INTRODUCTION

GEOSCIENCE: FIELD OF STUDY

Geology
Physical geography
Geophysics
Soil science
Oceanography and hydrology
Glaciology
Atmospheric sciences

GEOLOGY
Comprise study of solid
Earth, the rock of which it is
composed & the processes
by which it evolves
History of the Earth, provides
primary evidence for plate
tectonics, evolutionary history
life and past climates
Mineral & hydrocarbon exploration,
evaluate water resources; predicting &
understanding of natural hazards,
remediation of environmental problems

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
branch of natural science which deals with the
study of processes and patterns in the natural
environment like the atmosphere, biosphere and
geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built
environment, the domain of human geography

GEOPHYSICS
physics of the Earth and its environment in
space; also the study of the Earth using
quantitative physical methods.
sometimes refers only to the geological
applications: Earth's shape; its gravitational and
magnetic fields; its internal structure and
composition; its dynamics and their surface
expression in plate tectonics, the generation of
magmas, volcanism and rock formation.

SOIL SCIENCE
study of soil as a natural resource on the surface
of the earth including soil formation,
classification and mapping; physical, chemical,
biological, and fertility properties of soils; and
these properties in relation to the use and
management of soils

OCEANOGRAPHY & HYDROLOGY

is the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean.
It covers a wide range of topics, including marine
organisms and ecosystem dynamics; ocean currents,
waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics; plate
tectonics and the geology of the sea floor; and fluxes
of various chemical substances and physical
properties within the ocean and across its
boundaries.
Hydrology is the study of the movement,
distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other
planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water
resources and environmental watershed
sustainability.

GLACIOLOGY
study of glaciers, or more generally ice and
natural phenomena that involve ice.

ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES
umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere,
its processes, the effects other systems have on
the atmosphere, and the effects of the
atmosphere on these other systems

GEOSCIENCE FOR PETROLEUM

EXPLORATION & DEVELOPMENT
unlocking the worlds remaining hydrocarbon
resources
from new venture, assessing regional data to
focus in on the most prospective countries and
basins, to the ultimate test, drilling the wells.

acquiring the best possible data to image the

subsurface, either seismic data (imaging the rock
units 2-4 km below the ground), or undertaking
geochemical, gravity or magnetic surveys.

 interpreted the data using the latest software to

produce 3D subsurface models for optimum
locations to drill a well.
To locate hydrocarbons in the subsurface
requires integrated teams that model the
distribution of reservoirs, source rocks and
traps.

ESSENTIAL BASIC GEOLOGY

Geology
the study of the Earth, the materials of which it is
made, the structure of those materials, and the
processes acting upon them.
includes the study of organisms that have
inhabited our planet.
important part is the study of how Earths
materials, structures, processes and organisms
have changed over time.

STUDY OF GEOLOGY
study earth processes
processes such as landslides, earthquakes,
floods and volcanic eruptions can be
hazardous to people

 understand these processes well enough to avoid

building important structures where they might
be damaged
Example:
can prepare maps of areas that have flooded in the
past, they can prepare maps of areas that might be
flooded in the future. These maps can be used to
guide the development of communities and
determine where flood protection or flood
insurance is needed.

 study earth materials

use earth materials every day. They use oil
that is produced from wells, metals that
are produced from mines, and water that
has been drawn from streams or from
underground.

conduct studies that locate rocks that contain

important metals, plan the mines that produce
them and the methods used to remove the
metals from the rocks. Also to locate and
produce oil, natural gas and ground water.

 study earth history

Today, concerned about climate change.
Working to learn about the past climates of
earth and how they have changed across
time.

This historical geology news information is

valuable to understand how our current climate
is changing and what the results might be.

NATURE &
COMPOSITION
OF EARTH

EARTHQUAKE

 Seismic waves
- waves of energy
that travel through
the earth, for eg. as
a result of an earth
quake, explosion,
or some other
process that
imparts lowfrequency acoustic
energy.

