Cable fault detector

Abstract:
Here we present a system to detect and locate the exact fault and
fault location in the cable in a network. The circuit uses discrete
components along with ICs. The faults in the network of cables
can be cable open, cable short. The circuit will check the cables
in the network for the above mentioned faults.

Also the exact

location of the fault can be found out using this circuit considering
the capacitance of the cable.

The circuit considering the

capacitance of the cable. The circuit can be used to detect and

locate the fault in the cable in the networks like telephone
network, cable television distribution system or any cable
network.
Introduction:
For understanding the overall functioning, refer to the block
diagram of the cable fault locator shown in fig.In a network, three
cases may exist: cable open, short or it can be in the ideal
condition.
In the configuration, two possibilities are considered.
The cable open, cable short. If the cable is open, it shows high
impedance which causes the output to be high.

If the cable is

shorted, the output is. In the second configuration, resistance

parameter is considered to be important.

Depending upon the

cable resistance the location of the fault can be detected.

In the third configuration, the capacitance of the cable plays a

very important role. If the cable length is more, the capacitance
is more.

This capacitance can be taken in astable mode

configuration of IC 555.

The output frequency which varies

depending upon the capacitance value is given to F/V converter.

The output D. C. Voltage form IC 2917 F/V converter is taken as
output the output voltage for specific cable length is reference for
cable fault detection.
Block diagram of Cable fault detector :

Technical Specification:
1.Power supply
2.ADC7107
3.Wheatstone resistor bridge

4.IC2907
5.IC555
6.Cable

CIRCUIT 1:The circuit is based on the simple principle of

V=IxR
For the open circuit and ideal conditions we have
to take the resistance offered by the cable into account.
From the above equation it is clear that if the
current (I) flowing through the cable is kept constant then
according to the variation in the resistance (R), there will be the
variation in the voltage (V) at the output of the circuit.

CIRCUIT 2:For The Measurement of the Distance of Fault

from the Circuit:For location of the fault, the capacitance of the cable is
taken into account i.e. capacitance of the cable varies with the
distance.
For this purpose the timer IC 555 is operated in the
astable multivibrator configuration. The cable will be connected
in parallel with the capacitor connected between pin 2 and

ground.

Now as a capacitance of the cable changes with

distance,

the

frequency

of

astable

multivibrator

changes

accordingly. This frequency change is converted into voltage for

the measurement purpose by the frequency to voltage converter
IC LM 2917.

LM2907/LM2917
Frequency to Voltage Converter
The LM2907, LM2917 series are monolithic frequency to
voltage converters with a high gain op amp/comparator designed
to operate a relay, lamp, or other load when the input
frequency reaches or exceeds a selected rate. The tachometer
uses a charge pump technique and offers frequency
doubling for low ripple, full input protection in two versions
(LM2907-8, LM2917-8) and its output swings to ground for a
zero frequency input.
The op amp/comparator is fully compatible with the tachometer
and has a floating transistor as its output. This feature
allows either a ground or supply referred load of up to 50 mA.
The collector may be taken above VCC up to a maximum VCE
of 28V.
The two basic configurations offered include an 8-pin device
with a ground referenced tachometer input and an internal
connection between the tachometer output and the op amp
non-inverting input. This version is well suited for single
speed or frequency switching or fully buffered frequency to
voltage conversion applications.
The more versatile configurations provide differential tachometer
input and uncommitted op amp inputs. With this
version the tachometer input may be floated and the op amp
becomes suitable for active filter conditioning of the tachometer
output.
Both of these configurations are available with an active
shunt regulator connected across the power leads. The
regulator clamps the supply such that stable frequency to

voltage and frequency to current operations are possible

with any supply voltage and a suitable resistor.
Features:

