LESLIE MACNEIL WEBER

2009
DESIGN ETHNOGRAPHY:
STRATEGY FOR VISUAL
COMMUNICATIONS

DESIGN
ETHNOGRAPHY:
STRATEGY
FOR VISUAL
COMMUNICATIONS

pg. 03

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Leslie MacNeil Weber
2009 Graduate Thesis
Visual Communication Design
Division of Design
University of Washington

Many thanks to the University of Washington design faculty who have helped immensely in the
creation of this thesis, especially Kristine Matthews, Dominic Muren, and Axel Roesler. I would
also like to thank my fellow MFA colleagues, with whom I have formed great friendships over the
last two years. Special thanks to Preetham Kolari, who guided me through the process of creating
experience collages, and who helped to bring a researchers perspective to this thesis. I am also
grateful to all of the designers, anthropologists, and researchers who participated in the collages
and interviews required by this thesis. Special thanks to Linda Norlen, who helped tremendously
with the development of my writing.
A gracious thank you to my husband, Jason, who has provided incredible support during my
graduate school experience. And to my mom and dad, for continually providing me with
encouragement and guidance. Finally, an enthusiastic thank you to Karen Cheng, my thesis chair,
who spent countless hours reading (and re-reading) this document, providing valuable feedback
week after week. It was an honor to be able to work with you.

Thesis Committee
Karen Cheng Department Chair Thesis Chair
Kristine Matthews Assistant Professor, VCD
Dominic Muren Lecturer, Design Studies
Advisors
Preetham Kolari Senior Experience Researcher
Linda Norlen Design Educator, Writer
Axel Roesler Assistant Professor, IxD

pg. 05

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

1 THE VALUE OF
ETHNOGRAPHY

2 INCORPORATING
ETHNOGRAPHY
INTO VISUAL
COMMUNICATIONS

1.1

Overview of Ethnography

1.2

Overview of Design Research Taxonomies

1.3

Techniques for Design Research

1.4

Ethnography as Design Research

1.5

Ethnography as a Basis for Design Strategy

1.6

Case Studies

1.7

Conclusion

2.1

Overview of Ethnographic Techniques

2.2

The Ethnographic Design Process

2.3

Experience Collages

2.4

Collaboration Model

pg. 07

(AIGA/Cheskin; 2006)

INTRODUCTION
People and culture are incredibly complex. Ethnography offers a way to make sense of this
complexity. It lets us see beyond our preconceptions and immerse ourselves in the world of others.
Most importantly, it allows us to see patterns of behavior in a real world contextpatterns that
we can understand both rationally and intuitively.1
Ethnography, a field of anthropological study and a research technique, helps visual communication
designers create materials that evoke meaning and inspire action in their audiences. Ethnography
enables a designers understanding by uncovering cultural contexts and social norms.
This thesis examines the intersection between the fields of ethnography and visual communication
design. First, the thesis describes the value of ethnography in developing effective strategies for
visual communication design. Second, the thesis describes how designers can most effectively
collaborate with ethnographers in all phases of the design process.
1

AIGA and Cheskin. An Ethnographic Primer, 2006.

INTRODUCTION

PEOPLE AND
CULTURE ARE
INCREDIBLY
COMPLEX.
ETHNOGRAPHY
OFFERS A WAY
TO MAKE SENSE
OF THIS
COMPLEXITY.

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TT

pg. 09

pg. 11
THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

In design research, ethnography is

a tool for uncovering cultural insights.
Insights inform design strategy.

SECTION 1:
THE VALUE OF
ETHNOGRAPHY

Ethnography: the study of culture conducted in natural

settings. Data is gathered from a range of sources, but mainly
from observation and/or relatively informal conversations.

Bronislaw Malinowski: known for his work with ethnographic

research, Malinowski is considered one of the most important
anthropologists of the twentieth century. Malinowski taught
anthropology at the London School of Economics, and is the
author of Argonauts of the Western Pacific. He is pictured here
conducting field work in the Trobriand Islands.

pg. 13

Malinowskis goal: to grasp the natives point of view,

his relation to life, to realize his vision of his world.

1.1 OVERVIEW OF ETHNOGRAPHY

1/ Peoples behavior is studied in everyday

contexts. 2/ Data is gathered from a range
of sources, but observation and/or relatively
informal conversations are most commonly
used. 3/ Data collection is flexible and unstructured to avoid pre-fixed arrangements that may
impose restrictions on what people say and do.
4/ Research usually focuses on a single person
or small group. 5/ Observations are recorded
and analyzed to determine the underlying
causes of human actions/behaviors. Statistical
analysis plays (at most) a subordinate role.
Bronislaw Malinowski, a key figure in the field
of anthropology, was the first social scientist to
conduct research now considered by anthropologists to be ethnography. In the early 1900s,
Malinowski carried out extensive field research

Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York:

Basic Books, 1973. / 3Hammersley, Martyn. Reading Ethnographic Research: A Critical Guide. London: Longman, 1990.
/ 4Stocking, George W. The Ethnographers Magic and Other
Essays in the History of Anthropology. Madison: University of
Wisconsin Press, 1992. / 5Laurel, Brenda, ed. Design Research:
Methods and Perspectives. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2003.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Martyn Hammersley, one of the leading ethnographers and authors in modern anthropology,
characterizes ethnography as a form of social
research that has most of the following features: 3

about natives, the Kula, in Papua New Guinea

by living in the Trobriand Islands for extended
periods of time, observing behaviors and actions
within their natural environment. Malinowski
originally went to New Guinea to study a series
of prophetic cults, however, he never made
it to his original destination of Mambare. He
stopped in the Trobriand Islands on his way to
Mambare, and ended up staying.4 The goal of
his work was to grasp the natives point of view,
his relation to life, to realize his vision of his
world.5 Believing that the behaviors of a society
contain deeper meanings than what is evident
to the casual observer, Malinowski aimed to
understand what the Kula were themselves not
aware of about themselves. In his book entitled
Argonauts of the Western Pacific, Malinowski
published the first known methods for ethnographic research, what he termed participant
observation. He documented his methods for
conducting observational research as well as his
process for collecting information from casual
conversations (as opposed to the then-popular
method of carefully conducted interviews).5

Ethnography, a specialized field with roots in

anthropology and sociology, provides tools for
learning about specific cultures. Anthropologists
study meaning that is manifested as shared systems
of understanding and patterns of behavior within a society; providing organization and guiding
action in peoples daily lives.2 Anthropologists
use ethnography to understand the social and
cultural structures of people across societies.

Discovery: Stage in the

process where the designer
identifies opportunities
for design.

Ideation: Phase in the design

process when the designer
begins to formulate possibilities for the initial design.

Design: The phase in the

design process when the actual
physical design is created.

Refinement: Stage in the

process in which a design is
modified and refined.

Production: Stage in the

process when the final
design is actually produced
for distribution.

Understanding: Phase in
the process when the designer
reflects upon the design and identifies positive and negative points.