EARTHQUAKE WAVES IN
THE EARTH

P wave

S wave

 P waves
Particle motion vibrate in horizontally
Travel the fastest

S waves
Vibrate from side to side vertically
Arrive after primary waves
travel through solids, not through liquids or
gasses.

Surface waves
Move by spherical propagation
Slowest of the three waves types

Surface
wave

SIGNIFICANCE OF EARTHQUAKE WAVES

Discriminate between earth layer and establish
what is known about their composition
Therefore travel times of seismic waves and their
ability or lack ability to be transmitted through
various substances are important.

MINERALS & ROCKS

MINERALS
Fundamental building blocks of rock materials in
the earth
Naturally occurring inorganic substances with a
definite chemical composition and specific crystal
structure.
Crystal structure is controlled by composition that
directly determines which atoms of which
elements will be distributed in which
arrangement.

 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Guidelines for field identification of specimens
that may occur combined with other minerals or
in very small amounts in particular sample
Hand lens is used for this identification

Permit identification of hand specimens without

involving time consuming & difficult laboratory
procedures

SHAPE
Minerals grow into consistent crystal shape,
which are controlled by chemical composition of
mineral
Six crystal system that include all minerals
Some mineral compounds can form more than
one mineral with entirely different crystal
structures polymorphs which are quite
different in appearance
Study of mineral crystal forms is called
crystallography

HARDNESS
How mineral resists scratching hardness
Only fresh mineral surfaces should be tested
Weathered mineral surfaces will result in
hardness measurements that can be quite
different from fresh unweathered mineral
Mohs hardness scale scale from softest to
hardest by which mineral hardnesses are
determined

COLOR
Mineral impurities can make mineral nearly any
color
Not usually sufficient by itself to identify
mineral; however in combination with other
physical properties it can assist in mineral
identification

WEIGHTS
Specific gravity of mineral its weight relative to
the weight of an equal volume of water
Obtained by dividing the weight of mineral in air
by difference between its weight in air & its
weight in water.
Most mineral specimens are difficult to measure
because associated with other minerals
Very heavy and very light minerals easily
recognized by specific gravity

LUSTER
How mineral reflects light determine its type of
luster
Most minerals are considered to have metallic or
nonmetallic luster, with few having sub metallic
luster.

CLEAVAGE
How mineral parts along weaknesses in its
crystal lattice
tendency of crystalline materials to split along
definite crystallographic structural planes
result of the regular locations of atoms and ions
in the crystal
create smooth repeating surfaces that are visible
both in the microscope and to the naked eye
Quartz tightly bonded & produce no cleavage
Mica have one direction of cleavage and calcite
has three directions

Green fluorite
with prominent
cleavage

FRACTURE
Random breakage of mineral along no particular
orientation

TASTE
Some minerals have very distinctive taste
qualities that facilitate their immediate
identification
Rock salt (halite) & salvite are two minerals with
distinctive tastes.

RESPOND TO CHEMICAL
REAGENTS
Limestone responds to hydrochloric acid
Dolomite responds weakly to hot hydrochloric
acid but reacts more vigorously when it is
powdered

RADIOACTIVE
Radioactive minerals emit particles that activate
various types of detectors
Important in identification radioactive minerals
& in exploration for them

CYCLE OF ROCK

ROCK CYCLE & PETROLEUM

Sedimentary rock
- source & reservoir bed
- products of breakdown, transportation,
deposition all three types & developed in many
different environment
- generate & accumulate petroleum

 Igneous & metamorphic rocks

- do not generate petroleum but under proper
circumstances can provide seals & reservoir for
petroleum accumulations

 Rock cycle forms, changes & destroy rocks as

continuum
Petroleum experience similar kinetic history
during which time it is being formed, & changed
& destroy with its host rock
At any instant oil is being generated in some
rocks , changing in others, migrating in still
others & being eliminated by geologic processes

GEOLOGIC TIME
Represented by the presence of rock intervals in the
geologic column or by the absence of equivalent
rocks in correlative columns in adjacent or distant
locales

Elapsed geologic time encompasses all of the events

that affect the earth
Petroleum forms, migrates and accumulates as
direct results of those events represented by the
clues to be interpreted as significant exploration
data