Ground referenced tachometer input interfaces directly

with variable reluctance magnetic pickups
Op amp/comparator has floating transistor output
50 mA sink or source to operate relays, solenoids,
meters, or LEDs
Frequency doubling for low ripple
Tachometer has built-in hysteresis with either differential
input or ground referenced input
Built-in zener on LM2917
0.3% linearity typical
Ground referenced tachometer is fully protected from
damage due to swings above VCC and below ground
Wheatstone bridge:
A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an
unknown electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge
circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. Its
operation is similar to the original potentiometer. It was invented
by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and popularized
by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the Wheatstone
bridge's initial uses was for the purpose of soils analysis and
comparison

In the figure, is the unknown resistance to be measured; ,

and are resistors of known resistance and the resistance of is
adjustable. If the ratio of the two resistances in the known leg
is equal to the ratio of the two in the unknown leg
,
then the voltage between the two midpoints (B and D) will be
zero and no current will flow through the galvanometer . If the
bridge is unbalanced, the direction of the current indicates
whether is too high or too low. is varied until there is no
current through the galvanometer, which then reads zero.
Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to
extremely high accuracy. Therefore, if , and are known to
high precision, then can be measured to high precision. Very
small changes in disrupt the balance and are readily detected.
At the point of balance, the ratio of

Alternatively, if , , and are known, but is not adjustable,

the voltage difference across or current flow through the meter
can be used to calculate the value of , using Kirchhoff's circuit
laws (also known as Kirchhoff's rules). This setup is frequently
used in strain gauge and resistance thermometer measurements,
as it is usually faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to
adjust a resistance to zero the voltage.
ADC 7107 :
The Maxim IC7107/7106 are monolithic analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs). They have very high input impedances and
require no external display drive circuitry. On-board active

components include polarity and digit drivers, segment decoders,

voltage reference and a clock circuit. The ICL7106 will directly
drive a nonmultiplexed liquid crystal display (LCD), whereas the
ICL7107 will directly drive a common anode light emitting diode
(LED) display.
Versatility and accuracy are inherent features of these converters.
The dual-slope conversion technique automatically rejects
interference signals common in industrial environments. The true
differential input and reference are particularly useful when
making ratiometric measurements (ohms or bridge transducers).
Maxim has added a zero-integrator phase to the ICL7106 and
ICL7107, eliminating overrange hangover and hysteresis effects.
Finally, these devices offer high accuracy by lowering rollover
error to less than one count and zero reading drift to less than
1V/C.
These devices are used in a wide range of digital panel meter
applications. Most applications, however, involve the
measurement and display of analog data.

IC 555 working :

IC
555

Vcc
(5 to 15 v)

RA

RESET

Vcc

Output

Discharge

RB
2

Threshold

Control
Voltage

2 Trigger

1 GND

IC 555 ASTABLE TIMER CIRCUIT

IC 555 ASTABLE TIMER CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

FUNCTIONAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
PIN DAIGRAM OF IC 555 DIAGRAMS

IC 555 AS AN ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR:-

0.01f

The type 555 timer connected for free running or

astable operation is as shown in figure.
During the charging up period, transistor T1 is held
open by the flip-flop and the capacitor charges through the series
of resistance Ra and Rb. When the voltage across the capacitor
reaches the reference level of the upper comparator (2Vcc/3), the
comparator changes the state of the flip-flop and this turns the
transistor T1 ON. The capacitor discharges through the resistor
Rb, until its voltage reaches the reference level of the comparator
(Vcc/3). This comparator changes the state of the flip-flop again,
which in turn makes the transistor T1 OFF and the cycle repeats
itself.
Form the above description, the charging time is determined
by the equation:T1 = C (Ra + Rb) loge Vcc Vcc/3

Vcc 2Vcc/3

The above equation immediately follows form the fact that

the charging of the capacitor starts from Vcc/3 instead of 0.
Further the charging continues up to 2Vcc/3 after which the upper
comparator changes state. The above equation simplifies to:

T1 = C (Ra + Rb) loge ^ 2

T2 = 0.7 (Ra + Rb) C

The capacitor discharges form 2Vcc/3 towards 0V at which

the lower comparator changes the state.

