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STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
APPLIED METALLURGY

Lecture 2.3.1 Introduction to the

Engineering Properties of Steels
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
To present the essential engineering properties of structural steels, introducing their
principal metallurgical characteristics.
PREREQUISITES
None
RELATED LECTURES
Lecture 2.1: Characteristics of Iron-Carbon Alloys
Lecture 2.2: Manufacturing and Forming Processes
SUMMARY
This lecture provides a brief introduction to the crystalline nature of metals and the
structure-sensitivity of the material properties. It explains the effect of dislocations on
mechanical strength and demonstrates the use of the tensile stress/strain curve as the main
means of characterizing strength. It introduces the concept of Poisson's ratio, multi-axial
stress states, strain hardening and the influences of temperature and strain rate. It describes
the metallurgical and mechanical means of improving strength. It introduces the concept
of hardness.

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Nature of Metals
Metallic bonding is a consequence of the metal atoms giving up valence electrons to a
'free electron gas'. Metallic structures at the atomic level are then envisaged as almost
close-packed arrays of metal ions surrounded by the electron gas. The bonding is, in most
cases, non-directional. As a consequence the common metallic crystal structures are facecentred cubic, e.g. Cu, Al, Ni, or body-centred cubic, e.g. Fe. (Some metals exist with a
hexagonal close-packed structure, e.g. Zn, Cd, but these are not commonly used for
structural applications.)

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Metals (and alloys) with cubic structures exhibit four characteristic metallic properties,
namely:

good ductility (or malleability).

high thermal conductivity.
high electrical conductivity.
metallic lustre.

Ductility is a consequence of the lack of directionality in the bonding of the atoms and the
close-packed nature of the crystal structures which normally allows profuse
crystallographic slip to occur under stress. The non-directionality in the bonding also
allows thermal vibrations to be readily transmitted from one vibrating atom to its
neighbours, hence the high thermal conductivity. The existence of free electrons provides
for high electrical conductivity. These free electrons are also responsible for metallic
lustre since incident light of a wide range of wavelengths can be readily absorbed and reradiated.

1.2 Structure-Sensitive and Structure-Insensitive Properties

Before embarking on an examination of the properties of interest, the meaning of
structure-sensitivity and structure-insensitivity, in the context of material properties, must
be clarified.
Structure-insensitive properties are those which are not influenced significantly by
changes in microstructure or macrostructure. It is recognised that many of the physical
properties of a material, e.g. elastic modulus, bulk density, specific heat, and coefficient of
thermal expansion, do not vary other than by small amounts from specimen to specimen of
a given material, even if the different specimens have been subjected to very different
working and/or heat treatment processes. This insensivity is present despite the fact that
these processes may have produced quite substantial microstructural and macrostructural
modifications. On the other hand most of the mechanical properties are very dependent on
these modifications. Thus, for instance, the yield strength, ductility and fracture strength
are seen to be structure-sensitive.

2. STRENGTH
2.1 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation
For an understanding of the mechanical behaviour of metals, it is necessary to consider
both elastic and plastic deformation. Elastic deformation is reversible, i.e. deformation
lasts only as long as load is applied. Hooke's laws connect elastic strain with stress as
follows:
=E.
=G.
where

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and - are the uniaxial stress and strain respectively
and - are the shear stress and shear strain.
E - is the Young's modulus (210000 N/mm2)
G - is the shear modulus (80000 N/mm2)
Response of a simple lattice to shear loading is shown in Figure 1. Initially the response is
elastic, Figure 1(b), i.e. when the load is removed all the deformation is recovered.
Beyond a limiting stress known as the yield stress, the deformation becomes elasticplastic, Figure 1(c); when the load is removed only the elastic deformation reverses and
the plastic deformation remains, Figure 1(d). This figure shows that crystallographic
planes have moved against each other. Simple equations for plastic deformation
(corresponding to Hooke's law for elastic deformation) do not exist.