RELATIVE TIME
Required the development of a sequence of
events that could be established on the basis of
obvious consecutive criteria
Required events within the sequence be
sufficiently identifiable & be widespread enough
to have real significance

SUPERPOSITION
Fundamental to the study of layered rocks and
means that in any normal sequence the oldest
rocks, deposited first, on bottom, and youngest
rocks deposited last on top.
As erosion attacks terrain underlain by normal
rock sequence, successively older rocks will be
exposed as younger rocks are removed

 The gap between the oldest rocks exposed by the

erosional surface & the rocks laid down by
subsequent deposition is represented by the
period of erosion.
Examination of sequence of rocks contain gap
indicate that the section had undergone
deposition, erosion & subsequent deposition

If amount of geologic time represented by the

missing portion of the section had been
established in adjacent areas, the history of
geologic section can be pieced together.

Cretaceous Mancos Shale

near Woodside, Utah

Atlantic coast of Tierra

del Fuego

SUCCESSION OF FAUNA
Stratigraphic units being deposited, fossils of
plants & animals being included with sediments
Deposition continue, evolution of plants &
animals changes some of the forms, eliminate
others & gives identity to the ages of rocks being
laid down

Fossils successions & occurences allow

correlations, or comparisons to be made
between rock sections

INCLUSION
Igneous rocks that intrude surrounding rocks
are invariably younger than the rocks they
intrude because they form later

CROSSCUTTING RELATIONS
Pre-existing rocks can be intruded by younger
rocks or can be affected by later faulting and/or
folding
Scales of crosscutting features are variable, from
regional in extent to those on microscopic scale

ABSOLUTE TIME
Until mid-twentieth century, all dating involved
relative parameters that permitted estimates for
absolute ages, which were subject to
considerable error

The development of absolute age dating

techniques, however eliminated much of the
error & now routinely confine geologic events to
narrow time ranges

 Determined by measurements involving the

half-lives of certain radioactive elements
Half life measure of radioactive decay & is the
time required for half of certain element to be
eliminated by the loss of its radioactive particles
If the half life of an element is known & compared
to the amount of that element remaining in the
deposit , time elapsed since mineral was originally
crystallized can be calculated

 Eg: isotope of uranium (U) is U235, its daughter

product is lead (Pb207)
It has been determined that it takes 704 m.y. for
half of an original amount of U235 isotope to
convert to Pb207
Thus, rock contains equal amounts of U235 and
Pb207, the rock must formed 704 Ma
Amount of time necessary for radioactive isotope
to lose half of its radioactivity is termed the halflifeof the isotope

RADIOMETRIC TIME SCALE

Dating for sedimentary rocks is difficult since
they often consist of fragments derived from
several sources
Ages of individual constituent grains can be
determined, but do not date time of deposition of
entire rock
Igneous & metamorphic rocks that are closely
associated with sedimentary rocks will accurately
establish ages of the sediment

RELATIVE TIME

GEOLOGIC TIME
SCALE

ABSOLUTE TIME

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

Eventually conventional nomenclature was
required to integrate information from many
places in order to standardize the geologic
column & make it useful to subsequent workers
A system of descriptive terminology was applied
to the various intervals throughout the years &
evolved into stratigraphy of today

 Systems represented time rock units or the

actual rocks that were deposited during a
specific time interval, which was called a period.
Groups of periods were called eras, while
periods were divided into epochs & ultimately
into ages

PLATE TECTONICS

RELATION BETWEEN OCEANIC

& CONTINENTAL CRUST

CAUSES OF CONTINENTAL MOTION

Although mantle sufficiently viscous to behave
as solid, it may respond to continuous stress
applied by heat and develop convection currents.
Convection cells in mantle provide mechanism
for separation of continental masses
Movements in the crust, produced by
convection, would not exceed a few centimeters
per year

 Another possible mechanism for continental

movements might involve the body forces
produced in the earth by rotation on its axis

