1. Mention and explain the types of Mycorrhiza!

Answer:
There are two main types of Mycorrhiza according to Ianson (2014):
ectomycorrhizae (ECM) and arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM).
a. Ectomycorrhizae (ECM) :
The ECM association is specific to roots of trees such as
birches, willows, pines, oaks and spruces. The fungi physically connect
with the roots of the host plant, improving the plants ability to take up
water and nutrients. They also form a sheath, or mantle, around the root,
which physically protects the root from some types of disease-causing
fungi. According to Muchovej (2001), Ectomycorrhizal inoculum is
easily produced for application in forest nurseries.
b. Arbuscular Mycorrhizae (AM):
The AM relationship affects both perennials and annuals. This
mycorrhizae is belonging to the Phylum Glomeromycota are symbionts
with terrestrial plant roots. It is now generally recognized that they
improve not only the phosphorus nutrition of the host plant but also its
growth, which may result in an increase in resistance to drought stress
and some diseases.
The main difference between the AM and ECM relationship is
that the AM relationship does not create a protective mantle around the
root the way the ECM relationship does. Instead, its hyphae enter the
plant cells, producing structures that facilitate water and nutrient uptake
by the plant. One way to spread AM fungi is to collect root tissue and
the soil immediately surrounding the root from a host plant that is
known to have the AM fungi and incorporate it into the soil of the new
plant. Management of arbuscular mycorrhizae focuses on maintaining
soil conditions favoring the fungi rather than constantly adding more
fungi-colonized tissue to the host plant. Establishing a successful
mycorrhizal relationship can be difficult because some of the species of
fungi may be site specific. But the necessity of AM inoculum
production via a host plant is still an obstacle to ample utilization of
AM fungi in agricultural crops as said by Muchovej (2001).

c. Orchid mycorrhizae
Orchid mycorrhizas are mutualistic interactions between fungi
and members of the Orchidaceae, the worlds largest plant family. The
majority of the worlds orchids are photosynthetic, a small number of
species are myco-heterotrophic throughout their lifetime, and recent
research indicates a third mode (mixotrophy) whereby green orchids
supplement their photosynthetically fixed carbon with carbon derived
from their mycorrhizal fungus. Molecular identification studies of
orchid-associated fungi indicate a wide range of fungi might be orchid
mycobionts, show common fungal taxa across the globe, and support
the view that some orchids have specific fungal interactions.
Confirmation of mycorrhizal status requires isolation of the fungi and
restoration of functional mycorrhizas. New methods may now be used
to store orchid-associated fungi, and store and germinate seed, leading
to more efficient culture of orchid species. However, many orchid
mycorrhizas must be synthesised before conservation of these
associations can be attempted in the field.
According to Dearnaley et al (2012) Orchid mycorrhizas are
predominantly represented by associations between photosynthetic
plants and rhizoctonia fungi. These associations, which likely
represent the plesiomorphic condition for orchids, gave rise through
repeated evolutionary shifts to interactions with other diverse fungal
lineages and diversification of orchid metabolism. How orchids recruit
and allow new fungi (even some nave fungi from non-mycorrhizal
clades) to enter the dual morphogenesis of mycorrhizas remains unclear.
However, orchid mycorrhizas are excellent models to reveal the general
properties of mycorrhizal systems as well as providing insights into the
fungal world via specificity aspects, ecological networks and evolution
of the mycorrhizal state.
d. Arbutoid mycorrhizae: Found in Californias chaparral plants.
e. Ericoid mycorrhizae:
According to Straker (1996), the ericoid mycorrhiza has been
regarded as the most specific of mycorrhizas because of its limitation to

hosts belonging to a restricted number of families of the Ericales and

the participation of a small group of ascomycetous fungi as mycobionts
in the association. Primarily associated with acid-loving plants,
including Vaccinium, the blueberry genus and possibly one of the most
prevalent forms of mycorrhizae in Alaska given the diversity of berries
across the state.
2. Explain the organelles of Endomycorrhiza and Ectomycorrhiza!
Answer:
a. Endomychorriza (AM)
AM fungi show the peculiar characteristics in morphology and
physiology. Spores of AM fungi are generally formed in soil and their
sizes (50-500 m in diameter) are much larger than those of other fungi.
There is no septum in their hyphae. No sexual growth-phase has been
observed. Spores germinate when they are under favorable conditions,
extend their hyphae and colonized plant roots. The fungi penetrate the
hyphae into cortex layer of roots and form the hyphal organs, vesicles
and arbuscules which are characteristics to AM fungi (Fig. 1). AM fungi
belonging to Gigasporaceae are known not to form vesicles. Colonization
on plant roots is essential for proliferation of AM fungi. AM fungi are thus
recognized as obligate symbiotic fungi. The interaction between AM fungi
and plants is generally mutualism based upon nutrient exchange.