Hence, the discharge

period T2 is determined by the equation:

T2 = C Rb loge 0 0Vcc/3
0 Vcc/3
T2 = C Rb loge^2
T2 = 0.7 Rb C.
In the above equation Ra is not present because the
capacitor discharges through Rb only.

This equation further is

simplified to:
T2 = 0.7 Rb C
The total period is, therefore,
T = T1 + T2
T = 0.7 (Ra + Rb) C
Thus, it can be seen that charging and discharging intervals
are different by 0.7 Ra C.

POWER SUPPLY

Power supply is the first and the most important part of our project.For our project
we require +5v regulated power supply with maximum current rating 500 mA
Following basic building blocks are required to generated
power supply.

Rectifier

230vac

Filter

3 Terminal
Vtg. Regulator

Reg.o/p

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER :

Step down transformer is the first part or regulated

power supply . To step down the mains 230V A.C. we require
step down transformer. Following are the main characteristic of
electronic transformer.
I
II
III

IV

Power transformer are usually designed to operate from

source of low impedance at a single freq.
It is required to construct with sufficient insulation of
necessary dielectric strength.
Transformer rating are expressed in volt-amp. The voltamp of each secondary winding or windings is added
for the total secondary VA. To this are added the load
losses.
Temperature rise of a transformer is decided on two
well known factors i.e. losses on transformer and heat
dissipating or cooling facility provided unit.

RECTIFIER UNIT:

Rectifier unit is a ckt. Which converts A.C. into

pulsating D.C. Generally semi-conducting diode is used
as rectifying element due to its property of conducting
current in one direction only Generally there are two
types of rectifier.
1 Half wave rectifier
2 Full wave rectifier.
In half wave rectifier only half cycle of mains A.C.
rectified so its efficiency is very poor. So we use full
wave bridge type rectifier, in which four diodes are
used. In each half cycle, two diodes conduct at a time
and we get maximum efficiency at o/p.
Following are the main advantages and is
advantages of a full-wave bridge type rectifier ckt.

ADVANTAGES :
1 The need of center tapped transformer is eliminated.
2 The o/p is twice that of center tap circuit for the
same secondary voltage.
3 The PIV rating of diode is half of the center taps
circuit.

DISADVANTAGES :
1 It requires four diodes.

2 As during each half cycle of A.C. input, two

diodes are conducting therefore voltage drop in
internal resistance of rectifying unit will be twice
as compared to center tap circuit
Filter circuit :

Generally a rectifier is required to produce pure D.C. supply for using at

various places in the electronic circuit, However, the o/p of rectifier has pulsating
character i.e. if such a D.C. is applied to electronic circuit it will produce a hum
i.e. it will contain A.C. and D.C. components. The A.C. components are
undesirable and must be kept away from the load. To do so a filter circuit is used
which removes (or filter out) the A.C. components reaching the load. Obviously a
filter circuit is installed between rectifier and voltage regulator. In our project we
use capacitor filter because of his low cost, small size and litile weight and good
characteristic. Capacitors are connected in parallel to the rectifier o/p because it
passes A.C. but does not pass D.C. at all.
Three terminal voltage regulators :
A voltage regulator is a ckt. That supplies constant
voltage regardless of change in load current. IC voltage regulators
are versatile and relatively cheaper. The 7800 series consists of
three terminal positive voltage regulators. these ICs are designed
as fixed voltage regulator and with adequate heat sink, can
deliver o/p current in excess of 1A. These devices do not require
external component. This IC also has internal thermal overload
protection and internal short circuit and current limiting protection
for our project we use 7805 voltage regulator IC.

7805
7812
1
T3

D1

D3

D2

D4

230VAC
@50HZ

VIN

C1

VOUT

2
GND

+5V

3
+

C3

1
GND

0-10 , 500 mA

Design to step down transformer :

The following information must be available to the

designer before the commences for the design of transformer.
1
2
3
4

Power output
operating voltage.
Frequency Range
Efficiency and Regulation

Size of core :
Size of core is one of the first consideration in regard of core
and winding configuration used. Generally following formula is
used to find area or size of core.