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Theoretical estimates of the critical shear stress required to move a crystallographic plane
one slip unit give crit ~ G/(2). Measurements show that the highest strength steels attain
approximately 10% of the theoretical strength. However structural steels have strengths
which are two orders of magnitude less than the theoretical value. Therefore, there must be
a mechanism which facilitates the slipping of crystallographic planes. This mechanism is
the presence of lattice defects called dislocations. Figure 2 shows an example of a simple
dislocation. During plastic deformation, a dislocation moves through the atomic lattice
within the crystal, Figure 3.

A simple analogy for dislocation motion is to consider a carpet containing a ruck. By

applying a small force to the ruck, it can be moved over the length of the carpet resulting
in an overall displacement of the carpet by a small increment. In the absence of the ruck, a
very large force would be required to overcome the friction between the complete carpet
and the floor.

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Dislocations distort the surrounding lattice elastically. Some areas are compressed whilst
others are stretched. These elastically deformed regions interact with other defects, i.e.
with solute atoms, with other dislocations, with grain boundaries and precipitates. These
obstacles impede dislocation movement making plastic deformation more difficult.

2.2 Stress-Strain Curve for Simple Tension Specimen

The mechanical properties of materials are determined using standardised test pieces and
testing procedures. For ductile materials like most steels, tensile tests are the commonly
applied testing method. Brittle materials are usually tested by bending or compression.
Tensile properties are usually measured using long and narrow specimens (Figure 4)
which guarantee a uniaxial stress state. Round cross-sections are preferred, although
rectangular specimens are employed for plate and strip and for the determination of deep
drawing properties. Important parameters that have to be controlled during tensile tests are
strain rate and testing temperature. The strain rate is controlled by the cross-head speed of
the testing machine; the temperature can be regulated by a furnace or a cooling chamber.

Load (F) and elongation (L) are measured during testing, from which the stress ()-strain
() curve can be obtained by taking the test piece dimensions into account. The nominal or
engineering stress n is the load F divided by the original cross-section area So:

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n = F/So

(1)

The nominal or engineering strain n is the ratio of the change in length (L-Lo) to the
original length Lo:
n = (L - Lo) / Lo = L / Lo

(2)

Figures 5 and 6 show the stress-strain curves obtained by Equations (1) and (2) for two
types of steel.

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The engineering stress-strain curve can be divided into three regions: elastic deformation,
uniform plastic elongation with continuously increasing stress ( u) and non-uniform
plastic elongation ( >u).
In most metals there is a gradual transition from elastic to plastic behaviour and it is
necessary to define a proof stress, usually Rp0,1 or Rp0,2 in order to characterise the onset of
yielding. These are stresses at which a permanent elongation of 0,1 or 0,2% of the initial
gauge length is obtained.
Some metals and especially mild steels show a discontinuity between the elastic and
plastic regimes with a marked yield point followed by a short period of non-uniform
plastic strain (Figure 6). This yielding phenomenon is described by:

the upper yield stress ReH at the initiation of yielding.

the lower yield stress ReL, which is the stress value during propagation of the
Lders bands.
the Lders strain Ld (about 1-2% for mild steels).

The reason for this behaviour is that the dislocations are pinned by interstitially dissolved
Carbon and/or Nitrogen atoms. These dislocations have to be unpinned by the upper yield
stress. Once the dislocations are released they can continue to move at the lower yield
stress. This process does not take place homogeneously over the whole specimen.
Markings, known as Lder's bands indicating plastically deformed regions, appear at 45
to the direction of loading and expand across the whole gauge length of the specimen.
In the range of uniform elongation, further plastic deformation is only possible by a
continuously increasing load. The dislocation density grows with increasing deformation,
making further deformation more difficult due to the interaction between the dislocations.
This effect is referred to as strain or work hardening. The rate of strain hardening (d/d)
is high initially but decreases as plastic deformation increases.
In the third region of deformation the specimen continues to become narrower, but this
now takes place locally resulting in the necking shown in Figure 7.

