated regional Visions through regional and national consultations
in more that 15 regions. As the Vision developed and evolved, more and more networks of
civil society groups, NGOs, women, and environmental groups joined the consultations to
contribute to the document.
The participatory process that led to the WORLD WATER VISION makes it special. Since
1998, about 15,000 women and men at local, district, national, regional and global levels
have shared their aspirations and developed strategies for practical action towards
sustainable use and development of water resources. The recent availability of Internet
communications made such a consultation possible in the short time frame. This is not an
academic exercise. It is the start of a movement. Over the coming months and years
stakeholders will develop action plans to implement the recommendations of the World
Water Commission and the strategies presented herein.
The world water vision aspires to be an inspiration to women and men to overcome
obstacles and achieve fundamental changes. Its message is for everybody, particularly for
the leaders and professionals who have the power and knowledge to help people to turn
visions into reality. It challenges those directly impacted by the water crisis to initiate
action on their own and to call on their leaders to bring about sustainable water resources
use and development.
The Vision recognizes that if sustainable water resources use and development are to be
achieved, peoples roles must change. The main actors will be individuals and groups in
households and communities with new responsibilities for their use of water and waterrelated services, as part of a collective strategy. Public authorities will need to empower
and support them, and carry out the work that households and communities cannot manage
for themselves. Water-sector professionals and environmentalists will provide these
stakeholders with the information they need to participate in decision making and help
implement their decisions. All these groups working together can achieve this Vision.

THE ASWAN HIGH DAM

The Aswan high dam was constructed by the Egypt in 1960
Question 1
Reason for construction.
Aswan high dam was constructed to enable full utilization of the Nile water. There was
need to increase agricultural production to feed the ever increasing population now
estimated at six million people. The dam would provide water for irrigation.
The dam would also be used for the generation of the hydro electric-power.
Aswan high dam was constructed to store flood water in a reservoir (Lake Nasser). The
stored water would then be used by both Egpt and Sudan which used 55.5 * 10 9 m3
and 28.5* 10 9 m3 respectively.
Control floods resulting from seasonal variation of the River Nile discharge especially
during the flood season.
To promote tourism industry of Egypt.
Question two
The main features of the Aswan high dam:
This is a rock fill dam, 3600m long and 111m high. The width at the bottom is 980m
and 40m at the top.
A diversion channel situated on the eastern Nile bank side at middle of which are six
tunnels each of which bifurcates to form twelve branches. Each branch leads to a
hydraulic generation unit of a power station. 10*109 KWh is produced per annum.
Spillway located on the western side of the dam.
Relief wells to drain any water leakage.
Reservoir with a storage capacity of 162*109m3.
A core at the centre of the dam consisting of puddle clay to minimize water seepage.
A vertical cut off curtain extending below the core of the bedrock.
A horizontal impervious curtain at the dam
Question four
Benefits of the Aswan high dam:
Improvement of the summer rotations and guaranteed availability of irrigation water at
any predetermined period for agricultural production.
Expansion in rice cultivation
Agricultural expansion of 1.2 million acres of new land owing to increased water
availability.
Protection from high floods such as in 1964 and 1975 and from low floods and
droughts as in 1972, 1985, 1986 and 1987.
Generation of hydroelectric power estimated at 10*109 KWh per annum.
Improvement of navigation and further increase in tourism as a result of the stability of
water levels in the Nile course and navigation canals.
The completion of Toshka flood water storage about 150km south of Aswan to divert
excess floodwater to the western desert. This project would assist in cultivating some
areas of land around the Toshka depression and the new valley in the future when

sufficient quantities of water is stored in the depression or the ground water aquifers.
The dam enabled both Egypt and Sudan to begin a comprehensive study for optimal
utilization of the Nile waters to increase water resources for the benefit of both
countries. The first such project is the Jonglei canal south of Sudan, which is now more
than 60% completed.
Improvement of the quality of water. This is a result of long storage that purifies water
naturally.
Transfer of about one million acres from seasonal to perennial irrigation
Question five
Effects on the environment as a result of the construction of the dam:
Rise in River water levels- After degradation, the eroded materials move longitudinally
down stream and are deposited in the deeper cross sections which causes water levels to
rise in those reaches. The water level rose 1m during the period 1963-86.
Bank Erosion and meandering- The Erosion of the Nile banks is due to the following;

Meandering of the River

Ground water seepage from the bank.