Rotational forces affect the flow of the

hydrosphere & atmosphere & important in the
distribution of ocean currents & air masses,
respectively
Gravitational effects of the sun, moon, & the
planets in the solar system create tides within
the earths crust
Known as earth tides & possible contribute to the
motions of crustal plates on the earth

CONTINENTAL MARGIN
Continental margins evolve in response to the
nature of various motions
Assume 3 different modes according to the types
of motions & related deformation that affect
them
Divergent continental margins
Convergent continental margins
Transform continental margins

DIVERGENT CONTINENTAL MARGINS

Occur where plates broken apart along
spreading centre & moved away from each other
Example:
The coasts of north & south America moved away
from the western coasts of Africa & western
Europe
Originally joined in the vicinity of Mid-Atlantic
Ridge, common spreading centre for both sides of
north & south Atlantic oceans

 Characterized by :
Block faulting with deformation limited to tilting
Red beds deposited as basal sediments in faultblock basins
Salt deposited over the red beds
Marine sandstone & shale as water depths
increase
Reef & bedded carbonates
Possible petroleum occurrences in or associated
with above sediments & structures

 Sediments produce petroleum in the North Sea,

the Gulf of Mexico, the coasts of west Africa &
Eastern South America & northeastern Canada

CONVERGENT CONTINENTAL MARGINS

Developed where 2 continental plates / 1
continental & 1 oceanic plate collide
In order to accommodate encroachment of 1
plate by another, a zone of plate consumption is
developed whereby 1 plate overrides the other
along subduction zone
Lighter continental material rides over the
denser oceanic material

 Subduction zones only develop where there is

density difference between crustal materials that
are colliding
Where 2 continental plates come together,
subduction continues as long as there is oceanic
crust in the space between the continental
masses
When 2 continental masses meet, subduction
zone ceases to exist because
Mass is capable being subducted & a suture or
Resulting mountain range

Separate terranes, tectonic units that have different plate

tectonic, metamorphic and paleogeographic histories. The
term is borrowed from surgery where it describes the sewing
together of two pieces of tissue.

 Characteristic of convergent zone

Zone of compression within the subduction zone &
possible extension along the axis of the island arc
Reverse & normal faulting
Volcanic sediments near the volcanic island arc.
Sediments become cleaner & better sorted at
distance from volcanic sources
Block faulting in marine basin behind the volcanic
island arc
Possible petroleum occurences in clean marine
sediments on high fault blocks in basin behind
island arc

 Oil & gas field in Sumatra & fault blocks on

Malaysian side
Andes mountains in Columbia, Equador & Peru
Zagros zone of southwestern Iran

TRANSFORM CONTINENTAL MARGINS

Occur where 2 plates move past each other
without converging or diverging
Characterization
Strike-slip movement along a major shear zone as
2 continental plates move by each other
Fault block structures
Sediment deposition concurrent with deformation
along the transform fault system
Development of multiple reservoir & source beds
No volcanic activity

 Oil field along San Andreas fault of southern

California
Caribbean & south American produces
petroleum from related structures in southern
Trinidad & northern Venezuela

Schematic illustrations of the

Wilson cycle, the fundamental
geological processes controlling
the evolution of the continents
a-b) A continent rifts, such that
the crust stretches, faults and
subsides. c) Seafloor spreading
begins, forming a new ocean
basin. d) The ocean widens and
is flanked by sedimented
passive margins. e) Subduction
of oceanic lithosphere begins on
one of the passive margins,
closing the ocean basin (f) and
starting contiinental mountain
building. g) The ocean basin is
destroyed by a continental
collision, which completes the
mountain buliding process. At
some later time continental
rifting begins again.

FORMATION SEDIMENTARY
BASIN
A basic theory for the formation of sedimentary
basins is that thinning of the lithosphere occurs due
to extensions caused by plate tectonics and
associated convection in the mantle.
This leads to the creation of a surface depression
which is then infilled by sediments eroded off the
adjacent uplifted continents.
As the sediments are deposited, they are generally
deformed by continuing extension leading to
breakage of the crust, were a break is called a fault.
Resulting in a series of fault-defined blocks.

