PrototypingBasicsVol.

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TableofContents
DISCLAIMER ..................................................................................... 2
Advantages of Rapid Prototyping ..................................................... 5
Disadvantages of Rapid Prototyping ................................................. 8
History of Rapid Prototyping .......................................................... 11
Rapid Prototyping Technologies ..................................................... 14
What is Rapid Prototyping? ............................................................ 17
Inventions and Prototypes ............................................................. 22
Designing and Prototyping ............................................................. 24
Rapid Prototyping Overseas ........................................................... 27
3D Printers ..................................................................................... 29
3D Printing Technology .................................................................. 32
Additive Fabrication........................................................................ 35
Rapid Manufacturing ...................................................................... 38
3D Scanning and Prototyping ......................................................... 41
Reverse Engineering ....................................................................... 44
Selective Laser Sintering ................................................................ 47
Fused Deposition Modeling ............................................................. 50
Stereolithography ........................................................................... 53
Laminated Object Manufacturing .................................................... 56
Electron Beam Melting .................................................................... 58
Rapid Prototyping Services ............................................................. 61
DIY Rapid Prototyping-Home made 3D printer ............................... 64
Injection Molding Prototyping ........................................................ 67

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Casting Prototypes ......................................................................... 69
Virtual Prototyping ......................................................................... 71

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Advantages of Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping is a process of software development wherein physical
objects are automatically constructed by means of SFF or solid freeform
fabrication. In the process of rapid prototyping, a prototype or working
model can be constructed quickly, and tested for its functionality,
performance and output. The new features or ideas can be illustrated well in
the prototype and early user feedback can be gathered with regards to the
product. There are numerous advantages of rapid prototyping.

Benefits of Rapid Prototyping: Significant advantages of rapid

prototyping include reduction of project cost and risk. Generally, one or
more prototypes are developed in the process of software development in a
series of incremental and iterative steps. Every prototype that is
manufactured is based on the previous designs performance and it is a
corrective process through which the past design defects or problems are
corrected. The product is readied for production when the prototype is
refined as per requirements and meets all the design goals like
manufacturability, robustness and functionality.

Another great advantage of rapid prototyping is that it finds use and

application in almost all the industries. The other advantages of rapid
prototyping include the following.

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Visualization capabilities are enhanced in the early designing phase

with use of rapid prototyping. The user gets a fair idea of how the final
product will look by observing the working model in early design stage.
The design flaws can be detected before manufacture process is
initiated.
Rapid prototyping enables producer and users to participate actively.
Active participation between the users and producer is encouraged.
The user is able to get a higher output.
The development costs are reduced considerably, hence rapid
prototyping proves to be quite cost effective.
Rapid prototyping increases the speed of system development.
With rapid prototyping, it is possible to detect deficiencies in the earlier
prototype, coding activities and requirement analysis.
Rapid prototyping assists in refining the potential risks that are
involved in the delivery
The different aspects of the prototype can be tried and tested and
immediate feedback is possible form user.
Better communication is enabled between the users and designer as
there is clear expression of requirements and expectations in the start
itself.
Rapid prototyping enables easy delivery of high quality product.

Cost and Time Savings: Savings of development time and process costs
are some of the greatest advantages of rapid prototyping. Time can be
saved by reducing the amount of time required to produce the prototype
parts and tooling. Production costs are lowered as the mistakes regarding
tooling are identified in the early stages and hence, the modification costs
can be cut down in the actual production.

Advantage of Innovation: Rapid prototyping can be used in many

innovative ways. There are many firms that use rapid prototyping
innovatively, hence, offering additional benefits. The advantages of rapid

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prototyping in innovative applications are advancement of new testing
procedures and analysis, production tooling manufacture, improved
communications across production departments and support of customized
manufacturing. The new technologies can be used in a cost effective and
successful manner with innovative applications of rapid prototyping.

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Disadvantages of Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping is a process wherein a working model or prototype is
developed for the purpose of testing the various product features like
design, ideas, features, functionality, performance and output. This process
of development of working model is quite quick. The user can give an early
feedback regarding the prototype. Rapid prototyping is, generally, a
significant and essential part of the system designing process and it is
believed to decrease the project cost and risk.

The prototype that is developed by the process of rapid prototyping is based

on the performance of earlier designs. Hence, it is possible to correct the
defects or problems in the design by taking corrective measures. The
product can be produced if the prototype meets the requirements of all
designing objectives after sufficient refinement. There are many advantages
of rapid prototyping.

Rapid Prototyping Advantages in brief: Rapid prototyping has manifold

advantages. It can provide with concept proof that would be required for
attracting funds. The prototype gives the user a fair idea about the final look
of the product. Rapid prototyping can enhance the early visibility. It is easier
to find the design flaws in the early developmental stages. Active
participation among the users and producer is encouraged by rapid
prototyping. As the development costs are reduced, rapid prototyping proves
to be cost effective. The user can get a higher output.

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The deficiencies in the earlier prototypes can be detected and rectified in
time. The speed of system development is increased. It is possible to get
immediate feedback from the user. There is better communication between
the user and designer as the requirement sand expectations are expressed
in the beginning itself. High quality product is easily delivered by way of
rapid prototyping. Rapid prototyping enables development time and costs.
There are many innovative ways in which rapid prototyping can be used.

Despite all these benefits, there are many people who believe that there are
many disadvantages of rapid prototyping.

Disadvantages of Rapid Prototyping: Some people are of the opinion

that rapid prototyping is not effective because, in actual, it fails in replication
of the real product or system. It could so happen that some important
developmental steps could be omitted to get a quick and cheap working
model. This can be one of the greatest disadvantages of rapid prototyping.
Another disadvantage of rapid prototyping is one in which many problems
are overlooked resulting in endless rectifications and revisions. One more
disadvantage of rapid prototyping is that it may not be suitable for large
sized applications.

The user may have very high expectations about the prototypes
performance and the designer is unable to deliver these. The system could
be left unfinished due to various reasons or the system may be implemented
before it is completely ready. The producer may produce an inadequate
system that is unable to meet the overall demands of the organization. Too
much involvement of the user might hamper the optimization of the
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program. The producer may be too attached to the program of rapid
prototyping, thus it may lead to legal involvement.

The cost reduction benefit of rapid prototyping also seems to be debatable,

as sufficient details regarding the calculation basis and assumptions are not
substantial.

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History of Rapid Prototyping

Rapid prototyping is a revolutionary and powerful technology with wide
range of applications. The process of prototyping involves quick building up
of a prototype or working model for the purpose of testing the various
design features, ideas, concepts, functionality, output and performance. The
user is able to give immediate feedback regarding the prototype and its
performance. Rapid prototyping is essential part of the process of system
designing and it is believed to be quite beneficial as far as reduction of
project cost and risk are concerned.

Rapid prototyping is known by many terms as per the technologies involved,

like SFF or solid freeform fabrication, FF or freeform fabrication, digital
fabrication, AFF or automated freeform fabrication, 3D printing, solid
imaging, layer-based manufacturing, laser prototyping and additive
manufacturing.

History of Rapid Prototyping:

Sixties: The first rapid prototyping techniques became accessible in the
later eighties and they were used for production of prototype and model
parts. The history of rapid prototyping can be traced to the late sixties, when
an engineering professor, Herbert Voelcker, questioned himself about the
possibilities of doing interesting things with the computer controlled and
automatic machine tools. These machine tools had just started to appear on
the factory floors then. Voelcker was trying to find a way in which the
automated machine tools could be programmed by using the output of a
design program of a computer.

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Seventies: Voelcker developed the basic tools of mathematics that clearly

describe the three dimensional aspects and resulted in the earliest theories
of algorithmic and mathematical theories for solid modeling. These theories
form the basis of modern computer programs that are used for designing
almost all things mechanical, ranging from the smallest toy car to the tallest
skyscraper. Voleckers theories changed the designing methods in the
seventies, but, the old methods for designing were still very much in use.
The old method involved either a machinist or machine tool controlled by a
computer. The metal hunk was cut away and the needed part remained as
per requirements.