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RESEARCH AND THE DESIGN PROCESS

Ethnography offers research techniques that
help designers understand audiences. Many
graphic designers are more familiar with
traditional design research techniques such
as focus groups or one-on-one interviews
than with ethnography. Traditional techniques
often require individuals to report and assess
their own behavior. While useful, this form of
audience research can suffer from distortions
and oversights that occur in any self-analysis.
To understand how research shapes design,
it is important to first be aware of phases within
the design process. A typical design process
involves the following activities: discovery,
ideation, design, refinement, production,
and reflection. These phases can be more
generally defined as activities: conceptualize,
make, and reflect.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

Ethnography is a form of primary research.
Primary research is data and information that
is gathered directly from an original source
(e.g., first-hand questioning, surveys, and focus
groups). Secondary research is the collection of
data and information from existing sources
(e.g., documents, historical data, or published
works). Primary research is valuable because it
involves the collection of data that is not biased
by anyone other than the original researcher.
Secondary research is valuable because it
accesses bodies of work from individuals who
are already knowledgeable in the field of study,
and may have a unique perspective to contribute to the field. Secondary research is often
easier to access and less costly than primary
research, however, secondary information that
is specific to the area of interest may not exist.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE

Ethnography is considered to be a type of
qualitative research. Qualitative research
provides in-depth descriptions or reasoning
for peoples attributes, experiences, and
behaviors, whereas quantitative research
usually results in numerical data that
measures specific amounts or degrees of a
persons attributes and behaviors. Qualitative
research is often conducted to generate new
theories, but quantitative data is usually used
to test theories that have been previously
generated.6 Qualitative research is valuable
because it provides an explanation for peoples
actions and behaviors that allows researchers to understand personal accounts, but
quantitative data helps researchers predict
probabilities and general trends with some
degree of numerical accuracy.
Ladner, Sam. Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research.
Design Research blog, 2007.

Design research can be classified using different

categorical schemes. Knowledge of the various
research taxonomies is important for understanding ethnography and determining when
it is an applicable research technique.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

DI

1.2 OVERVIEW OF DESIGN RESEARCH TAXONOMIES

ZE
O
1 DISC VE RY

Qualitative & Quantitative Research

Qualitative research is concerned with providing a
subjective understanding about human behaviors;
quantitative research is concerned with statistical data.

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Primary & Secondary Research

Primary research is collected first-hand by the researcher;
secondary research is collected from existing sources
such as documents, historical data, or published works.

pg. 15

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pg. 17

Evaluative Research: correlates with reflect processes

in the research diagram.

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GENERATIVE
RESEARCH

Generative research is conducted after the

design direction has been determined, during
ideation, design development, and in the
beginning of the refinement stages. Deeper into
the design process than exploratory research,
generative research helps narrow the project
scope by determining specific details about the
design (e.g., deciding between a push button
or a switch), or how a message will be communicated (e.g., deciding what combination of
images and words would be most effective or
appropriate). Generative research uncovers

ideas and highlights specific user interests to

further the development of initial concepts,
and to identify methodologies for the rest
of the design process.8 In industrial design,
generative research often manifests itself
in an initial prototype that will be modified
several times in the future.
Evaluative research occurs during refinement,
production, and understanding in the design
phases. In the late stages of a design process,
the designer seeks to find the best resolution
for specific concepts or prototypes, asking,
How can it be improved? At this stage,
research is valuable for modifications of a
particular design. Evaluative research is also
useful in providing feedback to determine if
a design is working in context. Attempting to
understand the design impact, evaluative
research is valuable to prepare for future efforts.
7IDEO. IDEO Method Cards. Palo Alto, 2003. / 8Sanders, Liz
and VanPatter, G.K. Science in the Making. NextDesign Leadership Institute, 2004.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

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EXPLORATORY, GENERATIVE,
AND EVALUATIVE
Ethnography is useful in all stages of design:
it can advance exploratory, generative or
evaluative research. Exploratory research takes
place in the discovery and ideation phases of
design, helping to identify design opportunities
and project goals. Exploratory research answers
the question, what is the design or communication intent? It is used to investigate ideas or
concepts when the direction for the project has
not yet been defined. IDEO, a San Franciscobased design consultancy known for innovation
and unique problem-solving methods, often
uses exploratory methods with clients in the
beginning of a design process. One example of
exploratory research is affinity diagramming
arranging elements by their relationships to
reveal connections and to expose opportunities for design.7

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Design Research Diagram: Ethnography can serve as an

exploratory, a generative, or an evaluative research technique
in design. These categories correlate to phases within the
design process, listed in the blue ring surrounding the inside
circle. Because the design process is not linear, the smaller
dashed circles represent a designers potential to return
to earlier stages in the process. Designers ask questions
throughout the design process, as can be seen here in each
phase of design.

pg. 19

Participants commonly tailor their answers, responding the

way they think the interviewer wants them to or portraying
a more flattering self-image than reality might entail.
1.3 TECHNIQUES FOR DESIGN RESEARCH
FOCUS GROUPS AND INTERVIEWS

Stemming from the idea of focus groups,

a variety of additional interview styles have
similar research goals. These vary in their
number of participantsfrom one-on-one
interviews to those in dyads (two), triads
(three), and supergroups (fifty to a hundred).
Smaller groups are more useful for getting
stories behind peoples viewpoints, whereas
larger groups are useful for gathering a large
number of opinions that are topical or
surface-level (in large groups, there are too

No matter the size of the interview group,

participants may tailor their answers; either
responding the way they think the interviewer
wants them to or portraying a more flattering
self-image than reality might entail. Selfanalysis may also be inaccurate when a persons
actions and behaviors are not conscious, or
when a person has a false or inaccurate perception of themselves (for example, someone who
believes himself to be a safe driver because
he has never been in an accident might actually
be a reckless driver). People are often not
aware of meanings and beliefs that underlie
their behaviors.
Online discussion groups are facilitated in
a manner similar to interviews, but use the
Internet as a platform for discussion. The
Internet provides separation between the
moderator and participants, possibly allowing

participants to feel more comfortable when

discussing personal or emotional experiences.
However, it is even more difficult to measure
the accuracy of responses in online discussions
because the facilitator may be unable to directly
assess gestures and expressions of the respondents.
Surveys are another research method, similar
to interviews, that utilize questions and answers
to gather information. Unlike most interview
techniques, surveys are useful for gathering
quantitative data. Results can be measured from
a large sample of participants. However, in our
time-starved society, people often do not take
time to participate in surveys. The number of
respondents may be maximized if incentives are
offered for completion, and questions are simple
and easy to answer (e.g., true/false questions).
Brief questioning tactics make surveys ineffective
for gathering detailed personal accounts.
Voluntary participation may also compromise
interview-style research techniques. Researchers
cannot assume that the participating group is
representative of an audience as a whole. People
who volunteer may trend towards certain demographics (retirees, part-time workers, etc.)
Bainbridge, Mike and Millman, Debbie. Design Meets
Research. www.aiga.org; 2008.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Interview-style formats are known to most

practicing designers. Focus groups are a
common data collection method. They involve
a small group of people (typically five to fifteen)
and a short period of time (usually one to
two hours). A moderator asks neutral, nonleading questions and engages participants in
open-ended discussions. Focus groups work
well for getting a quick read on peoples
thoughts and feelings and can be used as a
tool for understanding potential outcomes
of a proposed design. However, individuals
who are outspoken may dominate the discussion, possibly limiting the participation of
others. Additionally, people may be unwilling
or uncomfortable participating if the subject
addresses embarrassing or sensitive topics.5

many individuals to foster deep discussions).