SEDIMENTOLOGY
the study of modern sediments such as sand, mud
(silt), and clay, and the processes that result in
their deposition which accumulates as sediment
in continental and marine environments and
eventually forms sedimentary rocks
Sedimentologists apply their understanding of
modern processes to interpret geologic history
through observations of sedimentary rocks and
sedimentary structures

Clastic

Carbonate
Sedimentary
rock types

Chemical
sedimentary rocks

 Sedimentary rocks record the history of

changing environments on Earth.
Based on the recognition of the signature of
changing environments over time, as preserved
in the rock record.
Environmental interpretation of rocks
+
Age of rocks
= Earth History

STRATIGRAPHY
the study of rocks to determine the order and
timing of events in Earth history
Study origin & character of layered sedimentary
rocks
Study classification layered rocks, depositional
succession & geographic distribution
Sedimentary geology = sedimentology +
stratigraphy

Large Scale Cross Bedding in Eolian

Sandstone at Red Rock National
Park, Las Vegas

 Sedimentology focuses primarily on facies and

depositional environments (how were sediments
/sedimentary rocks formed?)

Stratigraphy focuses on the larger scale strata

and Earth history (when and where were
sediments/sedimentary rocks formed?)

 The law of superposition (or the principle of

superposition) is a key based on observations of
natural history that is a foundational principle of
sedimentary stratigraphy :
Sedimentary layers are deposited in a time
sequence, with the oldest on the bottom and the
youngest on the top.
The law was formulated in the 17th century by the
Danish scientist Nicolas Steno.

UNCONFORMITY
buried erosion surface separating two rock
masses or strata of different ages, indicating that
sediment deposition was not continuous
In general, older layer was exposed to erosion
for an interval of time before deposition of the
younger, but the term is used to describe any
break in the sedimentary geologic record

Types of unconformities
Disconformity

unconformity between
parallel layers of
sedimentary rocks which
represents a period of
erosion or non-deposition.
Disconformities are marked
by features of subaerial
erosion

DISCONFORMITY

 Nonconformity
exists between sedimentary
rocks and metamorphic or
igneous rocks when the
sedimentary rock lies above
and was deposited on the
pre-existing and eroded
metamorphic or igneous
rock. Namely, if the rock
below the break is igneous
or has lost its bedding by
metamorphism, the plane
of juncture is a
nonconformity.

NONCONFORMITY, GRAND
CANYON ARIZONA

NONCONFORMITY

 Angular unconformity

unconformity where
horizontally parallel strata of
sedimentary rock are
deposited on tilted and eroded
layers, producing an angular
discordance with the
overlying horizontal layers.
The whole sequence may later
be deformed and tilted by
further orogenic activity

ANGULAR UNCONFORMITY

ANGULAR UNCONFORMITIES,
GRAND CANYON

TYPES OF UNCONFORMITIES,
GRAND CANYON

TUTORIAL
Explain three main role of geologist in exploration
of oil and gas industry

Differentiate between P, S and surface wave

Differentiate igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rock types in terms of origin, how it
form and relation between the rocks and
petroleum. State 2 example of rocks for each of
rock types
Describe the effect of plate tectonics on formation
of basin

 Differentiate between relative and absolute time

of the rocks for dating technique
Explain in brief your understanding on
convergent plate boundary, divergent plate
boundary and transform plate boundary
By giving one example, explain the formation
process of sedimentary rock types clastic,
carbonate, evaporites and chemical sedimentary
rocks.

 Explain three main role of geologist in exploration

of oil and gas industry
unlocking the worlds remaining hydrocarbon
resources by knowing the geology of the potential area,
the petroleum system and location of hydrocarbon
can be identified.
to locate or detect the presence of subsurface
structures or bodies and determine their size, shape,
depth, and physical properties (i.e density, velocity,
porosity), and also fluid content
from new venture, assessing regional data to focus in
on the most prospective countries and basins, to the
ultimate test, drilling the wells.
interpreted the data using the latest software to
produce 3D subsurface models for optimum locations
to drill a well.