Eighties: However, in 1987, Carl Deckard, a researcher form the University

of Texas, came up with a good revolutionary idea. He pioneered the layer
based manufacturing, wherein he thought of building up the model layer by
layer. He printed 3D models by utilizing laser light for fusing metal powder in
solid prototypes, single layer at a time.

Deckard developed this idea into a

technique called Selective Laser Sintering. The results of this technique

were extremely promising. The history of rapid prototyping is quite new and
recent. However, as this technique of rapid prototyping has such wide
ranging scope and applications with amazing results, it has grown by leaps
and bounds.

Voelckers and Deckards stunning findings, innovations and researches have

given extreme impetus to this significant new industry known as rapid
prototyping or free form fabrication. It has revolutionized the designing and
manufacturing processes.

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Though, there are many references of people pioneering the rapid

prototyping technology, the industry gives recognition to Charles Hull for the
patent of Apparatus for Production of 3D Objects by Stereolithography.
Charles Hull is recognized by the industry as the father of rapid prototyping.

Present-day Rapid Prototyping: Today, the computer engineer has to

simply sketch the ideas on the computer screen with the help of a design
program that is computer aided. Computer aided designing allows to make
modification as required and you can create a physical prototype that is a
precise and proper 3D object.

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Rapid Prototyping Technologies

Rapid prototyping is a process by which a working model or prototype is
developed to test the various design ideas, features, concepts, use,
functionality and performance. The user can immediately give a feedback to
the producer. The technology of rapid prototyping is quite revolutionary and
innovative and has found widespread applications in nearly all types of
industries. The prototypes can be developed on the basis of past design and
its performance and necessary modifications can be made to refine the final
product as per the requirements. Rapid prototyping has manifold advantages
like reduction of process cost, time and risks, conceptualizing of the actual
product, delivery of high quality product, better communications and so on.

As it is with all the technologies, there are some disadvantages as well

associated with rapid prototyping like communication gaps, high
expectations of the users which are not fulfilled and so on. However, the
benefits surely do override all the advantages. There are a host of different
rapid prototyping technologies.

Rapid Prototyping Technologies: The numerous rapid prototyping

technologies may include the various types like additive, formative or
subtractive. Initially, rapid prototyping technologies involved only additive
processes. The major difference between the various additive technologies is
the method in which layers are built for creating parts. Some rapid
prototyping technologies melt or soften materials for producing the Layers
(FDM, SLS), whereas other technologies lay down liquid material called
thermosets and these are later cured by different methods.

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The various rapid prototyping technologies are SLA or Stereolithography,
SLS or Selective Laser Sintering, LOM or Laminated Object Manufacturing,
SGC or Solid Ground Curing, LENS or Laser Engineered Net Shaping, FDM or
Fused Deposition Modeling, 3DP or Three Dimensional Printing, Inkjet, EBM
or Electron Beam Melting and miscellaneous non-commercialized
technologies.

SLA or Steroelithography: The rapid prototyping technology of SLA or

stereolithography provides with the greatest accuracy and gives the best
possible surface finish among all the rapid prototyping technologies. This
technology uses liquid photopolymer resin that has the property of
solidifying on contact with the correct color light. The most commonly used
photopolymer materials need UV light, but resins that work in visible light
are also used.

SLS or Selective Laser Sintering: SLS or Selective Laser Sintering rapid

prototyping technology uses metallic powders or thermoplastics. This
technology is quite similar to stereolithography. The finishing time is reduced
as the undercuts and overhangs are given support by the solid bed of
powder. The surface finishes are not as good as stereolithography. It
requires no final curing like SLA, but the object is porous as it is sintered.
The mechanical characteristics of the object can be improved by infiltrating
the object with some other material as required by the application. This
method is used in direct fabrication of ceramic and metal tools and objects.

Other Rapid Prototyping Technologies: LOM or Laminated Object

Manufacturing rapid prototyping technology uses paper as the base material.
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EBM or Electron Beam Melting methods use titanium alloys for their base
material. The rapid prototyping technology of 3D Printing makes use of
different materials as base materials.

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What is Rapid Prototyping?

Rapid Prototyping can be defined as the process of constructing physical
objects automatically by making use of solid freeform fabrication. The initial
techniques regarding prototyping came into being in late 1980s. They were
then used for producing prototype parts and models. In todays world, they
are being used for much wider applications. For instance- manufacture of
quality parts. This technology is used by certain sculptors for producing
complex shapes in order to display them in fine arts exhibitions.

Origin: Rapid prototyping has taken virtual designs through animation

modeling software or computer aided design (CAD). Thereafter,
transformation into virtual, thin, horizontal cross-sections takes place. Each
cross-section then gets created in the physical space. This process goes on
till the model gets completed. It is better known as WYSIWYG process. Let's
understand this process in detail.

WYSIWYG: WYSIWYG as the abbreviation for What You See Is What You
Get. It is used in computing for describing a system wherein content looks
similar to final product at the time of editing. It is generally used in word
processors. However, this use is in the form of HTML (Web) authoring. The
popularization of this phrase was carried out by the comedian Flip Wilson.
His character Geraldine used to say this very often to give an excuse
against her idiosyncratic behavior.

This expression came to be applied later to computer-based applications as

practicality in technology arrived. At times, it is phonetically spelt as

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Wizzywig or Wizywig. It has also been used as a brand name for a lighting
design tool utilized in theatre industry to pre-visualize the shows and 3D
CAD.

The process further : The additional fabrication causes the machine to

read data from CAD drawing. After that, consecutive layers of powder, sheet
material, or liquid are laid down. Likewise, a model gets built-up from a
chain of cross-sections. Such layers, corresponding to CAD models virtual
cross section, are then fused automatically or joined together for creating
the ultimate shape. The basic advantage of additive fabrication goes to state
that any geometric feature or shape can be created through this.

The CAD software and machines are interfaced by the standard data
interface in the STL file format. The function of STL file is approximating
the shape of an assembly or a part by making use of triangular facets.
Surfaces of higher quality are produced by smaller facets.

The word rapid can be used relatively. The construction of models using
present-day methods could take time ranging from a few hours to a few
days. This depends on the technique used, along with the complexity and
size of the model. The additive systems take less time. They can produce
models within some hours. Some techniques such as solid freedom
fabrication make use of two materials for construction of parts. The 1st
material is known as part material and the 2nd one as support material.
The removal of support material takes place by heat. It might also be
dissolved with water or any other solvent. When it comes to manufacture of

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plastic products, that too in large quantities, injection molding proves to be a
cheaper alternative.

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Prototyping VS. Rapid Prototyping
Prototyping: A Prototype or Prototyping is a total working model of an idea,
which is created in such a method that it can be examined on a number of
points such as user friendliness, usability, cost effectiveness, features,
design etc. In order to produce your innovation or idea as a finished product,
prototyping is a vital step and an important part of the designing process. To
develop a prototype generally reduces the project cost and the risk on the
whole. Prototyping an innovation regulates the possibilities of getting errors
and deficiencies in the finished design of any product.
Prototyping an innovation is the initial and original working form that clears
a route for its future versions or stages. In order to develop a prototyping,
an appropriate documentation of this procedure, the flow and the idea or
innovation has to be performed in the beginning. There are many types of
prototyping methods which depend upon the particular type of product and
its functionality. The high fidelity prototyping method offers a dynamic
computerized working form while the low fidelity prototyping method offers
a static non-computerized working form.
The exploratory prototyping method is being developed to observe the
complicated and large systems while the operational and experimental
prototyping method works to confirm specifications of the products and
iterations for confirming the produce. The prototyping method filled with
many features is the vertical prototyping method where as horizontal
prototyping method is a prototype with modest features. In the same way,
global prototyping method provides working forms of the complete system
while the local prototyping method focuses on a single functionality or
usability of the product.
Rapid Prototyping: Rapid Prototyping is said to be a procedure of making
physical objects from CAD program which a prototyping machine can create
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a three dimensional prototype out of a resin or a plastic. This particular
process was first utilized in the year 1980 in order to create prototype parts
and models. Rapid Prototyping generally suites many applications and is
utilized to manufacture small quantity manufacturing parts. Recently, this
process has become as important parts of three dimensional CAD design
Engineering and Modeling.
This process generally utilizes CAD drawings and produces cross segments
and later produces physical routes and even outputs resin and plastic. The
constructing podium is later lowered and the other layer of a prototype is
being produced until the entire process of prototyping gets completed. This
particular process normally utilizes preservative fabrication where in the
substance is added until the complete three dimensional model is created.
Preservative manufacturing is particularly resourceful because of its capacity
to produce almost any geometrical parts.
The average boundary between a rapid prototyping machine and CAD
software is the format of STL file. The three dimensional CAD models
generally take around 3 to 72 hours which depends on the type of a machine
and the size of the model. On the other hand, Rapid Prototyping normally
takes only 24 hours. Alpha Prototyping generally specializes in the process of
Rapid Prototyping and every other aspects of Prototyping. It simplifies the
prototyping process with the online prototyping quote tool that helps
straighten out the confusion of fees and costs associated with the process of
rapid prototyping.