In larger groups, interviews need to be short
and focused to keep the attention of the
audience; in small groups, interviews can
take on more of a discussion format with
everyone involved. In either case, the moderator may ask questions about behaviors,
opinions, knowledge, and experiences as a
way to get information about each participants
feelings and desires. Larger groups may also
include quantitative questioning to quickly
generate statistics about participants.5, 9

Ethnography is just one research method. Other

techniques are interviews, surveys, co-creation
exercises, and observations.

OBSERVE
UNARTICULATED

CO-CREATION TECHNIQUES
Co-creation techniques actively involve an
audience in the hands-on development of
design. Elizabeth Sanders, founder of prominent
design research firms SonicRim and MakeTools, implemented innovative co-creation
design methods in the early 1990s. Sanders
is especially well known for her work with
participatory design practices; creative activities
that involve potential users in the process of
design. Participants create models and reflect
on what they have made, revealing their
dreams, fears, aspirations, and ideas in the
process.10 Other co-creation techniques include
activities such as drawing exercises, diagramming, and cognitive mapping (the drawing of
existing and virtual spaces).7
Experience collages are one example of a cocreation technique. Using words and images,
researchers ask participants to assemble
process diagrams for particular activities.
Participants then use the collage as a tool for
explaining the steps of their process. Collages
allow participants to analyze their actions in
depth, with a palette of words and images that
help to enable reflection and discussion. Words
and images that represent emotions are useful
for exposing hidden problems (or painpoints)
within a process.

OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES
Ethnography is a form of observational research.
Unlike interview and co-creation methods,
observational techniques are not dependent
on direct feedback from participants. Often
occurring in a participants natural environment, observational techniques provide a more
accurate portrayal of a persons day-to-day
activities than an interview conducted in an
unfamiliar setting.
There are several different techniques for
observational methods, including behavioral
mapping and tracking signs. Behavioral
mapping is an observational research technique
that tracks peoples movements in an effort
to determine traffic patterns and spatial
behaviors over time. A video camera may be
used to record information that can be assessed
by researchers to gain an understanding for
peoples patterns in movement. Behavioral
mapping is useful for large-scale urban
planning efforts, but also helpful for retailers
who are planning store and display layouts.
Sign tracking, observing evidence left by people,
is another way to understand generalities in
peoples activities without having to rely on
personal contact.7 One example, documented
by French philosopher Gaston Bachelard in

+ Information taken from actions and direct responses

+ Does not rely on self-reporting

Directly attain information

Participants often make new discoveries

Participants in natural environment

Understand stories behind actions

Participants discover new insights through creativity

Patterns discovered in peoples behavior

Inaccuracies in self-reporting

Time intensive to prepare

Can be costly to conduct

Difficult to assess truthfulness

Time spent in participant immersion period

Often time intensive

People may feel uncomfortable sharing personal info

Relies heavily on analysis

Relies heavily on analysis

The Poetics of Space, is called desire paths.

Desire paths are unplanned paths that are usually
created by people in an effort to walk the shortest
route between two well-traveled destinations.
Observational techniques also help researchers
understand peoples choices and preferences
(e.g., observing how quickly a product disappears from a store shelf). Similarly, observing
a persons possessions (e.g., the contents of
a womans purse or a car trunk) provides
knowledge about what people keep handy or
carry with them.
One disadvantage of observational research
is the lack of a direct explanation for a persons
actions. However, if actual behaviors are indeed
unconscious, the advantages of observational
research may outweigh this disadvantage. A
second disadvantage of observational research is
the time and expense often required to conduct
observational field studies; these factors can
represent significant obstacles, especially in fastpaced industries such as design and advertising.
10Sleeswijk Visser, Stappers, van der Lugt and Sanders. Contextmapping: Experiences from Practice. The Netherlands: Delft
University of Technology, 2005. / 11Kolari, Preetham. Personal
Interview, February 2009.

ASK / CO-CREATE / OBSERVE

The design research methods discussed
thus far can be placed on a continuum from
articulated to unarticulated.11 Articulated
techniques use direct feedback for analysis,
whereas unarticulated techniques use
observation and inference to determine what
motivates each participant. From left to right
on the continuum, research methods include:
ask, co-create, and observe.
Interview methods fall under the ask category
of techniques, meaning that researchers directly
ask participants for their responses, and largely
interpret the responses at face value. Co-creation
techniques, in the middle of the continuum,
rely partially on direct responses from the
studied person(s), but also extract information
from an analysis of the activities. In contrast
to both ask and co-creation research techniques,
observation methods do not depend at all on
articulated exchanges. Rather, all information is
derived from analysis of the studied person in
their natural setting or daily life.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

+ Quick-read on peoples thoughts/emotions

pg. 21

CO-CREATE

ASK
ARTICULATED

pg. 23

1.4 ETHNOGRAPHY AS DESIGN RESEARCH

One of the first designers to incorporate

ethnography into a design process was Henry
Dreyfuss, in the 1950s. In Designing for People,
Dreyfuss writes about the use of observation
to attain empathy for the user.14 Dreyfuss wrote
about the importance of a thorough knowledge
and understanding about the individuals on
the receiving end of his designs. He details his
observational methods for designing telephones
for the American Bell Telephone Company,
when phones were provided as part of a service
contract. Dreyfuss followed a service man into

Ethnography appeals to designers because it

provides a window onto the ways consumers
interact with products in their everyday lives.15
The initial study of ethnography and industrial
design is generally attributed to research
completed by Lucy Suchman at Xerox Palo
Alto Research Center (PARC) in the 1980s.
Xerox, known for the production of photocopiers, hired an anthropologist who videotaped office workers trying to make copies.
After viewing the videos, Xerox engineers took
into account user difficulties and modified
the design. One of the results of this research
was the famous green copy buttona more
intuitive device for signaling the beginning
of a copy job than previous models offered.
Today, ethnographic research is widely used
and documented in industrial design and

interaction design. Many large consumerbased organizations like Microsoft, Motorola,

and Intel have anthropologists on staff to assist
in product and software development.16
Rhea, Darrel. The Rise in Popularity of Ethnography. Cheskin
Added Value blog, 2003. / 13Li, LiAnne. Personal Interview,
March 2009. / 14Dreyfuss, Henry. Designing for People, Third
Ed. New York: Allworth Press, 2003. / 15Wasson, Christina.
Ethnography in the field of design. Human Organization: 59(4),
2000. / 16Sanders, Elizabeth. Ethnography in NPD Research. How
Applied Ethnography can Improve your NPD Research Process.
Visions Magazine; Aug. 2006.
12

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

As ethnographys use in design grows, its

definition has expanded beyond its conventional meaning. Traditionally, in its academic
definition, ethnography is completed only
through the researchers immersion in a culture
or social group. However, more contemporary
viewpoints allow the term ethnography to
encompass any type of hands-on research
method that involves an element of culture.13

customers homes to watch people use their

telephones and learn about these interactions.
These observations informed his future
designa rotary phone with a heavy base
and pedestal stand. The heavy base was
important to customers who were used to
using phones that were connected to the wall,
and disliked devices that felt light or loose.
Dreyfuss, unfamiliar with ethnographic work
of his time, did not classify his research as
ethnography. However, the observations
he did for Bell were what researchers now
consider ethnographic research.