Seepage of water from adjacent lands towards the River.

Wave action due to Navigation.

Reduction of the River slope due to degradation.

Reduction of water levels after construction of the Aswan Dam.

Water quality after the construction of the Dam- Water released from the Reservoir is
silt free and the discharge has reduced. The quality of water has deteriorated owing to
increased industrial and agricultural discharges.
The Down stream scour holes- Scour holes exist downstream of the existing barrages at
Esna, Nagga, Hamadi and Assiut. It has been observed through periodic hydrographic
surveys of these scour holes from 1973-1982 that their volumes had increased by 30%
under a constant datum. Scour holes can however be treated by filling them with rip-rap
placed over an inverted filter.
Siltation in the Reservoir- The mean annual sediment load of the Nile at Aswan has
been estimated at 134 million tons. Of recent siltation has been confine to the most
southern 200Km of the reservoir. Particularly heavy siltation occurs in the area between
360 and 430Km south of the dam. Siltation generally depends on the volume of the
flood water and its distribution in the reservoir.
Eutrophication trends-Lake Nasser can be visualized as a huge biological reactor which
releases a large number of planktonic organisms. Due to the stagnant river conditions in
the two Delta branches, Rossetta and Damietta, cyanophyceae reapper in large numbers
during the summer. In addition to causing taste and odour problems, these undesirable
organisms are toxic to certain fish.
Evaporation from the reservoir-The total annual losses at the average lake level of
175m above sea level is estimated at 13.7109 m3, which is about 11% of water stored.
Water loss from evaporation is maximum during the flooding season.
Coastal Erosion-Some scientists believe that recent erosion in the Nile Delta has
resulted from the change of the Nile regime caused by construction of the Aswan Dam,
which prevents silt releases to the Mediterranean. The silt that used to be carried to the
Damietta and Rossetta estuaries has decreased considerably since the dam was

constructed.
Drainage before and after Aswan High dam -Due to the absence of proper drainage,
both salinity and water table in many areas has increased. The conversion of basin
irrigation to perennial irrigation took place in parallel with construction of Aswan Dam.
Farmers in general are over-irrigating, causing an alarming rise in the water table.
Social Impacts-The Aswan region has become a focus of economic activity since the
construction of the dam. New population centres have emerged around the dam area.
The population has increased from 280,000 in 1960 to around 1million, mainly because
of increase in job opportunities. Furthermore, the deserted Nubia, flooded by the
reservoir has began to flourish.
Fish Production -The tilapia species are the most prominent in fish landings, followed
by lates niloticus, catfishes and cyrinds. Recently, tilapia galilaea has become the most
abundant species in fish landings. Sardines which breed at the estuaries of the Nile have
almost disappeared. The mineral rich silts which nourished the sardines are now
deposited behind the High Dam.
Effect of High Aswan on soil fertility-The trapping of sediment in Lake Nasser, it is
claimed has affected the fertility of of the old lands and thus chemical fertilizers have to
be applied to maintain fertility. More significant to the fertility requirement of the land
is the increase in yield through reliable supply of irrigation water, the growing of two or
more crops per year, and the resulting high levels of production with consequent
increase in withdrawals from the soil. The withdraws require replacement.
Effect on Historical Monuments-Lake Nasser did inundate some monuments but the
major ones, Abu-Simbel and Kalabsha Temples were saved by International efforts.
These were reconstructed on higher elevations. However, during floods, temples and
monuments were flooded. It appears unlikely that the High Dam had a significant
adverse effect on the monuments downstream.
Health Impacts-Development schemes along the shores of the reservoir have affected
water quality and the aquatic ecosystem of the reservoir. Furthermore the deterioration
of the reservoir has affected downstream river users. Another serious consequence is
the propagation of schistosomiases and the northward migration of malaria mosquito
vectors from Sudan.
Question six.
Do the over all benefits exceed the effects on the environment?
In my opinion the overall benefits exceed the effects on the environment.
The quality of life of the people of Egypt has improved significantly since the construction of the
dam. Agricultural production has risen since water is now available for irrigation all year round,
a lot of hydro-electric power is being generated at the demand this has led to industrialization of
the area and subsequent availability of employment opportunities for the people.
A lot of revenue is raised from tourism and the dam provides a means of flood control during the
flooding season. Moreover, the harmful effects on the environment can be cantered for.