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Inventions and Prototypes

Invention prototypes cannot be ignored because they sought to prove the
concept of the inventor to potential customers, suppliers, and investors-and
most importantly, to the inventor himself. This has been the opinion of
majority of experts. The idea behind creating a prototype is the
accomplishment of a lot from the point of view of creativity, that too without
having to put on so much of money in the idea of product or going for its
commitment early on.

Construction of an invention prototype at the appropriate time: Its

essential to construct an invention prototype much before buying the
tooling for building the product or seeking contract manufacturers. Many a
times, it so happens that the inventor might, in reality want to build a
prototype much before getting too fancy regarding computer drawings. He is
likely to burn up loads of cash on engineering drawings when possibly what
he needs 1st is the papier-mache clearly showing him what is being tried by
him. If that is the case, he is advised to revert to computer-aided drawings.
Assessing the proper time for prototype is not all that tough. It just requires
a proof of workability of the product invented by the concerned person.

The proper invention prototype for proper audience: An invention

prototype should be aimed towards the proper audience for doing its job. It
means that the tailoring should be done in such a way that the requirements
of the customers get fulfilled much to their satisfaction. Not only that, the
prototype should be able to bear the critics of potential partners, investors,
suppliers, and customers. Hence, it should be noted that just friendly
appraisals are not enough. The more slicker looking and operable the

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prototype, the better. However, its advisable to not get carried away by
the praises. Its better to spend less on this production, as there would be
many other places for spending the start up capital.

Let >1 prototype be made

If the overheads are not very much, let the invention prototype be made
into multiple versions. The inventor is likely to improve the designs
subsequently. Due to this, the latest product arrived at would fetch more
money owing to its modern and sharp design. Some people also have the
habit of making two prototypes at a time. The first one would be meant for
show and the second one for go, i.e. the 1st one could be made to look like
the end product and the 2nd one for demonstrating the functionality.

For instance- Battery Buddy had a looks-like and works-like prototype.

The 1st one was created at University of Michigan. A box was fashioned to
proper exterior dimensions as per the engineering drawings. It was painted
with fancy, fine graphics. This version could fit on around 90% of vehicles in
market. The 2nd one consisted of a plastic box. It was grey-colored and
around 4 times bigger than actual Battery Buddy. Finishing was not the issue
then. The workability had to be checked; and it happened! Hence, the two
versions made the task simpler from the buyers as well as sellers point of
view.

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Designing and Prototyping

Designing and prototyping have revolutionized the manufacturing processes
in all industries nearly. There is not a single industry or process that is
untouched by the technology of designing and prototyping.

Designing: Designing is the process by which you will design a product in

advance before actual production. Designing will help you to innovate,
change, modify and invent. Designing involves the process of idea
generation, conceptualizing and actual design development.

Prototyping: Prototyping is a process in which a working model or

prototype is developed for the purpose of testing the various design aspects
like features, ideas, viability, functionality, output and performance. The
prototyping will help in getting a quick user feedback. Prototyping is
considered to be an essential element of the process of system designing.

Designing and prototyping go hand in hand, as both are complementary. In

prototyping, new prototypes are developed on the basis of the performance
of earlier designs. The deficiencies or problems in the previous designs can
be detected and corrected. The prototype is redesigned after refinement and
successfully meets the designing goals like functionality, manufacturability,
performance and robustness. After this, the product can be readily
produced.

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Benefits of Designing and Prototyping: The scope of designing and
prototyping is unlimited. Both have applications in all types of industries like
CAD, CAM, automotive industry, workshops, fashion designing and
innovative products and so on. With designing, you are able to create digital
data in the form of 3D images and this digital data can be transformed into
actual physical object by way of prototyping. You can visualize about how
the final product will look. You can translate your inventions and innovative
ideas in real terms with the help of designing and prototyping.

You may be toying with many innovative product ideas in your mind and you
wish to convert them into realities. You can successfully develop your new
invention from an idea to actual manufactured product with designing and
prototyping. You can test your product by testing its commercial viability.
You can have an open communication with the user regarding the
expectations of the product and its performance. This will give you a fair
idea regarding the designing and prototyping.

Appropriate Designing and Prototyping: If you want your invention or

innovative product to be successful, then it needs to have a good design and
there have to more additives than a plain good idea. The design should be
such that it reduces the manufacturing costs. The design must have
excellent functionality and it should be attractive as well along with the
benefit of maximized durability. The designing and prototyping should work
together to maximize the chances of success.

The best approach for an appropriate designing and prototyping plan, would
be to design and create an eye-catching and working prototype along with
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good packaging. Necessary legal protection should be obtained. Engineering
drawings should be produced and pricing data for manufacturing process
should be generated. All the production facilities of the factory should be
lined up. Take feedback from the end users and buyers and you will get an
idea of the demand for your product. This appropriate designing and
prototyping plan, is sure to spell success for you.

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Rapid Prototyping Overseas

Global Sources Group: There are very few companies dealing with rapid
prototyping overseas. One of them is Global Sources Group. It can boast of
offering overseas rapid manufacturing. Todays fast world speaks of
competition. The US is no exception. It has been ruling the world since the
last century on this count. This has led to the emergence of Global Sources
Group. The customer would always feel obliged by seeking the services of
Global Sources Group, as this would result in substantial increase in his
productivity and profit. This company is associated with factories across
Vietnam and China. Thus, the required competitive edge that is needed in
market of today is ensured.

Global Sources Group has the ability of designing the rapid prototype within
10 days. Not only that, the patent of the new product acquired can be
obtained within 4 weeks. Here, time is equated with money. Hence, the new
product would be air freighted to the topmost overseas factory to have the
quality and fast productivity maintained. This would thus take the client to
the subsequent level.

Global Sources Group assists companies in rapid prototyping, right from

design to manufacture. It specializes in manufacturing and Art to Part
Design. This company has been into rapid prototyping for the last 20 years.

Delcam: Another company dealing with rapid prototyping overseas is

Delcam. This company was established in 1968, when 3D modelling was not
even talked of. 2D drawing was prevalent. Then in late 1980s, rapid

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prototyping was born due to the efforts of Ford. The process can be
described as follows: Rapid Prototyping can be made effective if a good
quality STL FILE is used. It is independent of composition. STL file, having
property of water tightness can be exported by Power SHAPE. The errors can
be automatically detected and repaired by a set of wizards. It provides the
customer with total control over the creation of mesh. The intuitive, fast
model from PowerSHAPE carries out the repairing of tools. This means that if
the surfaces of original model of CAD are damaged or missing, the work
wont be stopped, i.e. the customer can easily carry out the fixation of model
and go on with his work.

CopyCAD, Delcams software for reverse engineering, possesses

comprehensive tools to repair and modify the STL models on an interactive
basis. This enables the process chain to continue in an unbroken manner
even if there is no CAD model to start with. Power MILL, Delcams absolute
machining solution has the capacity of producing accurate tool paths. They
can be built upto five axis-simultaneous, directly from the STL models. This
causes the manufacturing process to become more flexible.

Delcams software is being tried and examined with majority of general

Rapid Prototyping Systems, to produce both, prototype tooling and formand-fit testing parts. Its constant involvement in projects of Europe like
HiperMoulding and CARP ensures that the customer is guaranteed of results
of high quality irrespective of the type of Rapid Prototyping System used.
Delcam has been into news in terms of rapid prototyping for quite some time
now.