Recently the term ethnography has become

much better known as the practice has grown
in use. As Darrel Rhea, Principal and CEO
of market research firm Cheskin has observed,
Over the past few years ethnography and
ethnographers have been popping up everywhere I turn. From human/computer interaction, to branding, to computer supported
cooperative work, to product development,
to tangible computing, to advertising.12

IN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
The result of an industrial design project
is a tangible artifact. In industrial design,
ethnography can serve as an exploratory,
generative, and/or evaluative research tool.
As an exploratory technique, ethnography
can help designers discover opportunities by
identifying specific needs for artifacts (or
products) in peoples lives. Observations of
a persons interactions with artifacts can
lead to the identification of painpoints in
the processes of users, or ways that people
work around problems (consciously or unconsciously). With this knowledge, industrial
designers are able to envision new tools and/or
devices that address these unmet user needs.
As a generative tool, ethnography can be used
to determine how artifacts, tools and/or
devices should be designed. By considering
the context for the artifact, ethnography can
expose details about how the user will interact
with a device, allowing the designer to tailor
the design by selecting shapes, colors, functions, etc. In industrial design, generative
research often leads to the design of prototypes.
As an evaluative tool, ethnography can be used
to understand how individuals interact with
products that have already been built. Designers
can use this information to understand design
successes and failures, as well as improve upon
existing designs.

Ways of Thinking:
Beliefs
Biases
Education
Frame of Reference
Ideas
Influences
Interpretations
Knowledge

Meaning
Opinions
Organization (mental)
Perspective
Signified/Signifier
Symbols
Understanding
Values

IN INTERACTION DESIGN
Industrial design and interaction design are
experience-based design fields. Both result in
tangible products or interfaces that facilitate
tasks for users. Ethnography has recently
played in increasing role in interaction design,
especially as the field of Human Computer
Interaction has gained popularity since the
1990s.17 The goal of ethnography in interaction
design is to understand how users perceive
and use electronic experiences, and how
designers can create software that is uncomplicated, rewarding to use, and compatible with
a persons existing practices.
Like industrial design, ethnography can be
used in interaction design as an exploratory, a
generative, and an evaluative technique. As an
exploratory tool, ethnography is a method for
identifying the potential forms an interaction
might take. As a generative tool, ethnography
helps inform and refine design decisions by
understanding how specific users interact
with interfaces. Interaction design works with
constantly advancing technologies, and
ethnography can be used to understand how
to incorporate these new technologies into
existing systems in ways the user can readily
embrace. As an evaluative tool, ethnography is
helpful in assessing peoples use of the interaction to learn about future improvements.

INVITES
PHYSICAL / TACTILE
INTERACTIONS

INVITES
COGNITIVE
INTERACTIONS

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN

IN VISUAL COMMUNICATION DESIGN

The benefits of ethnography are often more
subtle in visual communication design than in
industrial or interaction design. The tangible
result (or artifact) of visual communication
design is a communication material, with
the goal of influencing a persons actions and
ultimately eliciting a behavior change.
In visual communication design, ethnography
can help designers by uncovering insights that
inform communication strategiesa plan,
method, or scheme to communicate in the
most effective and compelling way for a given
situation. Like industrial and interaction
design, ethnography can serve as an exploratory, generative, or evaluative technique. As
an exploratory tool, ethnography can help
visual communication designers establish a
message. While a projects goal may be predetermined (e.g., reduce teen pregnancies),
the message should be customized to produce
the best results for the given audience (dont
have sex vs. practice safe sex). As a generative tool, ethnography provides contextual
insights that determine the best way to frame
and communicate the message (is the audience
more likely to respond to the message in a
humorous tone or a serious tone?) Knowledge
about users and their context enhances a
designers ability to develop and customize
communication material. As an evaluative tool,
ethnography in visual communication design
helps assess the impact of the design effort
and formulate improvements or new ideas
for future projects.

INTERACTION DESIGN

pg. 25

Movements
Norms
Nuances
Organization (physical)
Patterns
Routines
Traditions
Trends

VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Although ethnography has been used in visual

communication design to some extent, the
successes and methodologies of ethnography in
visual communication design have been documented to a far lesser degree than in industrial
or interaction design. There are three factors
that may contribute to the subordinate role of
ethnography in visual communication design.
First, information about specific design efforts
is often proprietary information. While proprietary cases are present in all design disciplines,
it seems to particularly be the case in market
research and advertising industries where an
idea or strategy is often the crucial component
for success, and one that is easy for competitors
to replicate with little cost or effort.
Second, there are some circumstances in which
the monetary cost of failure for industrial or
interaction design efforts may be significantly
higher than that of a visual communication
effort. Modifying communication materials
after they have been produced may cost less than
modifying artifacts that are comprised of many
custom pieces of equipment. (Note: large-scale
advertising campaigns and promotional programs are certainly an exception). If the cost
of failure is less, companies may be less willing
to spend money on research efforts like ethnography. However, as companies place greater
importance on this factor, this point may change.
Third, the result of a design artifact may involve
physical interactions (assessed through observing

ways of doing things), or mental interactions

(assessed by learning about a societys ways of
thinking). Many interaction design artifacts,
and especially industrial design artifacts, are
based around physical/tactile interactions that
can be observed and translated into designs that
constitute a purposeful tool or fulfill an unmet
need. However, in visual communication design,
the artifact is more difficult to assess because
its effect is often the shift of a persons thinking.
Observing a person viewing communication
materials produces limited results because the
response is not usually immediate (e.g., a person
viewing an advertisement for a product may
not be motivated to purchase the product for
several days or weeks; quite possibly they may
not consider the product until the next time they
are in a store looking at a specific promotional
display). Furthermore, communication materials
are often designed to support a larger system
of brand experiences. In many cases, sales occur
as a result of repeated exposure to the brand or
advertisement, which is also difficult to assess
through observational ethnography.
Therefore, visual communication design
generally only benefits from ethnography when
it is analyzed at a broader contextual level
a level that involves overall strategy rather than
direct design feedback.
17Faiola, Anthony. The Design Enterprise: Revising the HCI
Education Paradigm. PowerPoint Presentation from SIGCHI
Workshop; 2004.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Ways of Doing:
Customs
Communication
Documentation
Etiquette
Expressions
Gestures
Interactions
Lifestyles

Ethnography strengthens design by revealing context,

eliciting knowledge about the cultural undertones and
functions of audiences. Ethnography uncovers a societys
ways of doing and thinking. Understanding the core
behavior of an audience greatly enhances a designers
ability to develop and customize design solutions.

Design Thinking: a discipline that uses the designers

sensibility and methods to match peoples needs with
what is technologically feasible and what a viable business
strategy can convert into customer value and market
opportunity, (Tim Brown, 2008).24

pg. 27

Design: a plan to make something. Strategy: a careful

plan or method, or the art of employing or devising plans.
(Definitions from Websters Dictionary).