THE KARIBA DAM, ZAMBEZI RIVER BASIN

Question One
The purpose of the Kariba Dam project was solely hydropower generation though it has turned
out that both fishery and tourism became important benefit
Question Two
The main features of the project.
Kariba dam is a double curvature concrete arch dam of height 617 meters
It has 6 spillway gates each of width 8.8 m and a height of 9 meters
The discharge capacity of the spillway is 9500 m3/s
The length of the reservoir is 280 km north a minimum retention level of 488.5 m and a
minimum operating level of 475.50 meters
The dam has a total storage capacity of 180.6 km3, 64.8 km3 of which is live storage
The dam has a maximum surface area of 5577m2
The depth of the stilling pool is 78 m and its volume is 410 X 106 m3
The dam has a total generation capacity of 1320 Mw as shown below.

Kariba South Bank Power Cavern 6 X 117.5 Mw = 705 Mw Max capacity

Kariba North Bank Power Cavern 4 X 15335 Mw = 615 Mw Max capacity

Question Three
The challenges experienced during construction of the Kariba dam.
Two record floods, one in 1957 with a peak of 8200 m3/s and another with a peak of
16000 m3/s the following year. Originally, Kariba had been designed for the safe
passage of a 1 in 10,000 year flood
Unforeseen geological difficulties. There was only one borehole drilled at the selected
power house location
The first civil works contractor lacked experience, went into receivership and the
project was delayed.
There were political difficulties between Zambia and Zimbabwe which led to closure of
the border which meant that the hydro electric equipment had to be re-routed through
Angola or Tanzania. The first two generators came through Angola but then war broke
out in Angola and the last five generators came through Beira in Mozambique Via
Southern Rhodesia for which a special permit had to be negotiated.
The construction of Kariba caused a large number of fatal accidents probably more than
100. Men were caught in machines, electrocuted, crushed by falling rock, killed on the
road, plunged to death after scaffolding collapsed, and so forth.
Question Four
The history of the Zambezi River Authority may be said to have begun in November 1964
when the Central African Council appointed the Inter-Territorial Hydro Commission
In May 1951 the commission recommended the development of a dam at Kariba and hydroelectric power station.
In June 1954 the Hydro-electric Power Act was passed which provided for the establishment
of the federal Hydro-Electric Board charged with the function of coordinating the generation
and supply of electricity within the Federation.