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3D Printers
In the 3D printers available in the market these days, generation of output
takes place from programs of mapping which support 3D modelling
programs or 3D CAD programs. Some companies have their own soft wares
for PLY, VRML, and STK formats to allow 3D viewing, scaling and labeling of
text, and fine-tuning preceding printing.

Working: All the 3D printers posses five basic process functions for creating
a three-dimensional model.

First - The Print Surface is fed with a unique powder.

Second - The powder is spread on print surface by a roller at a preset depth.

This process takes just a few seconds for its completion.

Third - Color is applied to the powders initial layer by the Standard Inkjet
Print Heads.

Fourth - The solidification of powdered layer takes place.

Fifth - The lowering of print surface for powders another layer is enabled.

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This process goes on repeating till the completion of the whole 3D model
occurs. The mixture of Ink Jet Color and powder results in formation of a
bond. The solidification occurs this way. So, if no printing is carried out at
the specified layer or location, the powder retains its state, i.e. it does not
get solidified. Once the printing process comes to a halt, the powder gets
blown out, thereby leaving the output which is the reflection of the original
model or drawing. Depending on complexity and size of output, this process
takes around an hour. These 3D printers do a commendable job,
especially when pre-production examples or working prototypes of the
specified objects are seen on the computer monitor.

Self-replicating 3D printers: The self-replicating rapid prototype, better

known as RepRap is believed to lessen the price of three-dimensional
printers, thereby paving way for the future where spare parts and broken
objects are just re-printed on a homely basis. There would also be a way out
for creation of unique and novel objects.

At present, 3D printers of the above type cost around $25000. They are still
to capture the domestic market. They are instead being used by the industry
for developing parts for machines like aircraft engines, hearing aids, and
spaceships.

Plummeting Prices: Adrian Bowyer has strongly believed the prices of selfreplicating 3D printers to lower to around $500, as no cost other than that of
raw materials would be involved. He has further stated that these machines
would turn out to be more competent and build up new capabilities. Once
the soft ware guiding the process of self-replication becomes available, it
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would be there at the free service of the customers. This has also been said
by Adrian Bowyer.

Tepid Metal: Circuits are normally built by 3D printers by carrying out the
fusion of powdered metal and laser. However, the self-replicating 3D printers
are aimed at use of metallic alloy of cadmium, tin, lead, and bismuth that
have a low-melting point and squirting them to have the circuits formed
from a syringe that is thoroughly heated. Its not compulsory for the
machine to be capable to assemble itself. Just production of all those parts
that are very necessary excluding the lubricating grease and
microprocessors is required.

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3D Printing Technology
3D printing can be referred to as method of getting virtual 3D model printed
onto a 2D object. 3D printing falls in the category of rapid prototyping
technology. The function typically performed by 3D printers is that of
printing consecutive layers on the previous ones for building up a 3D object.
It is easier, more affordable, and faster to use 3D printers as compared to
other technologies related to additive fabrication.

Technologies: Initially, production of a prototype required a lot of manhours, tools, and experienced labor. For instance, after designing a novel
Street Light Luminaire digitally, drawings used to be sent to accomplished
craftsmen where the paper design used to be followed with utmost pains and
a 3D prototype used to be formed in wood through the utilization of the
entire shop that is full of costly tools and working machinery. One can easily
make out that this process consumed a lot of time. Moreover, the skillful
labor was not all that cheap. These shortcomings necessitated the need of
rapid prototyping.

3D printing has a variation called Inkjet Printing System. It involves binding

of fine powder layers (resins, cornstarch, or plaster) by the way of printing a
gum from inkjet print head as per the shape of every cross-section as
spotted by the CAD file. This is the only technology allowing full color
prototypes to be printed. It is believed to be the quickest method.

Alternately, liquids are fed by these machines. Photopolymer is one of such

kind. These machines make use of UV (ultraviolet) flood lamp. It is mounted

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in print head for curing each layer on its deposition. FDM (Fused deposition
modeling) makes use of nozzle for depositing molten polymer layer by layer,
on the support structure. The other approach is Selective Fusing of Print
Media in the granular bed. Here, the media that has been unfused supports
thin walls and overhangs in the piece which is being produced, thereby
reducing need for temporary auxiliary supports for the work piece.

Ultimately, 3D Micro fabrication technique having a photo polymerization of

2-photons might be used to make ultra small features. Here, the preferred
3D object gets traced out by a completely focused laser in a gel block. The
curing of gel into a solid takes place only in places where laser had been
focused, owing to photo excitations non-linear nature. The gel that is left
out gets washed away.

Resolution: Resolution is measured in terms of layer thickness. The X-Y

resolution is given in dpi. 100 microns is the characteristic layer thickness.
The X-Y resolution is compatible with laser printers. Diameter of the
particles, i.e. 3D dots is around 50-100 microns.

Applications: Standard applications are inclusive of design visualization,

metal casting, CAD/prototyping, architecture, geospatial, education,
healthcare, retail/entertainment, etc. Off late, 3D printing technology is
being used in artistic expressions. Its biotechnological applications include
bio-printing, computer-aided Tissue engineering, and organ printing.

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Self-replication: The main purpose behind using 3D printing technology is
its ability to replicate itself. RepRap is one such printer. It has the ability to
print plastic parts and circuit boards. It is believed to print metals in future.

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Additive Fabrication
Additive fabrication can be defined as an assortment of techniques of making
solid objects through the chronological delivery of material and/or energy to
specific points in the space for production of that solid. Additive fabrication is
also known as solid freeform fabrication, layered manufacturing, rapid
manufacturing, and rapid prototyping.

Techniques: Additive fabrication is carried out using a number of

techniques. Let some of them be studied in detail.

Electron Beam Melting: EBM (Electronic Beam Melting) can be described

as the rapid prototyping for metals. It is better known as rapid
manufacturing method. The parts are manufactured by having the metal
powder melted layer by layer through a beam of electron in high vacuum.
The parts produced acquire strength, solidity, and are void-free as well. The
electrons have a very high speed; around 5 to 8 times the light speed. The
bombardment of these electrons takes place on the work materials surface.
This generates heat which is enough for melting the parts surface and
causing it to vaporize locally. Vacuum is required for the operation of EBM.
This means that the size of work piece is directly proportional to vacuum
used. This technique works on composites, ceramics, non-metals, and as
stated above, metals.

Fused Deposition Modeling: Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) can be

described as a kind of rapid manufacturing (RP) or rapid prototyping
technology which is generally used in engineering design. S.Scott Crump had

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founded this technology in 1980s. It caught the commercial market in 1990.
Like most of the RP processes, the principle of working of FDM is the
additive principle. It states that the material has to be laid down in layers.
The metal wire or plastic filament is then unwound and material is supplied
through it to the extrusion nozzle that can turn off and on the flow.

The nozzle then is heated for melting the material. It could be moved in
vertical and horizontal directions with the help of a mechanism which is
numerically controlled. This numerical control is obtained through Computer
Aided Design software package. Like stereo lithography, the building of the
model takes place from layers. This happens because the material starts
hardening after getting extruded from nozzle.

Numerous materials are offered with diverse trade-offs between temperature

and strength. One can use the FDM technology with polycaprolactone,
polycarbonates, polyphenylsulfones, and Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(ABS). Temporary supports can be made by using a water-soluble material.
These supports are needed when manufacturing is still going on. The
commercial applications include making prototypes of servo or stepper
motors.

Selective Laser Sintering: Selective Laser Sintering can be defined as an

additive type of rapid manufacturing wherein a high power laser (like
carbon dioxide laser) is used for fusing tiny particles of ceramic, metal, or
plastic powders into mass representing the desired three-dimensional object.
In comparison to other methods of rapid manufacturing, selective laser
sintering has the capacity of producing parts from several powder materials
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available. They include polymers (polystyrene and nylon), metals
(composites, alloy mixtures, titanium, steel), and not to forget- green sand.
This physical process could be liquid-phase sintering, partial melting, or full
melting.

