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Space-Time Coding: Hamid Jafarkhani

The document discusses space-time coding and provides an overview of wireless applications, challenges, channel impairments, and different types of fading. It describes the various paths signals can take between transmitters and receivers and the effects of attenuation, multipath, mobility, and Doppler shift.

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Emad Niri
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34 views

Space-Time Coding: Hamid Jafarkhani

The document discusses space-time coding and provides an overview of wireless applications, challenges, channel impairments, and different types of fading. It describes the various paths signals can take between transmitters and receivers and the effects of attenuation, multipath, mobility, and Doppler shift.

Uploaded by

Emad Niri
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Space-Time Coding

Space-Time Coding
Hamid Jafarkhani
University of California, Irvine

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Space-Time Coding

Wireless Channels
c 2005 by Hamid Jafarkhani
Copyright

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Space-Time Coding

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Wireless Applications
Mobile telephony/data/multimedia (3G, 4G)
Wireless local area network (LAN) (802.11, WiFi)
Wireless metropolitan area network (MAN), WiMAX, LTE
Mobile Wireless Broadband Access (802.20)
Digital broadcasting (DAB, DVB)
Bluetooth
Ultra Wideband (UWB)
Wireless local loops
Wireless Internet
Wireless ad-hoc networks
Wireless sensor networks
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Space-Time Coding

Wireless Challenges
High data rate (multimedia traffic)
Networking (seamless connectivity)
Resource allocations (quality of service-QoS)
Mobility (rapidly changing physical channel)
Portability (battery life)
Privacy/security (encryption)
Interference from other users (multiuser)

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Space-Time Coding

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Wireless Channel Impairments


Fading rates depend on time, frequency, and space
Limited bandwidth
Dynamism (random access, mobility)
Limited power (at least on one end)
Interference
With all the above impairments the pipe is narrow

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Space-Time Coding

Status Quo
Demand for data rates is increasing exponentially.
Signal processor performance is growing exponentially.
Spectrum is limited.
Battery power is growing at a slow rate.
Terminal size is decreasing.
Consumers like wire-line quality.
Wire-line data rates are growing rapidly making expectations
much higher.
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Space-Time Coding

Paths Between Transmitter and Receiver


Line of Sight (LOS): A direct path between the transmitter
and the receiver.
Reflection: When the electromagnetic wave meets an object
that is much larger than the wavelength.
Diffraction: When the electromagnetic wave hits a surface
with irregularities like sharp edges.
Scattering: When the medium through which the
electromagnetic wave propagates contains a large number of
objects smaller than the wavelength.
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Space-Time Coding

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Space-Time Coding

Attenuation
Attenuation or path loss (sometimes called large-scale fading)
is due to propagation losses, filter losses, antenna losses, and so
on.
If the average transmitted power is Pt , we have
Pr = d Pt ,
where d is the distance and 2.
Relative loss at distance d respect to the reference distance d0
in dB results in

d
Lpath = 0 + 10 log10
.
d0
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Space-Time Coding

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(small-scale) Fading
Fading is used to describe the rapid fluctuation of the
amplitude of a radio signal over a short period of time or travel
distance, so that large-scale path loss effects may be ignored.
Fading is caused by interference between two or more versions
of the transmitted signal which arrive at the receiver at slightly
different times.
These waves, called multipath waves, combine at the receiver
antenna to give a resultant signal which can vary widely in
amplitude and phase.

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Space-Time Coding

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Multipath Effects
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or
time interval.
Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts
on different multipath signals.
Time echoes (dispersion) caused by multipath propagation
delays.

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Mobility Effects
If objects in the radio channel are static, only the receiver is
moving, then fading is purely a spatial phenomenon.
The spatial variations of the resulting signal are seen as
temporal variations by the receiver as it moves through the
multipath field.
Due to mobility, the fading is a time varying phenomenon.