Ai =

(p1/0.87)

Where
Ai = Area of cross section in sq. cm.

P1 = Primary voltage

In Transformer P1 = P2

For our project we required +5V regulated output. So

transformer secondary rating is 12V, 500 mA.
So secondary power wattage is,

P2

12 X 500 X 10

w.
=

6w.

so ,
Ai =
=

(6/0.87)
2.62

Generally 10% of area should be added to core accommodate all

turns for low Iron losses and compact size.
So,
Ai = 2.88.

Turns per volt

Turns per volt of transformer are given by relation
10,000
Turns/volt = ------------------4.44f B Ai
Here;

F is the frequency in Hz
B is flux density in Wb/m2
A is net area of cross section.
For project for 50Hz the turns per volt for 0.91 wb/m2,
Turns per volt = 50/Ai
= 50/ 2.88
= 17
Thus for primary winding = 220 X 17 = 3800.
For secondary winding = 12 X 17 = 204

Rectifier design :

R. M. S. Secondary voltage at secondary of transformer is 12V. So,

maximum voltage Vm across Secondary is
= RMS voltage *1.41
= 12* 1.41
=16.97
D.C. output voltage at rectifier o/p is
Vdc = 2Vm/3.14
= 2*16.97/3.14
= 10.80 v
PIV

= 2 Vm
= 2 X 16.97

= 34V
Design of filter capacitor
Formula for calculating filter capacitor is,

1
C=

----------------------------4. 3 r f RL

r = ripple present at o/p of rectifier.

(Which is maximum 0.1 for full wave rectifier ?)
f = Frequency of mains A.C.
R = I/p impedance of voltage regulator IC.

1
C = ------------------- = 1000F
4 3 0.1*50*28

IC 7805 (Voltage regulator IC):Specifications :-

Available o/p D.C.voltage = + 5V

Line regulation
= 0.03
Load regulation
= 0.5
Vin maximum
= 35 V
Ripple Rejection
= 66-180(db)

TESTING AND TROUBLESHOOTING

Before soldering in components:

Check that component agree with the parts list (value and
power of resistors, value and voltage rating of capacitor,
etc.) if in any doubt double check the polarized components
(diodes, capacitor, rectifiers etc)
If there is a significant time elapse between circuit, take the
trouble to read the article; the information is often given in a
very condensed from. Try to get most important point out of
the description of the operation of the circuit, even if you
dont understand exactly what is supposed to happen.
If there is any doubt that some component may not be exact
equivalent, check that they are compatible.
Only use good quality IC sockets.
Check the continuity of the tracks on the PCB (and through
plated holes with double sided boards) with a resistance
meter or continuity tester.
Make sure that all drilling, filling and other heavy work is
done before mounting any components.
If possible keep any heat sinks well isolated from other
components.
Make a wiring diagram if the layout involves lots of wires
spread out in all directions.
Check that the connectors used are compatible and that
they are mounted the right way round.

 Do not reuse wire unless it is of good quality. Cut off the ends
and strip it a new.
After mounting the component:

Inspect all soldered joints by eye or using a magnifying glass

and check them with a continuity tester. Make sure there are
no dry joints and no tracks are short circuited by poor
soldering.
Ensure that the positions of all the component agree with the
mounting diagram
Check that any links needed are present and that they are in
the right positions to give the desired configuration.
Check all ICs in their sockets (see that there are no pins bent
under any ICs, no near ICs are interchanged etc.)
Check all the polarized components (diodes, capacitor etc)
are fitted correctly.
Check the wiring (watch for off cuts of components leads) at
the same time ensure that there are no short-circuits
between potentiometer, switches, etc. and there immediate
surrounding (other components or the case). Do the same
with mounting hardware such as spacers, nuts and bolts etc.
Ensure that the supply transformer is located as closely as
possible to the circuits (this could have a significant
improvement in the case of critical signal level).
Check that the connections to the earth are there and that
they are of good contact.
Make sure the circuit is working correctly before spending
any time putting it into a case.
And if it breaks down:

Recheck everything suggested so far.