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Rapid Manufacturing
Rapid Manufacturing can be described as an Additive Fabrication Technique
to manufacture solid objects through the chronological delivery of material
and/or energy to precise points in the space for producing that part. At
present, the practice of controlling the process of manufacturing with the
help of computer by making use of mathematical model that has been
created through the computers aid is being followed. Rapid manufacturing,
if done with the help of Parallel Batch Production is capable of providing a
huge advantage in terms of cost and speed in comparison with alternative
techniques of manufacturing like die casting or Plastic Injection Molding.

Origin: Rapid Manufacturing process was first demonstrated at The AUTO

FACT show. The venue was Detroit, MI. The year was 1987. This creation is
attributed to 3D Systems Company. The technologies available now are
inclusive of processes such as Laminated Object Manufacturing, Shape
Deposition Manufacturing, and Selective Laser Sintering.

The present scenario: Rapid manufacturing might involve replacement

parts, custom parts, series production, or Short Run Production. This process
can be referred to as Rapid Prototyping only if the use of the part is for
development. Rapid Manufacturing carried out for big products with Layerbased Manufacturing from composite materials, plastics, or metals is widely
used for numerous industrial applications pertaining to aerospace (Boeing)
and military (MPH-Optomec) sectors. Micro system applications and small
products are well known in medicines, sensor technologies (micro TEC), and
diagnostics. Batch production regarding tiny parts by techniques of rapid
manufacturing like RMPD give vent to advantages related to time and cost.

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Now days, collectibles, consumer products, orthodontics, dentistry, jewelry,

motor sports, and automotives are being experimented with rapid
manufacturing. Amazing results are expected in future. The world economy
is becoming competitive day by day. Manufacturers are facing the challenge
to deliver novel customized products faster than before for meeting
customer demands. A late delivery or development might could mean failure
of business. Rapid manufacturing has been devised with the objective of
shortening the production cycle and design, and promising to revolutionize
the age-old manufacturing procedures.

The initial process: Before starting with the construction of product, a

prototype or sample is required quite often as a portion of design cycle, for
allowing evaluation, testing, or demonstration of proposed product. This
process is iterative, as a chain of prototypes gets built up. These prototypes
can then be used for testing various options.

Rapid Manufacturing is also inclusive of rapid application of tools needed for

production on a large scale, like jigs, dies, and specially shaped molds.
Several Layer manufacturing Processes are being developed now, by making
use of a wide range of materials. Parts produced so far have proven to be
steadily durable. The size has also been increasing. Due to all these
successes, layer manufacturing is the most sought after technique for
fabricating the parts for functional prototypes as well as production tools.
The process of applying layer manufacturing for making components utilized
in production can be called Rapid Tooling. It is being applied to investment
casting, injection molding, and many processes related to mold casting.

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3D Scanning and Prototyping

3D scanner: 3D scanning implies analyzing the real-world environment or
objects for collecting data on their appearance, i.e. color and shape. Digital
3D models can be constructed from the data collected. Such devices are
being used by the amusement industry extensively for producing video
games and movies. This technology is more widely used in reverse
engineering, industrial design, prototyping, keeping records of cultural
artifacts, and computer vision. A number of technologies have been used for
building the three-dimensional scanning devices. Every technology has
limitations, costs, and advantages.

Functionality: The idea behind using a three-dimensional scanner is

creating a Point Cloud of the Geometric Samples on the subjects surface.
The subjects shape can then be extrapolated by using these points. If
information regarding color is gathered at every juncture, the determination
of colors on subjects surface can be easily done. 3D scanners share analogy
with cameras. If one tries to define a Spherical Coordinate System wherein
the origin would be the scanner and vector would be drawn from front of it
such that =0 and =0, then every point in picture would be associated with
and . Combined with distance that corresponds to r component 3D
position of every point in picture is described by the spherical coordinates.

Technology: 3D scanners consist of two types- non-contact and contact.

Non-contact three-dimensional scanners could be divided further into 2
major categories- passive and active scanners.

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Non-Contact Active: Some light or radiation is always emitted by active
scanners. It is advised to detect the reflection of this light, as it would help
in locating environment or an object. The kinds of emission possibly used
include x-ray, ultrasound, or light.

Contact: Contact three-dimensional scanners locate the subject by the way

of physical touch. The best example of contact three-dimensional scanner is
a CMM (Coordinate Measuring Machine). It is widely used in manufacturing
processes due to its precision. However, it has a disadvantage that contact
with object to be scanned is required. The target object might get modified
or damaged by scanning. Historical artifacts, in particular, have to be
specially taken care of.

3D Prototyping: 3D prototyping is the subset of rapid prototyping. The

basic advantage of 3D prototyping is that numerous materials can be used
as base materials. It involves taking of virtual designs through CAD
(computer-aided design) or Animation Modeling software, transforming them
into virtual, thin, and horizontal cross sections, and then creating every
cross-section in the physical space, 1 by 1 till the model gets completed.

It should be noted that STL File Format is the interface between machines
and CAD software. This interface carries out the approximation of shape of
an assembly or part by making use of triangular facets. Surfaces of a
superior quality are produced by smaller facets. 3D prototyping is believed
to be the next level equipment by most of the experts of this field. Pioneer
companies are striving to master the technique. The conservative

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prototyping machines cost around 25000 pounds, as per the study
conducted in the year 2005.

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Reverse Engineering
Reverse Engineering can be defined as the process wherein a devices,
objects, or systems technological principles are discovered by analyzing its
operation, function, and structure. It often refers to detaching something,
say- a software program, electronic equipment, or mechanical device and
carrying out the analysis of its workability in detail. This is done in order to
manufacture a new program or device which performs the same function
without doubling anything from original.

Motivation: Reasons behind the emergence of reverse engineering include

interoperability, lost documentation which means loss or non-existence of
documentation of the concerned device, product analysis, security auditing,
exclusion of protection of copy, circumvention of restrictions regarding
access, and fraud.

Reverse Engineering of mechanical devices : With the everincreasing popularity of CAD, reverse engineering has proven to be a
blessing for creation of 3D virtual model of the on hand physical part to be
used in 3D CAE, CAM, CAD and many other soft wares. The measuring of
physical object can be done by making use of #D scanning technologies
such as computed tomography, structured light digitizers, laser scanners,
and CMMs. The data that is measured usually gets represented as point
cloud. It is devoid of topological information. Thats why, the processing and
modelling takes place into usable format like a triangular faced mesh, CAD
model, or a collection of surfaces of NURBS. Applications such as Polyworks,
Image ware, Geomagic, or Rapidform are used for processing the point

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clouds into the formats that can be used in applications like 3D CAE, CAM,
CAD or visualization.

Reverse Engineering of software : The term reverse engineering

differs from person to person when applied in terms of software. As per the
research conducted by Cross and Chikofsy, reverse engineering can be
referred to as the process that involves the analysis of the subject system
for creating its representation at the higher level. This level might be called
the level of abstraction. As far as software is concerned, reverse
engineering can be described as an examination process only. There is no
modification from the software point of view. The use of software antitamper technology takes place in order to deter reengineering and reverse
engineering of the software-powered systems and proprietary software.

Two major reverse engineering types exist in the present scenario. In the
first type, source code is available, but programs greater level aspects are
poorly documented or invalidated. In the second type, source code does not
exist. Any efforts made in this direction would be termed as reverse
engineering. The 2nd use is that which majority of people know. Reverse
Engineering of software is implied at making use of clean room design
technique for avoiding infringing copyrights. In todays world, around 95% of
reverse engineering consists of reverse engineering of software.

On the other hand, black box testing in software engineering has many
similarities to reverse engineering. The tester normally possesses the API.
However, their main goal is to locate undocumented features and bugs by

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smashing the products from the outside. This process is used for
customizing the embedded systems as well.

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Selective Laser Sintering

Selective Laser Sintering or SLS is said to be a free-form manufacturing
technology which is developed by 3D systems. SLS is a method of layered
manufacturing which creates a solid 3D object by blending powdered
substances along with carbon dioxide. In other words SLS is one of the
famous mechanisms of Rapid Prototyping in which a laser beam carefully
sinters or fuses the powdered substances such as elastomer, nylon etc. A
thin layer of that powdered substances is being laid down and the laser
sketches on the layer sintering together the elements hit by the laser. SLS
can provide a persons manufacturing company with most important
perimeter by producing metal or rapid plastic prototyping which narrowly
matches their molded complements.