1.5 ETHNOGRAPHY AS A BASIS FOR DESIGN STRATEGY

take into account what is happening in the world
of the consumer (or user) and must consider work
of competitors, as well as what is technologically
current. Strategy must be based on solid data
(an analytical framework, data from a reputable
source, or even explicit assumptions). A thorough
analysis of the data must take place before
arriving at the strategy. Finally, strategy must
consider all steps involved in implementing the
design. McCullagh is quick to point out that less
than ten percent of strategies are ever executed.22
In building strategy, it is helpful if a designer is
experienced enough to have an understanding
of the possibilities within a specific domain.
Once devised, strategy is translated into design
ideation. Strategy is inherently seen in a designers
concepts, refinements, and even in the form
and tactical location of the final design. Strategy
guides the visual and verbal tone of communication material. It determines methods for
communicating through a customized message,
a specific voice, and the visual language and
composition of the piece.
18OGrady, Jennifer Visocky and OGrady, Kenneth Visocky.
A Designers Research Manual. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers,
Inc., 2006. / 19Joziasse, Frans. Corporate Strategy: Bringing Design
Management into the Fold. In Building Design Strategy, edited
by Thomas Lockwood and Thomas Walton. New York: Allsworth
Press; 2008. / 20Lockwood, Thomas and Walton, Thomas.
Building Design Strategy. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. /
21Jensen, Anna Krarup. Strategic Design: Achieving Utopian Goals.
Copenhagen: Danish Centre for Design Research, 2009. /
22McCullagh, Kevin. Strategy for the Real World. In Building Design
Strategy, edited by Thomas Lockwood and Thomas Walton.
New York: Allsworth Press; 2008. / 23Koppel, Ted and Smith, Jack
for ABC News. The Deep Dive. Princeton, NJ: Films Media
Group, 2007. / 24Brown, Tim. Design Thinking. Harvard Business
Review, 1 June 2008.

DESIGN THINKING AND STRATEGY

Because designers spend their careers creating
new artifacts, they are knowledgeable in the
process of envisioning and implementing
undiscovered possibilities. The designers ability
to approach problems unconventionally,
referred to as design thinking, translates well
into developing design strategies that are novel
and unexpected.

Design thinking is integral to the process of

many design firms like IDEO. The process at
IDEO allows for the exploration of many ideas
that, at first, may seem unfeasible. Discussing,
implementing, and testing even seemingly
unfeasible ideas often leads to innovative design
strategies that separate companies like IDEO
from their competition.23

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Thomas Lockwood begins the book Building

Design Strategy by juxtaposing Websters
Dictionary definitions for design and strategy.
Design is a plan to make something, and
Corporate entities today face growing competistrategy is a careful plan or method, or the
tion in a global marketplace. When facing
art of employing or devising plans. Strategy
complex challenges, strategic design becomes clearly overlaps with the goals of design.
imperative for choosing a design approach.
Lockwoods premise is that when married, the
A strategic edge often results in competitive
two methods provide for higher chances of
advantages for agencies seeking to increase sales success.20 Strategic design refers to the problem
through brand differentiation. Companies who
solving, methodologies, planning and manageplace substantial investments in visual communi- ment that modern designers take on.21 Strategy
cation design want assurance their efforts will
involves careful framing of a project to decide
provide a return for the investment, and designers what will be designed and how the design will
are taking on more responsibilities to assure this be brought to its end result.
will happen.18 Frans Joziasse, a founding member
of PARK (an international network of design
For his article on strategy, Joziasse interviewed
management consultancies), cites major trends design managers from multinational corporathat credit the emergence of design awareness
tions and design agencies in an effort to further
as a source for modern businesses gaining a
define strategy. In compiling the results, three
competitive edge. Among these, he identifies a
main definitions are given: 1/ A plan; a direction
growing understanding among todays business or course of action. 2/ A position; namely, how
leaders of designs importance, including its
to position particular products in particular
impact on successful business efforts and its
markets. 3/ A perspective; namely, the organizaresponsibility when those efforts fail.19
tions concept of business. Joziasse notes that
many design managers see the role of strategy as
Besides being assigned to an increasing share
fundamental in advocating for a users needs.
of the liability for any failures in the marketplace,
designers also face other challenges, like audiAccording to Kevin McCullagh, co-founder of
ences that may be fragmented and even span
the product experience agency Plan, a number
cultures. With an increasing number of choices of factors must be considered in developing an
(in television channels, Internet sites, and other effective design strategy. In the article Strategy
forms of media output) individuals have more for the Real World, McCullagh is concerned
freedom to be selective. Small segments of inter- about strategy within the corporate marketest groups, a result of the multitude of choices,
place, but the principles may be applied to other
make it even more difficult for advertisers to
communication efforts that are not driven by
aggregate all viewers into one broad audience.
competitive market ventures. Strategy should

THE IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN STRATEGY

Ethnographys greatest potential in visual
communication design is its use for revealing
insights that inform design strategy.

Ethnography can play a valuable role in formulating strategies for visual communication
programs because it helps unlock insights about
the audience. It can be used to extract meaning
and gain an understanding for behaviors that
might otherwise be overlooked. For example,
in some societies it is not possible for abused
women to report their victimization simply
because it is intolerable within the societys
acceptable conventions. Whereas a typical
strategy for anti-violence might use messaging
that attempts to get women to report more
incidents of crime (an approach that is unlikely
to be effective), ethnographers are able to provide
a broad analysis of abuse within the scope of
cultural phenomena. It is this analysis that
allows ethnographers and designers to produce
strategies that appeal to the receptive nature of
an audience (e.g., targeting a male audience in
an effort to negatively rebrand the act of abuse).
In short, ethnography reveals cultural meaning
that allows designers to customize their efforts.

Ethnography can be especially helpful for

efforts that are directed towards specific ethnic,
cultural, political or societal groups. An example
is ethnographic research that was aimed at
understanding the use of cleaning products
within Hispanic American households.
Conducted by QualiData, ethnography brought
to light the importance of olfactory signals in
these households. Pine scents, as an indication
of cleanliness, were overwhelmingly preferred
over scentless cleaners. This insight allowed
cleanser companies to modify products and
target their advertising towards a new market.25

In contemporary urban settings, ethnography

can be a technique to gain unique insights in
the analysis of everyday life. Social groups
undergo constant cultural changes that make
even familiar audiences difficult to understand.25
Cheskin conducted ethnographic research for
a company seeking to target its advertising by
identifying specific user groups for food and
beverage products during tailgating season.
Ethnography led to the identification of four
distinct user groups; and identified that two of
the four would be receptive to advertising, and
therefore worthwhile to target as an audience.27

Ethnographys use, however, goes beyond

achieving understanding of narrow or isolated
audiences. Packaging for Nestls baby formula
is an example of a visual communication
program that targeted a specific, but not
isolated, demographic. To improve packaging
for infant formula products, Nestl wanted
to understand mothers experiences around
feeding and preparation. Portigal Consulting,
a consumer research firm, interviewed mothers
in their homes, observing and discussing
formula preparation and feeding habits. To
reduce mothers stress, they recommended a
more intuitive labeling and packaging system
that would lead to quick preparation when their
babies were hungry and crying. Ethnography
was especially useful because it was able to
produce insights about mothers that may have
otherwise been overlooked.26

These and the following case studies demonstrate the value of ethnography in visual
communication design for exploratory,
generative, and evaluative research. Using
ethnography can help the field of visual
communication design gain insight that is
vital for its success.
25Mariampoliski, H. Ethnography for Marketers: A Guide to
Consumer Immersion. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications,
Inc, 2006. / 26Portigal, Steve. Personal Interview, April 2009.
27Stinson, Tommy. Personal Interview, February 2009.

pg. 29
THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

ETHNOGRAPHY AND DESIGN STRATEGY

In order to develop good strategies, designers
must gain insight into their audience and form
an understanding for their motivations. To gain
these insights, designers must have clear knowledge of the audiences communication style
and a specific understanding of what they will
respond to. Designers who are familiar with the
goals, needs, and the everyday patterns of their
audience produce more compelling strategies,
which lead to more effective designs.