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The stress at which necking begins is the ultimate tensile stress Rm=Fmax/So, the
corresponding strain is the ultimate strain u. Following the onset of necking, the load
necessary to maintain elongation decreases although the local stress within the necking
region continues to increase. Continued deformation leads to fracture, which is
characterised by the fracture stress f and the fracture strain r. The percentage reduction
of area at fracture
Z = 100 (So - Su)/So

(3)

is a measure of the material's ductility, where S u is the minimum cross-section area at

fracture in the necked region.
For the engineering stress-strain curve, both stress and stain are related to the initial
specimen dimensions (So, Lo). Because the cross-section and length change continuously
during deformation, these equations do not give a true indication of the stress and strain
history. For a better description of the material properties, the change of the cross-section
area must be taken into account. The true stress and the true strain are defined as follows:

t =

(4)

where S - is the instantaneous cross-section area.

t =

for u.

(5)

Considering that plasticity takes place under conditions of constant volume, the relation
between true and engineering stress and strain in the region of uniform elongation can be
derived:
t = n (1 + n)

(6)

t = ln (1 + n)

(7)

In the region of necking, the instantaneous cross-section of the specimen must be

measured to obtain the true stress and the true strain. The true strain (Figure 8) is:

t =

for 0 r

(8)

For the determination of the true stress, a correction factor km must be taken into account
because of the multiaxial stress state resulting from necking.

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Figure 9 shows the engineering stress-strain curve (1) and the corresponding true stresstrue strain curve without (2) and with (3) consideration of the multiaxial stress state. Note
that the true strain becomes much larger than the engineering strain due to necking and
that strain hardening is always positive.

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2.3 Multi-axial Response

2.3.1 Poisson's ratio
The previous section discussed the longitudinal response of a simple tensile specimen. If
measurements of transverse strain (trans) had also been taken it would have been found
that the specimen became narrower as it extended. In the elastic region trans = , where
, called Poisson's Ratio, has the value of about 0,3. This implies that the volume of the
elastically deformed material is increasing because
= - 2trans = 0,4. In the plastic
region, with much higher strains, the volume of material does not change significantly and
trans 0,5 which implies that Poisson's ratio has a value of 0,5. This constant volume
condition is most clearly illustrated in the necked region as rupture approaches. The
locally higher longitudinal strains, are accompanied by high transverse strains giving the
local necking.

2.3.2 Multi-axial stress states and their influence on yielding

In many engineering situations stresses exist in more than one direction. Examples are
shown in Figure 10. The direction and magnitude of these stresses influence the onset of
yielding. In the balanced triaxial compression shown in Figure 10a, the material cannot
yield because it has "nowhere to go" until there is a breakdown in the atomic structure of
the crystals at several orders of magnitude of stress greater than the uniaxial yield stress.
In the two-dimensional pure shear case of Figure 10b the tendency to expand in the xdirection from the tensile stress 1 is "encouraged" by the y-direction compression stress
2, and vice versa.
Different mathematical expressions have been developed to describe this interactive yield,
and different formulations prove to be more accurate for different materials. Figure 11a
illustrates the two most common criteria for metals under a two-dimensional stress state.
The Hencky-von Mises expression which is usually used for steel and for three
dimensional stresses, is given by:

y = (1/2) {(1 - 2)2 + (2 - 3)2 + (3 - 2)2}

where 1, 2 and 3 -are the three principal stresses.

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2.3.3 Strain hardening under multi-axial stresses

Figure 11b shows the most common model for work hardening in the presence of multiaxial stresses. In isotropic work hardening the yield surface expands uniformly, as shown.

2.4 Influence of Temperature and Strain Rate

Most engineering structures operate at ambient temperatures and are subject to loading
rates that are sufficiently slow not to influence response significantly. However, elevated
temperatures can be encountered in service (boiler plant) or by accident (fire). Impact and
other accidental loading can lead to strain rates whose influence cannot be ignored.