Stereolithography V/S Selective Laser Sintering: One of the foremost

benefits of Selective Laser Sintering over Stereolithography is that it
constructs prototypes in powered materials such as nylon etc. It is likely to
create structurally useful parts like functioning springs, living hinges and
snap fit components along with nylon substances by utilizing Selective Laser
Sintering. This procedure is actually very easy as there is no need of tooling
or molding involved. The nylon substance utilized in SLS can easily be
tapped, drilled and machined similar to those utilized in Stereolithography or
SLA. These substances are fragile as they are curved with Ultra Violet light
and created with liquid photopolymers.

Since it has been introduced by DR Carl Deckard in the year 1989, this SLS
technology has become one of the most recognized and utilized procedures
for product development and rapid prototyping in most of the manufacturing

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industries. SLS technology has also become one of the most trusted and
reliable forms of rapid prototyping due to its structural importance. SLS is
generally helpful when a particular design has to be customized or is
complex and requires being short run or functional production.

Procedure: In the procedure of SLS or Selective Laser Sintering, three

dimensional parts are formed when an infrared laser beam fuses or sinters
powdered substances. The ultimate object is being formed by continually
sintering or fusing those thin layers by utilizing the infrared laser beam. This
particular procedure is also known as additive manufacturing, creating parts
which regularly enhances in size until it reaches the arranged size. These
rapid prototypes are formed directly from the STL file acquired from three
dimensional CAD models.

One of the most important features of Selective Laser Sintering is how

functional and durable the substances are. These substances normally
include versions of new DuraForm glass-filled, which is a nylon based
substance that creates functional and highly durable plastic prototypes.
Some of the other substances available with SLS include LaserForm, Flex
Plastic for elastomeric and rubber like parts that create metal prototypes.

Benefits: Developments and research has been making progress in order to

bring innovative SLS substances to the manufacturing market. These
substances are like which they need no post processing methods at all after
creating and this offers a different advantage over SLA or Stereolithography.
However, this does not mean that these substances cannot be developed. All
these SLS substances can be completed in many methods. They can be

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machined, painted, tapped, drilled and even plated. This allows for a
superior grade of manifestation to these substances therefore giving the
users a limitless potential to utilize these substances.

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Fused Deposition Modeling

FDM or Fused Deposition Modeling is said to be one type of a free-form
fabrication technologies being developed Stratasys Inc. As this technology
utilizes high force ABC plastic it is one of the most preferred technologies for
prototyping plastic parts which require force. The Fused Deposition Modeling
is a method of layered manufacturing which extrudes a very thin drop of
plastic, just one layer at a time. A string of plastic is supplied into an
extrusion cranium where this string is heated into a state of semi-liquid form
and then extruded via a very tiny passage onto the other layer of the
substance. Support substance is even being laid down in the same method.

How it Works? FDM is also said to be a solid based rapid prototype method
which extrudes substances to build a model layer by layer. FDM is also the
second most extensively utilized technology of rapid prototyping after SLA or
Stereolithography. Actually, a plastic string is being released from a coil and
then provides substances to an extrusion syringe. This syringe is then
heated to melt the stored plastic it also has a mechanism that allows the
flow of the melted plastic to turn on and off when required. This syringe is
later mounted to a mechanical phase that can be shifted both in vertical and
horizontal directions.

As the syringe is shifted over the desk in the much needed calculations it
drops a thin drop of extruded plastic to create a single layer. This plastic
later hardens immediately after being squeezed from the syringe and
merges to the lower layer. This complete procedure continues within a
chamber that is held at a temperature which is below the plastics melting
point.

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Other Substances Included in this Process: Several other substances

are also available for this procedure which includes investment casting was
and ABS as they offer excellent strength. Most recently, poly (phenyl)
sulfone or polycarbonate substances were also introduced that expand the
capacities of this method further in terms of temperature and strength.
Support construction is being constructed for overhanging geometries and
then is detached by breaking it away from those objects. Even a watersoluble support substance that can just be washed away is available these
days.

This particular method is quiet easy and office friendly. FDM process is also
considered to be rather fast for small parts in the category of a few cubic
inches or with those having tall and thin form factors. However, it can even
be slow for those parts with wide cross segments. The conclusion of
producing parts with this method has been significantly improved over these
years. However, they are not quite on average compared to
Stereolithography. Three dimensional printing is yet another competitor to
the procedure of FDM. Nevertheless, FDM offers wide range and greater
strength of substances compared to the implementations of three
dimensional products from Z Corporation.

Advantages and Disadvantages: One of the main advantages of utilizing

the method of FDM is the durable parts which can be made by using waxes
and few other engineering plastics. One of the main drawbacks of utilizing
the method of FDM is that these parts normally take longer time to create

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and the layering is undoubtedly noticeable because of the process of
extrusion.

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Stereolithography
Stereolithography or SLA is one of the most commonly used rapid
prototyping and rapid manufacturing technology for creating several parts
with excellent surface finish and high accuracy. Stereolithography is a
mechanism used to perform Stereolithography Apparatus. SLA creates
plastic parts or even objects a layer by marking out a laser beam on the
surface of the liquid photopolymer. This category of substances initially
developed for packaging and printing industry, solidifies quickly wherever
the laser beam hits. As one layer is being entirely marked out it lowers a
small distance into the vat of the liquid photopolymer and a subsequent
layer is marked out exactly on the top of the first layer.

The self cementing property of this particular substance causes the layers to
merge with one another and finally form an absolute 3D object after lots of
similar objects are created. Some of these objects have undercuts or
overhangs that must be actually maintained during the procedure of
fabrication by maintaining the structures. These structures are automatically
or manually designed and later fabricated along with the objects. When the
fabrication procedure is completed these objects are elevated from the vat of
the liquid photopolymer and then the supports are removed.

Stereolithography or SLA is being considered to provide one of the best

surface finishes and exact accuracy of any technology of rapid prototyping.
SLA is frequently regarded as the pioneer of the rapid prototyping business
with the initial profit-making system was introduced in the year 1988. This
particular system consists of a vat of photo-curable liquid photopolymer, a
controlling system and an Ultra Violet Laser Beam. A podium is being

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lowered into the vat of the liquid photopolymer via the elevator system in
such a way that the surface of the podium is the layer-width below the
surface of the vat.

This laser beam then marks out the border lines and seals in the 2
dimensional cross segment of the model, hardening the resin anywhere it
touches. As the layer is completed the podium sends down layer thickness
where the resin flows over the first layer and then another layer is being
created. This procedure continues until the entire model is completed. Once
the entire model is completed the podium increases the vat and the extra
resin is being drained. This completed model is later removed from the
podium, washed clearly and then placed in an Ultra Violet oven for ultimate
curving.

For so many years, a wide range of substances with properties intimating

those engineering thermoplastics have been created. Restricted selectivity
color altering substances for biomedical and additional applications are also
available along with ceramic substances which are at present developed in
large number. This particular technology is even remarkable for the big
object sizes which are possible.

On the other side, working with liquid substances can be untidy and some
parts quite often need a post-curing function in a completely separate Ultra
Violet oven or an apparatus for absolute stability and treatment. In recent
times, the latest technology of inject has even been extended to operate
with photopolymers which result in systems which have both perfect
accuracy and quick operation.
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Laminated Object Manufacturing

Laminated Object Manufacturing or LMO is a system used for rapid
prototyping. It consists of adhesive coated layers of plastic or paper that
are stuck together with the help of glue and then cut into an appropriate
shape with the help of a laser cutter or a knife.

How does Laminated Object Manufacturing Work? The LMO is used to

manufacture 3 D objects that are cut on the basis of the geometrical data
that is available with the system. The laser that is used in the LMO is a
carbon dioxide laser that is capable of creating cross sections of 3 D
objects successively, from layers of foil, usually paper. The back of the 3 D
object that is created has a polyethylene coating on it.

The computer with the help of which the LMO runs, has the ability to slice a
solid 3 D model into 2 D cross sections that are thin. Every cross section
would have a thickness that is equivalent to the thickness of each of the
materials that is used for the process of prototyping.