 Differentiate between P, S and surface wave

The first kind of body wave or primary wave. This
is the fastest kind of seismic wave, and,
consequently, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic
station. The P wave can move through solid rock
and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the
earth. P waves are also known as compressional
waves, because of the pushing and pulling they do.
Subjected to a P wave, particles move in the same
direction that the the wave is moving in, which is
the direction that the energy is traveling in, and is
sometimes called the 'direction of wave
propagation'.

 The second type of body wave is the S wave or

secondary wave, which is the second wave you
feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a
P wave and can only move through solid rock,
not through any liquid medium. It is this
property of S waves that led seismologists to
conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S
waves move rock particles up and down, or sideto-side--perpindicular to the direction that the
wave is traveling in (the direction of wave
propagation)

 It's the fastest surface wave and moves the

ground from side-to-side. Confined to the
surface of the crust, Love waves produce entirely
horizontal motion.
A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like
a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it
rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and
side-to-side in the same direction that the wave
is moving. Most of the shaking felt from an
earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which
can be much larger than the other waves.

 Differentiate igneous, metamorphic and

sedimentary rock types in terms of origin, how it
form and relation between the rocks and
petroleum. State 2 example of rocks for each of
rock types
Igneous
Origin

Form from
volcanic magma
when volcano
erupts & also
referred as
volcanic rocks

Sedimentary

Metamorphic

Result from the

accumulation of small
pieces broken off from
pre-existing rocks

From sedimentary &

igneous rocks which were
subjected to more intense
pressure or heat & as a
result underwent a
complete change

Igneous

Sedimentary

Metamorphic

How it
form

-Under the surface

of the earth, magma
kept liquid by high T
& P.
-As volcano erupts,
hot magma reaches
the surface, cool
down & solidifies

Sedimentary rocks
become cemented
together by minerals
& chemicals present
when they are
formed & others are
held together by
electrical attraction

-Transforms the rock into

other rocks which are
denser & more compact
-New minerals are
created either by the
rearrangement of a
minerals components or
by reaction with fluids
that enter the rocks

Rock &
Petroleum

Do not generate
Generate &
petroleum but under accumulate
proper condition
petroleum
provide seal/&
reservoir

Do not generate
petroleum but under
proper condition provide
seal/& reservoir

Example

Granite (intrusive) & Gypsum &

basalt (extrusive)
sandstone

Gneiss & Slate

 Describe the effect of plate tectonics on

formation of basin
A basic theory for the formation of sedimentary
basins is that thinning of the lithosphere occurs
due to extensions caused by plate tectonics and
associated convection in the mantle.
This leads to the creation of a surface depression
which is then infilled by sediments eroded off the
adjacent uplifted continents.
As the sediments are deposited, they are generally
deformed by continuing extension leading to
breakage of the crust, were a break is called a
fault. Resulting in a series of fault-defined blocks.

 Differentiate between relative and absolute time

of the rocks for dating technique
Relative Time
Required the development of a sequence of events
that could be established on the basis of obvious
consecutive criteria
Required events within the sequence be sufficiently
identifiable & be widespread enough to have real
significance
Superposition, succession of fauna, inclusion &
crosscutting

 Absolute Time
Determined by measurements involving the halflives of certain radioactive elements
Half life measure of radioactive decay & is the time
required for half of certain element to be eliminated
by the loss of its radioactive particles
If the half life of an element is known & compared to
the amount of that element remaining in the deposit
, time elapsed since mineral was originally
crystallized can be calculated

 Explain in brief your understanding on

convergent plate boundary, divergent plate
boundary and transform plate boundary
Convergent plate boundary
A tectonic boundary where two plates are moving
toward each other. If the two plates are of equal
density, they usually push up against each other,
forming a mountain chain. If they are of unequal
density, one plate usually sinks beneath the other in
a subduction zone. The western coast of South
America and the Himalayan Mountains are
convergent plate boundaries. Also called active
margin, collision zone.