 Re-read the article carefully and carefully anything about

which you are doubtful.
Check the supply voltage or voltages carefully and make
sure that they reach the appropriate components especially
pins of the ICs (test the pins of ICs and not the soldered
joints).
Check currents (generally they are stated on the circuit
diagram or in the text). Dont be too quick to suspect the ICs
of overheating.
If possible check the operation of the circuit in the separate
stages as a general rule follow the course of the signal.
While checking voltages, currents, frequencies or testing the
circuits with an oscilloscope work systematically and take
notes.
And dont forget to switch the power on and check the fuses.

PCB DESIGN
Designing of PCB :
I)

After selection of electronic circuit, make a block

diagram of various circuits to know various interconnections required, which will help in reducing the
number of wires.
II)
The designer should have the complete idea of the
circuit regarding the function and signal flows through.
III) Keep each and very component you need, while
starting the designing.
IV) Use of templates is essential if you are new designer, if
the design is manual i.e. hand made and not with
software such as Orcas, Auto CAD, Pads, Ideas, Circuit
maker, etc.
V) Standard PCB size should be decided in the beginning
only.
VI) Preferably, layout ands artwork should be in 1:2 scales.
VII) Sequential stage after PCB size is decided.
VIII) Component placement.
IX) Track routing i.e. layout.
X)
Artwork making with ink or ready made tapes and pads.

XI)
XII)

XIII)
XIV)

XV)
XVI)

While routing the tracks, carrying AC mains voltage,

consider the safety rules ands regulations.
In analog and digital systems together, care should be
taken that analog and digital ground will not mix each
other affecting the stability ands fluctuations in the
display.
In power system i.e. high current, the track width and
the track spacing should be as maximum as possible.
While placing the components on the PCB preferably
the load on PCB, should be evenly distributed to avoid
the problems at completion stage during wavesoldering i.e. warping of PCB etc.
To avoid weakening of the pup tool, the perforation
length should be kept minimum i.e.<40 mm.
For the manually shouldered components vent i.e. cut
pads should be provided to avoid the blocking of the
holes during shouldering
COMPOMENT PLACEMENT :

I)
II)

III)
IV)
V)
VI)

Preferably, place the component in X-Y direction

subjected to mechanical construction.
All components should be flat mounted i.e. flat
placed to avoid of leads and for easy
requirements. However in case of space limitation
the components such as resistors, diodes, etc.
may be mounted vertically which doesnt affect
the performance.
In case separate analog and digital ground.
Orientation of multi-lead components(e.g.
switches, Ics) should be connected in between the
analog and digital ground .
Sufficient clearance is provided around component
so that inversion or replacement ands repair is
easy.
The design should such that minimum jumpers are
allowed.

VII) It is preferable that, components like present,

coils, and trim pots, etc. which alignment of
calibration are placed in such that, they are
accessible after the assembly of the PCB on
cabinet also.
VIII) If the components are not flush mounted, provide
the sleeve for leads.

APPLICATIONS:1.

In Cable Networks
A) In Telephone Cable Network
B) In Cable Tv Distribution System

2.

In Any Type of System Having Large Hardware Section.

For the systems containing enormous amount of hardware,
if any fault persists in the cable then it is very difficult to
detect and locate the fault.

In such cases this system is

employed for the purpose of fault detection and location of

fault. In such cases a lookup table for all the cables in the
circuit is prepared and the corresponding action is taken.

Component List:
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Component
Power supply
Wheatstone bridge
LED display
ADC 7107
IC 2907
Cable
IC 555

Costing :

Qty.
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

No.

Component

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Power supply
Wheatstone bridge
LED display
ADC 7107
IC 2907
Cable
IC555

Cost
item

per

Time management :
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Nature of the activity

Servey and searching of project
Finalization of project title
Selection of components
Fabrication of basic structure
Machining and assembly of sub assemblies
Assembly of the main project
Testing and trials to be taken.
Result preparation
Documentation
Report preperation

Time study
15 days
15 days
8
10
10
15
4
2
8
8