Fig. 1: Schematic picture

of arbusucular mycorrhizal
fungi colonizing roots and
their hyphal extension into
soil.

b. Ectomychorriza
The hartig net is
formed by an ingrowth
of hyphae (often originating from the inner part of the surrounding
mantle) into the root of the plant host. The hyphae making up the Hartig
net penetrate and grow in a transverse direction to the axis of the
root, and thus form a network between the outer cells of the root axis.
This region of juxtaposition is where nutrient and carbon exchange
occurs.
Enveloping the root, and often containing more biomass than the
Hartig net interface, is a hyphal sheath known as the mantle. There
exists considerable variation in the structure of the mantle, ranging from
a loose network of hyphae to a structured and stratified arrangement of
tissue. Often, these layers resemble plant parenchyma tissue and are
referred to as pseudoparenchymatous
Extraradical hyphae extend outward from the mantle into
the soil, fulfilling the role of the suppressed root hairs by increasing the
surface area of the colonized root. These hyphae can spread out singly,
or in an aggregate arrangement known collectively as a rhizomorph.
Much as the Hartig net and mantle, composite hyphal organs can
display a wide range of structural difference. Some rhizomorphs are
simply parallel, linear collections of hyphae. Others yield more
complex organization such as aggregates where the central hyphae
possess enlarged diameters, or exhibiting apically extending hyphae
that superficially resemble meristematic activity.

A fourth section, which can be thought of as an extension of

the extraradical hyphae, is the reproductive fruiting body of the EcM
fungus. These structures vary widely in their morphology, although
certain aspects are relatively conserved among species. The fungal cell
wallsare typically composed of complex carbohydrates, and a great deal
of nitrogen is often bound in these cell walls and spores.

source of picture : wikipedia

3. What are the function of Mycorrhiza?
Answer:
Mycorrhiza increase root surface area for water and nutrients
uptake. The use of mycorrhizal biofertilizer helps to improve higher
branching of plant roots, and the mycorrhizal hyphae grow from the root
to soil enabling the plant roots to contact with wider area of soil surface,
hence, increasing the absorbing area for water and nutrients absorption of
the plant root system. Therefore, plants with mycorrhizal association will
have higher efficiency for nutrients absorption, such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, and copper; and also
increase plant resistance to drought.
The functions of Mycorrhizae:
1. Allow plants to take up nutrients in unavailable forms or nutrients that
are fixed to the soil. Some plant nutrients, especially phosphorus, are
elements that dissolve were in water in neutral soil. In the extreme
acidic or basic soil, phosphorus is usually bound to iron, aluminum,
calcium, or magnesium, leading to water insolubility, which is not
useful for plants. Mycorrhiza plays an important role in phosphorus
absorption for plant via cell wall of mycorrhiza to the cell wall of plant

root. In addition, mycorrhiza help to absorb other organic substances

that are not fully soluble for plants to use, and also help to absorb and
dissolve other nutrients for plants by storage in the root it is associated
with.
2. Enhance plant growth, improve crop yield, and increase income for the
farmers. Arising from improved water and essential nutrients absorption
for plant growth by mycorrhiza, it leads to improvement in plant
photosynthesis, nutrients translocation, and plant metabolism processes.
Therefore, the plant has better growth and yield, reduce the use of
chemical fertilizer, sometimes up to half of the suggested amount,
which in turn increases income for the farmers. As in the trial involving
mycorrhizal biofertilizer on asparagus it was observed that, when the
farmers used suggested amount of chemical fertilizer together with
mycorrhizal biofertilizer, it was found that the crop yield improved by
more than 50%, and the farmers income increased 61% higher than
when chemical fertilizer alone was used.
3. Improve plant resistance to root rot and collar rot diseases. Mycorrhizal
association in plant roots will help plant to resist root rot and collar rot
diseases caused by other fungi.
4. It can be used together with other agricultural chemicals. Mycorrhiza
are endurable to several chemical substances; for example; pesticide
such as endrin, chlordane, methyl parathion, methomyl carbofuran;
herbicide such as glyphosate, fuazifopbutyl; chemical agents for plant
disease elimination such as captan, benomyl, maneb triforine,
mancozed and zineb.
REFERENCES
M.A. Turk, T.A. Assaf, K.M. Hameed and A.M. Al-Tawaha 2006. Significance of
Mycorrhizae World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 2 (1): 16-20, 2006
R. M. Muchovej 2001. Importance of Mycorrhizae for Agricultural Crops.
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida,
Gainesville

Ianson David 2014. Mycorrhizae in the Alaska Landscape. Published by the

University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative Extension Service in
cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture
C. J. Straker 1996. Ericoid mycorrhiza: ecological and host specificity.
Department of Botany, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3,
Wits 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
Dearnaley, John (2007). Further advances in orchid mycorrhizal research.
Mycorrhiza, 17 (6), 475-486. ISSN 0940-6360
Dearnaley, J.D.W., F. Martos, M.A. Selosse 2012. Orchid Mycorrhizas: Molecular
Ecology, Physiology, Evolution and Conservation Aspects. Fungal
Associations, 2nd Edition The Mycota IX B. Hock (Ed.) SpringerVerlag Berlin Heidelberg 2012

Paper of Soil Biology and Health

Mycorrhiza

Arranged by :

By:
E. A Lintang Wardyani ( H0713059)

THE MAJOR OF AGROTECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
SEBELAS MARET UNIVERSITY
SURAKARTA
2015