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2.4.1 Temperature
The movement of dislocations is facilitated by increasing temperature. Both yield and
ultimate strengths are reduced as a result. In structural steels there is little loss of strength
up to about 300C. Thereafter there is a progressive loss of strength with increasing
temperature. At 600C the strength is typically 50% of that at ambient temperature.
Creep, i.e. increasing strain at constant stress, in structural steels can be discounted at
ambient temperature. However at temperatures in excess of about 500C creep
deformation becomes significant. The influence of elevated temperatures on both stiffness
and strength is illustrated in Figure 12.

2.4.2 Strain rate

Dislocation movement is a time-dependent process. It is therefore understandable that high
strain rates make yielding more difficult which is reflected in increased yield stress. The
most widely accepted model for strain rate effects is the Cowper-Symonds expression
given below. The significance of this effect on the tensile stress/strain behaviour is
illustrated in Figure 13.

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s D}1/q
where:
= strain rate
= dynamic yield stress
s = static yield stress.
D and q - are dimensionless curve fitting coefficients.
D = 40.4 s-1 and
q = 5 for mild steel

2.5 Means of Strengthening

The strength of a steel can be described as the resistance against the onset of plastic
deformation under an external load. Plastic deformation occurs by the movement of
dislocations through the metal lattice which enables single lattice planes to slip
consecutively over one another. If this motion is hindered by lattice defects, a higher
external load must be applied so that the dislocations can overcome the obstacles. It is for

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this reason that means of increasing the strength of steels always aim at hindering
dislocation movement. Obstacles to dislocation motion can be classified according to
Table 1.
TABLE 1
Dimension

Generator

Mechanism

0 (point)

solute atoms

solid solution hardening

1 (linear)

dislocations

strain hardening

2 (plane)

grain boundaries

grain refinement

3 (spatial)

particles

precipitation/dispersion
hardening

Strengthening of Steels

Solid solution hardening

The increase of strength is produced by foreign atoms which are dissolved in the metal
matrix. Since foreign atoms differ in size, physical and electrical properties compared to
the metal matrix, they cause a lattice distortion that hinders the movement of dislocations.
The increase of yield stress depends on the kind, amount and distribution of the foreign
atoms, Figure 14. It can be seen that the increase of strength caused by C and N is
especially high. This is due to the fact that these atoms dissolve interstitially between the
atoms of the matrix, which results in a high lattice distortion. The other elements shown in
Figure 14 dissolve substitutionally and occupy regular lattice positions producing less
distortion.

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Increasing strength by solid solution hardening leads to a decrease in toughness.
(Toughness is the ability of a material to avoid brittle fracture - see Lecture 2.3.2.)
Therefore, the potential level of strength attainable by solid solution hardening is usually
not sought because of the possibility of brittle fracture.

Strain hardening

Linear lattice defects are the dislocations themselves. The lattice distortion surrounding
the dislocation disturbs the movement of other dislocations. This interaction increases with
increasing dislocation density.
When cold forming steel, e.g. cold rolling, dislocations must continuously be produced
because they permanently block each other. The dislocation density rises and increases the
strength of the steel by strain hardening (Figure 15). Such hardening is accompanied by a
pronounced reduction in toughness.

Grain refinement

Grain refinement is the most important strengthening mechanism in structural steels

because it is the only method of strengthening which is accompanied by an increase in
resistance to brittle fracture.

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The grain boundaries are barriers to dislocation motion. Consequently as the grain size is
decreased, the number of barriers increases and this is reflected in increased yield strength.
The effect of grain size on yield stress is described by the Hall-Petch equation:
ReL = iy + ky . d-1/2
where
ReL - is the minimum yield strength
iy - is the friction stress; the stress at which yielding begins in a material with very
large grains
ky - is the grain boundary resistance
d - is the mean grain diameter.