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Normalized Power Level in dB

10

15
Branch 1
Branch 2
Branch 3
20

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Distance in Wavelengths

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Fading Factors
Multipath: The presence of reflecting objects and scatterers
creates a constantly changing environment that dissipates the
signal energy in amplitude, phase, and time. Multipath
propagation often lengthens the time required for the baseband
portion of the signal to reach the receiver which can cause
signal smearing due to intersymbol interference.
Speed of the mobile: The relative motion between the
mobile and base station results in random frequency
modulation due to different Doppler shifts on each of the
multipath components.
Speed of the surrounding objects: If the surrounding
objects are moving, they induce a time varying Doppler shift
on multipath components (ignored if mobile is faster).
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Space-Time Coding

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Channel Modeling
A multipath channel can be modeled as a linear time varying
channel:

s(t)

h(t, )

r(t)

Figure 1: Channel impulse response model.

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Types of Fading (based on multipath time delay)


Flat (Frequency Non-Selective) Fading: The channel has
a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth
which is greater than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
The spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are
preserved at the receiver. Narrowband channel: h(t, ) can
be approximated by a delta function at = 0.
Frequency Selective Fading: The channel possesses a
constant-gain and linear phase over a bandwidth that is smaller
than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal. The received
signal is distorted and the channel induces intersymbol
interference (ISI). Wideband channel: h(t, ) is sometimes
approximated by a number of delta functions which
independently fade.
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Figure 2: Flat Fading


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Figure 3: Frequency Selective Fading

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Doppler Shift
The change in frequency, Doppler shift, is given by
v
fd = cos

where
v is the velocity of the mobile
is the angle between the direction of the motion of the mobile
and the direction of the arrival of the wave.
is the wavelength.

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Doppler Spread
Doppler spread is the range of frequencies over which the
received Doppler spectrum is not zero.
Doppler spread is a measure of the spectral broadening.
When a sinusoidal signal of frequency fc is transmitted, the
received signal spectrum has components in the range fc fs
to fc + fs , where fs is the maximum Doppler shift.
If the baseband signal bandwidth is much greater than the
Doppler spread, the effects of Doppler spread are negligible.
This is a slow fading channel.
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Types of Fading (based on Doppler spread)


Slow Fading: The channel impulse response changes at a rate
much slower than the transmitted baseband signal s(t). The
channel may be assumed to be static over one or several
reciprocal bandwidth intervals. Low Doppler Spread
Fast Fading: The channel impulse response changes rapidly
within the symbol duration. High Doppler Spread
Also, slow and fast can be defined based on coherence time:
9
Tc =
16fs
If the signal duration is smaller than the coherence time, the
channel is a slow fading channel, otherwise, it is a fast fading
channel.
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Types of Fading
Flat Slow Fading or Frequency Non-Selective Slow
Fading
Flat Fast Fading or Frequency Non-Selective Fast
Fading
Frequency Selective Slow Fading
Frequency Selective Fast Fading

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Rayleigh Fading Model


In a flat fading channel, when there is no line of sight, using
central limit theorem results in independent Gaussian
distributions for the real and imaginary parts of the fade gain
rt = st + t
The distribution of the envelope of the path gain, ||, is
Rayleigh
2
r
r
, r0
fR (r) = 2 exp

2 2
where 2 is the variance of the real and imaginary parts of .
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Ricean Fading Model


In a flat fading channel, when there is a line of sight, a
dominant stationary (nonfading) component exists.
In this case, the distribution of the envelope of the path gain,
||, is Ricean.

2
2
r
(r + D )
Dr
fR (r) = 2 exp
I
, r 0, D 0
0
2
2

where D denotes the pick amplitude of the dominant signal


and I0 (.) is the modified Bessel function of the first kind and
zero-order.
The Ricean distribution degenerates to a Rayleigh distribution
when D 0.
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Frequency Selective Fading


Two-ray Rayleigh fading model
rt = 0 st + 1 st1 + t
where the real and imaginary parts of 0 and 1 have
independent Gaussian distributions
In general frequency selective fading is modeled by intersymbol
interference (ISI)

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