In May 1956, the federal Power Board was established pursuant to the enactment of the
Electricity Act. This was a reconstitution of the Hydro Electric Board. The new Board was
vested with the power to construct Dams and power stations, to transmit electric power and
sell same to Electricity undertakings. A hydrological data collection organization operating in
each territory was also established.
In 1963, the federation was dissolved. The integrated systems for the control of generation of
power and its transmission continued to be operated and was fully developed as a single
system under joint ownership and control of the two governments of Northern and Southern
Rhodesia under the Central African Power Corporation (CAPCO) which was established in
the same year.
CAPCO was vested with the assets and liabilities of the Federal Power Board. The central
function of CAPCO was to supply electricity to electricity undertakings in the two territories
while its conduct was regulated by a higher authority for power comprising two ministers
appointed by each of the Governments.
In 1987 the Zambezi River Authority Act was passed simultaneously in the two states of
Zambia and Zimbabwe dissolving CAPCO and reconstituting it as Zambezi River Authority
(ZRA).
CAPCO was divested if its electricity production and bulk distribution assets which were
allocated to the National Electricity undertakings of the two states.
The ZRA was therefore left with the responsibility of the operation and maintenance of
Kariba dam Complex, investigation and development of the new dam sites on the Zambezi
River and analyzing and disseminating hydrological and environmental information
pertaining to the Zambezi River and Lake Kariba.
Question Five
The Environmental effects of the Kariba Dam project.
Drowned vegetation- Almost 1,000 km2 of the reservoir area were declared as
preparation to the gillnet fishery. The resulting vegetation caused the formation of H2S
which when released caused severe erosion of copper works, both in the power house
and downstream.
Operation Noah and creation of wildlife sanctuaries- Operation Noah began in response
to concerns about the fate or animals that would get drowned when the reservoir would
start to fill. A large variety of 4,000 to 6,000 large animals and numerous small ones
were rescued.
Increased Habitat for some species- The Kariba Lake Environment has been beneficial
to some species such as crocodiles and aquatic birds. The number of crocodiles on the
Southern shore was around 10,000 in 1985. In the early stages of the lake, the number
of hippos and buffaloes may have declined but has since risen due to the development
of Fanicum grassland on the shore.
Change from Riverine to Lacustrine Environment and effect on fish- Pre-impoundment
studies on the mid Zambezi identified 28 species in the area upstream of Kariba. The
number of species is now 42, including those in the reservoir.
In the reservoir, cyprumids which need flowing water have almost disappeared, lichidds
have become the most common fish in littaral zone. Fishery and fish farming have
become one of the most important benefits of the Kariba project.
High DDT Concentrations- DDT has been found to be the most pursuant pollutant in

Lake Kariba. DDT was extensively used during and after construction of the Dam to
eradicate the tsetse fly in the region and also upstream in Namibias Caprivi strip and
from agricultural areas upstream of the reservoir.
Downstream Effects on fish- Eels were found in the mid-Zambezi. Adult eels live in
fresh water for 20 years before migrating to the sea to spawn. The Dam has created a
barrier for the eels and their number has declined in the mid-Zambezi. The African
lungfish which lives in tropical viels, pans and swamps have perished and this may be a
direct effect of building Kariba.
Resettlement of people into wildlife habitats- Some of the resettlement areas had
prefilic wildlife before resettlement took place. The resettlement of an essentially
farming community caused a conflict with the wildlife in the area.
Downstream effects- As Kariba regulates most of the incoming floods, the number of
times that downstream Mana pools are inundated is less than in the pre-dam period.
This reduces the deposit of fresh alluvial material, which had led to a decline in grazer
density. At the same time the occurrence of the dominant canopy tree Faidherbia albida
declined and the occurance of termites macrotermes increased. The seasonal high and
low floods do not occur much as they did before. As a result, the Zambezi River does
not break its banks as it used to, and the delta flood plain. Ecology has been negatively
affected. Shrimp catches have decreased, flood plains have been invaded by upl and
vegetation because of the absence of animal flooding, mangrove are dying off because
of poor flooding of coastal areas. Productivity of artesianal fisheries in the delta area
has decreased and wildlife populations in the delta have been negatively impacted
Question Seven
The lessons learned from this project.
The design of spillways for large dams should make allowance for hydrological
uncertainty. For safety, the dam spillway should be designed for the Probable Maximum
Flood (PMF), which would be the highest flood that can physically occur.
Hydroelectric schemes may have far more positive implications than just the production
of electricity.
Major hydropower projects can lead to continuously low tarrifs, with major benefits for
the residential, commercial and industrial consumers.
Where resettlement process leads to community fragmentation, one of its potential
consequences can be a loss of cultural identity.