 Divergent Plate boundary

A tectonic boundary where two plates are moving
away from each other and new crust is forming from
magma that rises to the Earth's surface between the
two plates. The middle of the Red Sea and the midocean ridge (running the length of the Atlantic
Ocean) are divergent plate boundaries. Also called
passive margin, spreading zone.

San Andreas fault

Transform Boundaries
Places where plates slide past each other are called
transform boundaries. Since the plates on either side of a
transform boundary are merely sliding past each other
and not tearing or crunching each other, transform
boundaries lack the spectacular features found at
convergent and divergent boundaries. Instead, transform
boundaries are marked in some places by linear valleys
along the boundary where rock has been ground up by
the sliding. In other places, transform boundaries are
marked by features like stream beds that have been split
in half and the two halves have moved in opposite
directions.

 By giving one example, explain the formation

process of sedimentary rock types clastic, carbonate,
evaporites and chemical sedimentary rocks.
Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of little pieces
of other rocks called sediment. Mineral crystals called
cement hold different types of sedimentary rocks form
in different environments. For instance, sandstone, a
sedimentary rock made of sand grains, may form in a
beach or desert sand dunes. Shale, a sedimentary rock
made of mud and clay, may form in a swamp, the
bottom of a lake, or some other muddy environment.
Conglomerate, a sedimentary rock make of gravel and
sand, may form from the sediments at the bottom of a
stream.

 Evaporites are layered crystalline sedimentary rocks

that form from brines generated in areas where the
amount of water lost by evaporation exceeds the total
amount of water from rainfall and influx via rivers and
streams. The mineralogy of evaporite rocks is complex,
with almost 100 varieties possible, but less than a
dozen species are volumetrically important. Minerals
in evaporite rocks include carbonates (especially
calcite, dolomite, magnesite, and aragonite), sulfates
(anhydrite and gypsum), and chlorides (particularly
halite, sylvite, and carnallite), as well as various
borates, silicates, nitrates, and sulfocarbonates.
Evaporite deposits occur in both marine and
nonmarine sedimentary successions.
rock salt, gypsum, or anhydrite,

 Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly

of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), usually calcite,
sometimes aragonite. As well it may contain
considerable amounts of magnesium carbonate
(dolomite). Most limestones have a granular
texture, but limestone can also be massive,
crystalline or clastic.
Most limestones are formed by the deposition and
consolidation of the skeletons of marine
invertebrates, but also limnic limestone exists.
Limestone can also be formed by chemical
precipitation from solution.
Dolostone usually is formed by dolomitisation of
limestone during diagenetical processes prior to
lithification.

 Carbonate sedimentary rocks are sedimentary

rocks formed at (or near) the Earth's surface by
precipitation from solution at surface
temperatures or by accumulation and lithification
of fragments of preexisting rocks or remains of
organisms. For the formation of sedimentary
rocks a longer deposition time is needed , as the
sediment has to be compacted and cemented into
hard beds or strata.

 Chemical rocks are deposited from aqueous

solutions and precipitation may be caused by
chemical or biochemical processes. The formation
of chemical rocks is not dependent on currents or
energy, and particle size is not as important in
classification as in clastic rocks. Instead, these
rocks are classified on the chemistry of the
dominant minerals. The three common groups of
chemical rocks are Carbonates, Evaporites and
Chert.

 Chert is a form of the mineral quartz which forms

under the temperature and pressure conditions
seen at the Earth's surface (quartz also forms
under metamorphic and igneous conditions).
Chert is a cryptocrystalline form of quartz with the
same general properties, but with a different
mineralogic structure.
Chert is often formed by biochemical processes.
Certain types of algae, called diatoms, are capable
of extracting silica from water (both freshwater
and marine) and using it to form an exoskeleton.
When the algaes die, these skeletons can
accumulate into a siliceous ooze layer, which when
lithified forms a chert layer, or a chert nodule (a
nodule is a lump).

CHERT

ASSIGNMENT
Describe the application of geosciences in
petroleum exploration and development.
List two (2) tools for exploration that have been
used by the geologist to characterize the
reservoir

ENJOY THE STORY !