Dispersion and precipitation hardening

When a moving dislocation encounters a particle it can pass by only two mechanisms:
cutting through the particle, or
bowing between and around particles, leaving a section of the dislocation as a ring
around the particle.
In steels, the dominant particle hardening mechanism is dislocation bowing. Strength is
then inversely related to the interparticle spacing. Consequently strength increases as the
particle size decreases and as the volume fraction of precipitates increases.
Strengthening particles are obtained most usually by the precipitation process in the matrix
during heat treatment. In steel this is most familiar during tempering of quench hardened
medium carbon steels, but it also occurs in structural steels during cooling after controlled
rolling or during subsequent tempering treatments.

2.6 Hardness
"Hardness" is a measure of resistance to deformation when a loaded indenter is forced to
penetrate the surface of the metal under test. The penetration of the indenter into the
specimen leads to a local deformation which is both elastic and plastic.
Testing methods can be either static or dynamic. Both elastic and plastic deformation are
considered for the evaluation of dynamic hardness, expressed in terms of the absorbed
energy. Dynamic testing methods include impact hardness testing and Shore hardness
testing. Their advantage lies in the possibility of quick testing which can be performed at
any location. Compared to static hardness testing methods, the dynamic methods are less
precise.

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The common static testing methods of indentation hardness differ in the type of indenter
forced into the metal. The Brinell test uses a hardened steel ball (EN 3), the Vickers test
(EN 5) a square-based diamond pyramid (included angle = 136), and the Rockwell test
(EN 10004) is performed with a diamond cone indenter (included angle = 120).
The indenter is slowly (almost statically) pressed into the specimen. After removing the
load, the size of the indentation is measured. Compared to dynamic testing, only the
plastic deformation is taken into account. Static testing methods are favoured in industry
and research because of the consistency of test results.
The different hardness measurements correlate quite closely, especially at lower values.
The correlation of hardness values with other measures of resistance to deformation, such
as tensile properties, is more complicated but a useful engineering rule of thumb is that the
tensile strength in units of Nmm-2 is approximately 3 times the Vickers hardness.

3. CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Most engineering properties of metals are structure sensitive.

The principal quantities defining the mechanical properties of metals under nonrepeating loading are:

Young's modulus.
Poisson's ratio.
Yield stress, or proof stress for metals without a defined yield point.
Ultimate strength.
Hardness.

These properties may be influenced by:

temperature.
strain rate.
multi-axiality.
geometry.

The optimal combination of strength and toughness may be achieved by

controlling:

alloying content.
level of impurities.
physical treatment.

4. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Leslie, W.L., The Physical Metallurgy of Steels, Hemisphere Publishing
Corporation, Washington, New York, London, 1981.
2. Dahl, W., Steel - Handbook of Materials Research and Engineering Volume 1,
Springer-Verlag, Dsseldorf 1990.

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APPENDIX 1
Typical mechanical property data for weldable structural steels
Steel
(Grade according to
EN10025)

Condition

Yield Stress
(N/mm2)

Ultimate
Tensile
Strength
(N/mm2)

% Elongation to
Fracture
(Lo = 5,65So)

Grade Fe430B
(0,25% carbon)

hot-rolled

275

470

22

Grade Fe430D
(0,19% carbon)

normalised

275

470

22

Grade Fe510B
(0,23% carbon)

hot-rolled

355

550

20

Grade Fe510D
(0,18% carbon,
0,10% vanadium)

normalised

355

550

20

Typical mechanical property data for some common non-ferrous metals and alloys
Metal or alloy

0,2% Proof
Stress

Ultimate Tensile
Strength

% Elongation to
fracture

(N/mm2)

(N/mm2)

(Lo - 5,65So)

Aluminium (annealed)

34

77

47

Aluminium (cold worked)

94

115

13

Duralumin (annealed)

123

231

15

Duralumin (age-hardened)

278

432

15

Cooper (annealed)

54

223

56

Copper (cold worked)

285

316

13

70-30 brass (annealed)

85

320

65

70-30 brass (cold worked)

378

463

20

Typical values of Young's modulus for metals

Metal

Al

Au

Ti

Cu

Fe

Ni

kN/mm2

70

79

120

130

210

200