Pine scents were overwhelmingly preferred when compared

with scentless cleaners in Hispanic American households.
This insight allowed cleanser companies to modify products
and target their advertising towards a new market.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

1.6 CASE STUDIES

IN VISUAL COMMUNICATION DESIGN AND ETHNOGRAPHY
pg. 31

Ethnography as Evaluative Research

KamaSutra Condom Advertising
in Contemporary India
William Mazzarella

Ethnography as Generative Research

Teenage Drug Prevention in
Contemporary United States
Office of National Drug Control Policy

Ethnography as Exploratory Research

HIV/AIDS Education in Rural India
VSO / SOVA

Case Studies

Cultural knowledge from ethnographic field studies led

to message repositioning: You can protect your children
from AIDS. Talk to them about sex. AIDS is not a sin.

pg. 33

CASE STUDY 1:
ETHNOGRAPHY
AS EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH

HIV/AIDS EDUCATION IN RURAL INDIA

Glasband arrived in Koraput without a specific

project direction or goals. Her only goal was to
identify what was most needed in terms of
communication. To learn about individuals

Despite the challenges, Glasband gained

insights that were helpful in determining
directions for a few different communication
approaches. Some of the existing HIV/AIDS
materials focused their message on monogamy
as a prevention technique for HIV/AIDS (e.g.,
the slogan: Play cricket with everyone, have
sex with only one). Glasband realized this
message was unrealistic in Koraput, especially
for many of the tribal communities where sex
is a taboo topic. It is used as a form of barter;
and often women do not have a choice. Parents
do not educate their children about sexual
practices and it is widely believed that AIDS

is a sin, affecting only sex workers and drug

addicts.29 This knowledge led Glasband to
reposition the messaging; including the slogans,
You can protect your children from AIDS. Talk
to them about sex. and AIDS is not a sin.
Glasband developed another new messaging
strategy to address a problem within the HIV
positive community in Koraput. SOVA holds
monthly support meetings for HIV positive
people, of which many people do not attend
for fear their HIV status will be discovered.
Glasband worked with this knowledge to
strategize on creating a fake brochure for HIV
positive individuals to serve as an alibi for the
support meetings. The brochures, still in
planning, can serve as a believable excuse
(e.g., a skills training workshop) that allows
individuals to attend the meetings.29
28Voluntary Service Overseas website: www.vsointernational.
org. / 29 Glasband, Debbie. Email message to Leslie MacNeil,
March 2009.

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Debbie Glasband was a VSO volunteer in the

district of Koraput, India. Her assignment
included a seven-month stay in Koraput,
exploring concepts for creating promotional
materials and professional documents, and
consulting on community materials to raise
awareness about HIV/AIDS prevention.
Glasband was working directly with SOVA,
a partner organization to VSO. Koraput has a
population of both tribal and village people,
and the diversity in languages makes communications a challenge. An audit of the existing
HIV/AIDS communication materials (website,
brochures, billboards, etc.) revealed that the
English was difficult for the locals to understand,
the images were small and unappealing, and
the content was not logically structured.29

who receive the HIV/AIDS content, Glasband

organized field visits. She did interviews (both
one-on-one and group interviews) and carried
out observations of the villagers. Gathering
information was difficult for a variety of
reasons, especially because it is very rare for
villagers to see a white person. Glasband felt
that her presence created a major disruption
to life-as-usualexactly what she was trying to
observe. Children were especially difficult to
speak with and were often scared by Glasband
(many, in fact, were brought to tears when she
tried to speak with them). To account for this,
numerous visits were required that lasted for
several hours at a time. Once the villagers were
comfortable with her presence, they fell back
into their routines and Glasband was able to
observe normalcy in their lives.

VSO (Voluntary Service Overseas) is an international nonprofit organization that aims to

improve world poverty by tackling issues such
as healthcare, education, and the prosperity of
people with disabilities. It operates in developing
countries, with a primary focus in Africa, Asia,
and the Pacific. VSO often uses ethnography in
its approach. Volunteer designers live and work
in the field, getting to know the audience before
developing a communication approach.28

The campaigns research shows that while teenagers

do not like to be told what to do, they do look for facts
and information that can help them make good choices.

pg. 35

CASE STUDY 2:
ETHNOGRAPHY
AS GENERATIVE
RESEARCH

TEENAGE DRUG PREVENTION IN THE UNITED STATES

Above the Influence is a nationwide campaign
created in 2005 for the National Youth AntiDrug Media Campaign (a program of the Office
of National Drug Control Policy) in the United
States. The campaign advertising, targeted
towards teenagers and their parents (as a
secondary audience), is intended to strengthen
anti-drug attitudes and behaviors. The campaign
focuses primarily on teenage marijuana use.30

to be directly told what to do, they look for

facts and information that helps them make
good choices. Teenagers also seem to care more
about their sustaining their friendships than
they care about the physical, bodily damage
that drug use may cause. To accommodate
these findings, the campaign has tried to strike
a balance between humor and metaphoric
messages in its advertisements.31

The campaign focuses its delivery on outlets

familiar to teenage lifestyles, advertising
through cable television channels like MTV,
Fuse, The N, Cartoon Network and Comedy
Central. The Internet was selected as one of
the main methods for delivering the messages,
gaining exposure through web banner
advertising, online games and quizzes, and
AOL Instant Messenger buddy icons.33

Above the Influence relies heavily on audience

research to inform all stages of the campaign.
Ethnographic research, completed through
what the research team termed road trips,
was conducted with teenagers in nine states,
engaging in discussions with circles of teenage
friends. Researchers visited popular teenage
locations (malls, coffee ships, bookstores, etc.)
to learn about teenage behavior. The research
gave us insights into the importance of ensuring
that the voice of the messages was essentially
teen to teen by virtue of the consequences that
teens see first-hand from drug use (more social
consequences such as letting someone down or
putting someone at risk than physical consequences), as well as tone and style, including
the occasional use of humor.31

Some of the campaigns print ads feature the

slogan Whats the worst that could happen?
paired with images of human-like wasps and
rodents playing with lethal products. One ad
features two teenage slugs, sitting at a kitchen
table divvying out salt to each other. The
television ads present provocative, yet openended messages. In one ad, a teenage boy plays
basketball as his shadow follows him around
the court. As he leaves to join his friend who is
smoking marijuana on the side of the court,
his shadow is left behind and the question is
posed, If you smoke weed, how much of
yourself are you leaving behind?

Researchers continually contribute reports

that inform the strategy for Above the
Influence advertisements, including qualitative, exploratory work, quantitative testing,
and year-around tracking surveys.31

Above the Influence website: www.abovetheinfluence.com.

Denniston, Robert. Email message to Leslie MacNeil, May
2009. / 32Schmuckler, Eric. Foote Cone & Belding. Mediaweek,
June 2006. / 33Kotler, Philip and Lee, Nancy. Social marketing:
Influencing Behaviors for Good. Los Angeles: Sage
Publications, 2008.
30

Foote Cone & Belding is an advertising agency

that has worked on the Above the Influence
campaign. We wanted to be very us to us in
the way our creative was executed, and we made
that come to life in media by choosing vehicles
that felt very us to usfrom a teens view rather
than an authoritarian perspective, said Ted
Ellet, Media Director at Foote Cone & Belding.31

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

31

Research provided the organizers of Above the

Influence with a greater understanding for
the teenage audience, allowing the campaign
to shape its advertisements. The campaigns
research found that while teenagers do not like

The campaign has had widespread exposure,

with the Above the Influence ads quickly
reaching 60 percent of teenagers and the
website receiving more than 3.7 million
clicks. Teenage use of marijuana has dropped
19 percent since the launch of the campaign.