The system also consists of a rewinding and an unwinding roll. These are
connected to each other with the sheet of the material that is being used to
manufacture the prototype. The sheet is routed with the help if the idler
rollers that are also present in the machine. The rolls are the ones that
supply the material to the machine and also store it, if need be.

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The laminated part of the prototype is built one a platform that is capable of
incremental vertical movement. The movement of the platform is brought
about by a stepping motor. On the top of the platform, is a heated roller that
can both, heat and compress the stacks of sheets or ribbons that are placed
on the lamination platform. The heated roller moves in a reciprocal manner
and binds the ribbon material by heating it.

The machine also has an x-y table that carries and positions the mirrors that
in turn reflect the beam that is emitted by the laser. The table also carries
the lens that ultimately focuses the laser beam on the surface of the stack
that is laminated so as to cut the top most layer of the stack.

The scrap pieces that are produced as a result of the building process stay
on the platform itself. These are basically diced by the beam of the laser into
several squares in the cross hatched pattern. The scraps serve as a support
for the part. When the built part is removed from the machine, it is in the
form of a block. The cross hatched scrap pieces can be easily separated from
the block.

Why Use the Laminated Object Manufacturing? The machine can be

used to build larger models for the purpose of sand casting or to understand
the conceptual design of something. Although Laminated Object
Manufacturing is a great way to build prototypes of large machines, it cannot
be used to build hollow parts. Nevertheless, it is relatively less expensive
and a much faster way of building robust parts for rapid prototyping.

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Electron Beam Melting

Electron Beam Melting or EBM is a great new alternative method, that can be
used instead of both rapid prototyping and manufacturing of metal products.
The method is especially useful to the aerospace industry.

The technology is becoming very popular because it has the ability to build
dense parts that are similar to any wrought material. Besides, the cost for
manufacturing parts through this process is substantially less as compared
to the other additive fabrication or metal based methods that are common
employed. EBM has also opened the doors to configurations for several new
designs.

The technology is very useful as it can help produce parts using titanium
within hours as opposed to days. The technology also creates low volume
products, which are essential for the aerospace industry. The time and the
cost factors involved in creating titanium products are major obstacles for
the aerospace industry. However, with the help of EBM, ready to install
titanium parts can be created in an efficient manner.

Working of Electron Beam Melting: Like the name suggests, the Electron
Beam Melting device consists of an electron beam that has the ability to melt
metal powder. The machine lays down layers of the powder metal
successively, after reading data from 3 D CAD model. The parts of the
machines are computer controlled, and it builds the finished model by laying
one layer over another, of the metal.

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The system consists of beam gun that emits the electrons. There is a
tungsten filament that releases a cloud of electron when it incandesces. The
electrons that are emitted pass through the gun at around the speed of
light. The electron movement is organized and directed with the help of a
magnetic field within the system. The magnetic field also acts like a lens and
directs the beam in the direction that is desired so that the powder can melt
to create an appropriate design. The second magnetic field deflects the
beam at the desired point on the target powder.

When the electrons hit the metal powder, the kinetic energy of the electrons
gets converted into thermal energy. As a result of which, the temperature is
raised above the melting point of the metal powder and the powder liquefies.

In the Electron Beam Melting system, the electron gun remains stationary
while there are mechanical parts that move and thus deflect the electron
beam so that the metal can be build into a desired shape.

The complete process is carried out in a vacuum so as to avoid any kind of

energy loss, which may occur, if the electrons are allowed to collide with gas
or air molecules. The system is 95 % efficient when it comes to energy
consumption.

Besides, the melted product that is formed is in the pure form and thus
there is thermal treatment is not required on the product formed. Another
major advantage of using the machine is that it is capable of creating
strength to weight components. Besides, with the help of the machine only
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one component can be created instead of the multi piece components that
need to be assembled later.

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Rapid Prototyping Services

Since rapid prototyping came into being, many businesses provided with the
service of prototype development. Earlier, such companies were known as
service bureaus and they allowed the users to access the unproven and
expensive technology. In the early period of rapid prototyping, these service
bureaus provided with advantages of prototype development minus the
soaring upfront expenses and major risks of applying a new technology that
was relatively unverified and hovering on the brink of rapid obsolescence. In
the beginning, the service bureaus provided file conversions for narrowing
the operational gap amidst 2D data and 3D CAD models. Due to this, the
large companies that had not yet transitioned to solid modeling were
benefited greatly.

As the technology of rapid prototyping progressed, most of the service

bureaus have undergone role modifications and they promise to deliver
greater advantages beyond initial expense reduction and ownership risk.
There are several companies worldwide offering the rapid prototyping
services.

Advantages of Rapid Prototyping Services: The advantages of rapid

prototyping services are by far many. The rapid prototyping services provide
advanced rapid prototyping technologies. You can get a competitive edge in
the process of product development, so that the product is marketed much
faster. The rapid prototyping services allow the users and producers to
achieve the designing and prototyping goals. The innovative product idea
can be successfully realized into actual product of high quality with the help
of rapid prototyping services. The rapid prototyping services deliver the

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finished product beginning from the product idea, conceptualization and
prototype development. You can save money and time as well, as rapid
prototyping allows the production on low volume basis directly from the
designing data.

Rapid Prototyping Services: The various types of rapid prototyping

services include technologies like stereolithography prototype, polyjet 3D
printing, selective laser sintering, rapid tooling, 3D CAD modeling, RTV
molding, RotoCAST, machined castings, urethane castings, injection
molding, high temperature castings, rapid prototyping machines, investment
casting, electroplating, functional prototype development, 3D modeling and
development of patterns and models.

The rapid prototyping service provider will develop prototypes as per the
required specifications of the manufactures. It supplies with prototype
development along with prototype assemblies, materials and components.
The various materials utilized in the process of rapid prototyping are plastics,
metals and elastomers. The product development process is accelerated with
supply of quick, robust and accurate prototypes by the rapid prototyping
services.

The product can be refined and modified by way of constant process

improvement, reduction in piece cost and enhanced quality control. The
rapid prototyping services encompass all these features. The various steps
involved in the rapid prototyping services are concept, design, engineering,
prototype development, limited production and full scale production.

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Different rapid prototyping services offer different technologies and

products. Some companies like Lovson provide with rapid prototyping
services like sand casting steel, injection press moulds, lost wax injection
moulds, , sand iron casting, closed die forging, plastic injection moulds, open
die forging, pressure die castings, lost wax castings, sintering, machining
facility and metal sheet components. There are many rapid prototyping
services advertising on the internet and these include Solid Concepts and
Harvest Technologies etc.

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DIY Rapid Prototyping-Home made 3D

printer
Several DIY Rapid Prototyping techniques have come up off late. Making a
3D printer at home can prove to be quite cost-effective. The other names for
such sort of prototyping are fabbing, three-dimensional printing, reprapping,
and fabrication. RepRap is one such 3D printer. Let its making be studied in
detail.

RepRap: RepRap is the abbreviation for Replicating Rapid-prototype. In

other words, it can be said to be a Practical Self-copying Printer. RepRap
would make metal, ceramic, and plastic parts. Its itself made up of plastic.
This is done in order to facilitate the making of multiple copies of its own
self. The final product can be described as a 3-axis robot moving numerous
material extruders. Fine filaments are produced by these extruders. The
filaments are made up of their own working materials. This process has a
paste-like consistency.

If one intends making plastic cones, RepRap would make use of the plastic
extruder for laying down a 0.5 mm quickly hardening filament made from
molten plastic for drawing the filled-in disc. The Plastic Intrusion Head would
then be raised and the layer following that would be drawn, exactly on the
top of 1st. This process keeps on repeating till the complete cone is formed.
If making an Inverted Cone is on the agenda, the same procedure is
followed. The only difference would be laying down the support material
beneath the parts that are overhanging. The removal of support would take

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place after the completion of cone. Intermixture of conductors with plastic is
allowed. This can help in the formation of circuits.

The process described above is known as Fused Deposition Modeling. These

machines, though useful, are not very much prevalent. The software of the
above process is believed to work on all the computer platforms, that too,
free of cost.