 Why dont we turn that around on its head, and see if we

can associate some amount of sexiness with a condom . . .
Okay, if Ive got to wear a condom, why dont I at least go
for a sexier one?

pg. 37

CASE STUDY 3:
ETHNOGRAPHY
AS EVALUATIVE
RESEARCH

KAMASUTRA CONDOM ADVERTISING IN INDIA

Mazzarella largely attributes the success of

the KamaSutra condom to its brand strategy.
Involuntary sterilization camps, administered
in the mid 1970s, had created a negative stigma
surrounding Indias family planning efforts.
Nirodh, distributed by the Indian government,

The campaign used quotations and the name

from the ancient Kamasutra, paired with
contemporary images. One of the campaign
ads read: Over 3000 years ago, the Egyptians
used linen sheaths. Casanova used condoms
issued in standard service kits for men in the
armed forces. The Beatles and Rock n Roll
and the sexual revolution ignored the condom
to the dark side of the moon. And for years,
there was an uncomfortable silence. And then
came KamaSutra. The condom. Dedicated to
the partners of lovemaking. And their pleasures.
The effectiveness of KamaSutras brand strategy
is credited to several factors, including Indias
1991 liberation policy that began to allow foreign
companies to advertise in India. Additionally,
a rise of mass consumerism, a growing middle
class population, and toleration of more liberal
advertising messages contributed to the acceptance (and prosperity) of KamaSutra.34
Mazzarellas fieldwork in Bombay consisted
of informal conversations, in-depth interviews,

and historical analyses. He studied the key

factors in KamaSutras development including
its investors, Lintas:India, and relationships
between the advertising agencies and the
Indian government. Adi Pocha, the creative
director for KamaSutras account, described
KamaSutras brand positioning to Mazzarella,
If a guy is into sex, and he doesnt wear a
condom, chances are hes doing it for a child.
Or, just because he cant care less. But if a guy
wears a condom, that means hes only into sex
for the pleasure. Right? But a condom is
perceived as inhibiting pleasure. So we said,
Why dont we turn that around on its head,
and see if we can associate some amount of
sexiness with a condom so that a guy whos
considering buying a condom says Okay, if
Ive got to wear a condom, why dont I at least
go for a sexier one?34
Mazzarella, William. Shoveling Smoke: Advertising
and Globalization in Contemporary India. Durham:
Duke University Press, 2003.

34

THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

The launch of the KamaSutra campaign,

considered far more luxurious than previous
governmentally subsidized condoms called
Nirodh, came in 1991. Surprisingly, KamaSutra
ads caused Indias glamour magazines to fly
off the shelves. The advertisements, a radical
departure from previous advertising campaign
strategies, pushed the boundaries of acceptable
talk of sex in Indias public. The ads featured
couples in surprisingly erotic sexual poses.
The womans head was thrown back, suggesting submission to a pleasure heightened by
the discerning deployment of a KamaSutra
condom, describes Mazzarella.

were seen as an obstacle that prevented sexual

pleasure. Mazzarella describes Nirodh condoms
as thick, non-lubricated, and yellow; the word
Nirodh literally means restraint or control. The
KamaSutra brand presented its condoms as
a radical departure from Nirodh by selling the
idea that KamaSutra condoms actually enhanced
sexual pleasure.

Over the course of several years, William

Mazzarella, now University of Chicago
Associate Professor of Anthropology and
Social Sciences, conducted a detailed ethnographic study about the role of advertising in
India in the 1980s and 90s. In Shoveling Smoke,
Mazzarella provides a comprehensive analysis
of the KamaSutra condom brand in Bombay,
India in the 1990s as an effort to understand the
underlying socio-economic factors that led to a
significant change in Indias advertising culture.

The analysis of previous case studies shows

that it is possible to use ethnographic research
as an exploratory tool, a generative tool, or an
evaluative tool. In visual communication design,
ethnography seems to offer the most potential
when it is used to unlock insights that inform
a designers strategy.

specifically, a thirty-five percent increase in

the worlds expenditure on health from 2003 to
2008. However, there are many improvements
yet to be made and progress has been unequal.
While many countries have benefited, there is
a considerable number that are moving in the
opposite direction.35

In many regards, the responses of the health

sector to the changing world have been inadequate and nave. Inadequate, insofar as they
not only fail to anticipate, but also to respond
appropriately: too often with too little, too late
or too much in the wrong place. Nave insofar
as a systems failure requires a systems solution
not a temporary remedy. Problems with human
While ethnography has been studied extensively resources for public health and healthcare,
in industrial design and interaction design, it
finance, infrastructure or information systems
is researched and documented to a lesser degree invariably extend beyond the narrowly defined
in visual communication design. Ethnography
health sector, beyond a single level of policy
is equally valuable in visual communication
purview and, increasingly, across borders: this
fields like advertising and branding, especially as raises the benchmark in terms of working effecglobal efforts increase and audiences continue to tively across government and stakeholders.35
fragment. Ethnography also holds great potential
in visual communication design efforts that are
Nowhere is the need to strengthen communitargeted towards the public good such as social
cation materials greater than in the field of
programming, philanthropic efforts, and public
public health. As global health efforts rise,
health programs.
communication efforts extend across sociocultural boundaries to transfer urgent and
According to the 2008 World Health Report, as vital information, inform and educate about
a whole, people today live longer than they did
potential risks, and urge people to make
thirty years ago. Essential drugs that were once
life-saving behavior changes. Ultimately, these
difficult to get have become accessible in many
efforts aim to bring improvement to the overall
places throughout the world; and clean water,
health and well-being of populations across
sanitation, and prenatal care have all improved. the globe. Each of the presented case studies
These developments may largely be attributed
demonstrates ethnographys use as a tool to
to growth of the global health economy
educate or inform an audience about a health

threat. Even the KamaSutra condom campaign,

an ethnographic brand analysis, relates to
public health in that a condoms underlying
effect is safe sex.
The following section addresses implementation methods for design projects that use
ethnographic research. The analysis looks
specifically at collaboration efforts between
designers and ethnographers as an effort
to address strengths and weaknesses in the
process. Considering the perspectives of both
designers and ethnographers, the study begins
to answer how designers can best maximize
collaboration efforts with ethnographers.
This thesis addresses the value of ethnography
in visual communication design, and how
collaboration efforts might occur in the overlap
between ethnography and design. Future study
is recommended to identify specific methods
for visual communication designers to use to
identify scenarios when ethnography has the
potential to add value to visual communications. Future research efforts should also work
to educate visual communication designers on
strategies and resources for implementing
ethnographic design research.
World Health Organization. World Health Report, 2008.

35

pg. 39
THE VALUE OF ETHNOGRAPHY

Ethnography provides knowledge about cultural

contexts. It is a primary research method that
makes use of observational techniques in a
participants natural setting. In contrast to
articulated research techniques, ethnography
does not rely on a persons analysis of their own
behavior (as in focus groups or surveys).