Fabr: The Fabr makes use of parts which are commonly available. The other
advantages include requirement of minimal fabrication of parts, high
accuracy and availability of enough power for not only plastic, but also wood
or metal.

The key components of Fabr include 80X20 extruded aluminium, fasteners

and bars, drive and anti-backlash nuts, couplers, bearings, aluminium bars,
screws, pulleys, timing belts, and A Custom Stepper Motor Controller
Board. The learners are advised to use an Allegro 3967 Micro stepping
Stepper Motor Controller. The board contains three drivers, and connectors
to have end stops.

DIY 3D printer made from pure sugar: The objectives behind making the
above-stated DIY 3D printer are cost-effective design using recycled
components, huge printable volume emphasizing over better resolution, and
ability of using low-cost print media inclusive of granulated sugar. The
process of printing starts with the bed of granular print media which has low
melting point. The printing media is fused selectively with a directed,
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narrow, low-velocity beam. This beam consists of hot air. The bed is then
lowered by a diminutive amount. The beds top portion is then bombarded
with a flat thin layer (of media). By this process, a 2D object is formed. If
this process is repeated, 3D object is formed.

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Injection Molding Prototyping

Approximately 30% of all plastic products in the world are produced by an
injection molding process. Within this another 30% are produced using a
custom injection molding technology. There are basically six steps involved
in the normal injection molding process. The first step is the clamping of the
mould, the clamping unit makes for one of the three units of the molding
machine. The other two being the injection unit and the mold, once the
clamping unit holds on to the mold, the molten plastic is injected into the
mold by the injection unit. The plastic is fed in the form of tiny pellets onto a
hopper. These are then allowed into a cylinder where they are heated into a
molten state and injected into the mold. The steps that follow are referred to
as dwelling phase. It basically involves making sure all the cavities in the
mold are fully filled. The mold is then allowed to cool with the clamping
intact. Finally the mold is opened and the component is ejected out. The
biggest advantage of plastic injection molding is the cost factor of the
produced parts, especially when you need large number of parts. The
disadvantage is the cost of manufacturing the molds; a simple injection mold
can cost you $3000 while the bigger complex ones can run into several
hundreds of thousands.

Rapid Prototyping: Rapid Prototyping is the process of automated

manufacturing of physical components using solid freeform fabrication. They
are used in a wide range of applications, everything from medical to fine art.
Rapid Prototyping machine works by taking virtual models from software and
then converting it into extremely thin, horizontal cross-sections and then
goes onto create each of the cross-section in physical space in a cyclic
manner until the model is completed. Rapid Prototyping is a WYSIWYG
process in which the virtual model bears identical resemblance to the
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finished physical model. Additional fabrications allows the machine to lay
down layers of sheet, liquid or powder material and build up a series of
cross-sections These layers are finally automatically fused together to render
the final product. The main advantage of rapid prototyping is the ability to
create any shape no matter how complex the geometry is. The commonly
used data interface between the machine and the software is the STL
format. It works by approximating the geometry of a part using triangular
facets, smaller the facets higher will be the surface quality. The word rapid
is used relative top conventional methods which take days to construct a
model depending upon its complexity. Rapid prototyping can create the
model within a few hours, though it is highly dependent of the type of
machines and the size of the model. There have been several new
technologies available for rapid prototyping including Fused Deposition
Modeling, Selective laser sintering, 3D printing, and Electron Beam Melting.

Prototyping Injection Molding is a specialized method of combining

traditional plastic injection molding. CAM software are able to combine rapid
tooling and plastic injection molding in order to quickly create small
quantities of any thermoplastic part.

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Casting Prototypes
Researchers have developed a new rapid-prototyping technique that blends
traditional casting methods with CNC milling which allows faster prototyping;
the best thing is that it happens in a single machine. The technique is
christened as Precise Cast Prototyping or PCPro and was developed by
researchers at the Fraunhofer Institute For Material and Beam Technology,
Dresden, Germany. Half of the mold is machine using CNC machining, then
silicon or polyurethane material is poured into fill half the mold, this will be
the lower half to render the shape of one half of the part, while the part still
in the CNC mill. When the material is cured and hardened, the upper side of
the component is milled. The process is targeted at components with simple
geometry such as housings whose one side can be fairly easily machined on
aluminum or epoxy mold half and the other complicated half is on the
opposite side where it can be milled into the soft plastic.

Cost Saving: The technique is touted to be an enormously cost effective as

only one half of the tool is made and that too for low pressure casting. There
are no runners; gate, venting and parting lines to be taken care of and
besides these can be manufactured by toolmakers with lesser experience.
Another advantage is that one half casting allows the air bubbles to escape
freely; this translates into a more dense part and better surface finish. Since
the casting is machined again it allows features such as threads and
undercuts to be incorporated. The casting method shapes the outer surface
of the component while precision CNC milling renders the inner contours.
The fact that he casting can be milled allows for parts with totally different
dimension to be manufactured from the same mold. This is because the
second half of the mold exists only as a CAD/CAM model and tool path

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programming. Geometrical changes can be altered by just changing the
parameters.

Time saving: Since the outer surface of the component are not machined
the process saves a lot of time .Moreover the inner dimensions gain closer
tolerances compared to prototypes manufactured by vacuum casting. The
reason for this is that the finishing takes palce after the curing and shrinkage
in conventional prototyping while in casting its done before the casting
shrinks. CNC allows for achieving of tighter tolerances compared to casting
technologies. Besides all the machining is done in a single setting so there is
no chance of non-alignment of the outer and inner features. The PCPro
technique manufactures a prototype in just 6 steps, while the vacuum
method takes 15 steps. A potentially major application of PCPro is to make
housings for cell phones and similar electronic products; this is because of
the techniques ability to deliver flawless, close tolerance free-form surfaces.
The machine for the process is a blend of casting and milling machine and is
designed and patented by Fraunhofer. However it has to be said that highly
complex features are difficult to manufacture by this method.

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Virtual Prototyping
Virtual Prototyping is basically as simulation based refinement of a
component by using a function based simulation. The technology is rapidly
gaining prominence as the practice of choice amongst engineers, thanks to
its ability to immensely shorten cycles and aid faster product development.
Other major reasons for rapid proliferation of the technology include the
widespread availability of low-cost computers and analysis tools and the
ability to integrate multi-physics simulations into a single environment.
These days, computer simulations are increasingly used to calculate and
evaluate the kinetic and geometric reactions of a system to various external
factors.

The fact that the results can be visualized in full 3D environment has further
spurred the rise of this technology. This has finally set the stage for a brand
new phase in product development; the engineer can now quantitatively
assess the performance of a system by saving the expenses on the
intermediate physical prototypes. Virtual Prototypes also permit a larger
variety of tests to be carried out on the models, sans any risk of over-testing
such as wearing out the component. This is a major boost to the process of
redesign as the desired results could now be achieved a lot faster. Virtual
Prototypes also facilitate the involvement of non-engineering staff such as
sales personnel and management very early in the development process. In
this way virtual Prototyping has gained acceptance as the weapon of choice
for mechanical design system and is now widely used in sectors ranging
from automotive, rail, aerospace to medical device designs. There is
significant shortage of individuals trained in the methodology which seems to
be the biggest crisis the mechanical design industry is facing.

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Virtual Prototyping is the process of representing a 3D representation of

your invention by the use of CAD softwares. Most prototyping companies
allows their client to see the result online, in the comfort of your home you
can get a 360 degree view of your component or flip it one end over
another. Virtual prototyping is probably the most convenient means of
communication between a designer and his customers. No matter where you
are, you can do business with anyone in just about any part of the globe.
The unique interface allows you to examine the component almost as if you
are looking at the physical self. The customer can easily gauge how the
component is going to react to various situations. In addition to the
convenience of viewing your product in the comfort of your home, it is cost
effective too, compared to a traditional prototype. Most manufacturers have
started making the switch to virtual prototyping as it speeds up the whole
process as parties can now send info via the internet, not to mention the
money saved.Having said that, nothing beats the feeling of holding the
component in the hand, to feel the constructions and check out whether it
will work the way you want it to. Virtual prototypes are nonetheless making
huge gains in the manufacturing sector

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