1.7 CONCLUSION

COMMUNICATION
EFFORTS EXTEND
ACROSS CULTURES
TO TRANSFER
VITAL AND URGENT
INFORMATION,
AND URGE PEOPLE
TO MAKE LIFE-SAVING
BEHAVIOR CHANGES.

pg. 41

pg. 43
INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

An introduction to ethnographic
techniques and processes, and
recommendations for designer+
ethnographer collaboration.

SECTION 2:
INCORPORATING
ETHNOGRAPHY
INTO VISUAL
COMMUNICATIONS

pg. 45

FIELD ETHNOGRAPHY

INTERVIEW & PHOTO ETHNOGRAPHY

RAPID ETHNOGRAPHY
RAPID

LENGTHY
Years+

Months

Weeks

Days

Hours -

FIELD ETHNOGRAPHY
Field ethnography is the long-established
method as performed by Malinowski. This
technique primarily involves observations in
natural settings. Researchers spend months
and even years of field time conducting
research and immersing themselves in the
community that they are studying. By participating in the culture, observing interactions,
and engaging in informal conversations,
the researcher learns how the community
functions. Research gathering and analysis
may happen simultaneously throughout
the fieldwork.5
Because it is often difficult and quite costly
for modern research and design firms to
conduct fieldwork that lasts for more than
a few months, field ethnography is often
abbreviated. Cheskin, a market research firm
based in San Francisco, California, has a team
of ethnographers on staff who typically spend
from as short as four weeks to as long as
two-and-a-half months doing fieldwork.27

INTERVIEW ETHNOGRAPHY
In-depth, on-location interview sessions
are a more modern way for conducting
ethnography that involves less field time
for the researcher. Interview ethnography
involves a researcher who asks questions of
an interviewee about a very specific area
or subject of interest. Questions are unstructured (conducted in an open-ended format)
and may be done to simulate or act out a
process. The interview may be conducted
while the researcher shadows the interviewee
through various scenarios and processes.

PHOTO ETHNOGRAPHY
Another modern way of conducting ethnography, photo ethnography techniques also
require less field time than traditional field
ethnography. Photo ethnography involves
visual documentation as a means for
observation. This can be completed by having
a researcher take photographs at regular
intervals of time or by recording a process
with a video camera or other digital devices.
Photo ethnography may even be conducted
without a researcher at the scene of the
interview. Interviewees may be asked to use
photographs to document themselves carrying
out a task or a process, which is very effective
when a researchers presence would influence
the persons behavior. This information can
later be viewed by the researcher for analysis
of the situation.5

RAPID ETHNOGRAPHY
The newest ways for quickly conducting
ethnographic research, rapid ethnographies
consist of a collection of techniques that are
intended to provide insight while drastically
reducing (or removing) the amount of time
a researcher needs to spend in the field. Rapid
ethnography is often done when budget
constraints do not allow for more in-depth
investigations. Flickr ethnography is one
such recently founded ethnographic method.
Researchers conduct keyword searches on
Flickr, an online photo management/sharing
application, to gather images that provide
information about target user groups. Other
rapid ethnography techniques include additional online searches that may be completed
through Googles image search (in similar
fashion to Flickr searches) and data collected
through blogs and websites.

Ethnographic techniques vary in approach,

philosophy, and duration. An overview of some
of the most commonly used ethnographic
techniques, used in a range of academic and
business settings, includes the following:

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

2.1 OVERVIEW OF ETHNOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES

pg. 47

OC
PR

ER

2 . R E S E A RC H PL A N N I N

ES

PH

1.

OP
PR

OS

3.

AL

FI E

LD

ST

UD

1. DISCOVERY

IE

ET

HN

OG

RA

4.

DE S IG N E R

3. D

REFLEC
T
4 . R E FI N E M E N T

O
PR

DU

IG

I
CT

ES

ON

1. PROPOSAL PROCESS
Many agencies go through a proposal process as
a means of being selected by clients for specific
projects. Proposals often include an overview
of a research/design approach that the agency
recommends for the particular project.
2. RESEARCH PLANNING
Before conducting field research, which is often
costly for learning about a design audience, it
is first important to formulate a detailed plan.
Designers and researchers make decisions about
the fieldwork, deciding who should participate,
the methods for data collection, and the appropriate length and duration for the fieldwork.

3. FIELD STUDIES
Field studies, conducted in a participants
natural environment, may include observations,
interviews, videography, and other methods
of data collection.
4. ANALYSIS/SYNTHESIS
Data is analyzed and insights are extracted from
the ethnographic study during analysis/synthesis.
A strategy is developed and ideation begins.
5. DESIGN
The design phase begins with ideation and
concept development, then moves forward into
design, refinements, and finally, production.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

NC
CO

E
FOUNDATION FOR DESIGN
+ ETHNOGRAPHY PROCESS

While the processes and the vocabulary used to

describe the processes vary across design and
research agencies, there are many overlapping
stages that are used repeatedly in an ethnographic design process. A general process for
a project involving ethnography and design
involves the following stages:

DI

ST
AN
ER
ND

2.2 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC DESIGN PROCESS

HESI

6. U

YN T

CE S

&S

T IO
EA

SI S

ID

IZ E

M AK

S PRO

ALY

NG

AN

2.

L
UA
PT

5.

pg. 49

Ziba Design, Inc.; Portland, Oregon

Wibke Fleischer / Senior Specialist, Insights & Trends
Abby Margolis / Design Ethnographer
William Reese / Director of Consumer Insights & Trends

Portigal Consulting; Pacifica, California

Steve Portigal / Founder

Microsoft Surface; Redmond, Washington

August de los Reyes / User Experience Director

Microsoft Research, Redmond; Washington

Sue Jin Kim / User Experience Researcher

Cheskin Added Value; San Francisco, California

Joanne Mendel / Director, Design Methods Practice
Jan Yeager / Senior Designer
LiAnne Yu / Strategic Director

Artefact, Seattle; Washington

Gavin Kelly / Principal

Experience Collage Participants

The collage activity asked each of the participating groups to complete a process map of an
ethnographic design process. Each participant
was asked to contribute to the question, how
can designers and ethnographers collaborate in
a design process?
To develop the activity, a method based on one
documented by Elizabeth Sanders, a prominent
design researcher, was referenced5. Additionally,
Preetham Kolari, Senior Experience Researcher
at Microsoft, provided a review of the collage
materials and guidance for the research. To

begin, more than one hundred phrases and

images were selected through a brainstorming
process. The phrases and images were selected
to relate to the process and interactions of what
might occur in a design ethnography research
project. Phrases and images provide the best
selection when they are balanced, so the sets
depict opposite meanings, as well as both
concrete and abstract concepts and symbols.
Care was also taken to maintain a variety
of genders, ethnicities and ages in the images.
After an initial assessment, the words and
images were categorized and narrowed to avoid
repetition, and new words and images were
added to fill in gaps.

ethnographic research. Once the activity was

mapped, the participants were provided with
colored arrows to place on the collage. Green
arrows symbolized collaboration nodes
between the designer and ethnographer that
were positive or productive. Red symbolized
points of collaboration that went poorly or were
unproductive. Blue arrows were representative
for points in the process where there was no or
little collaboration, but the participant wished
there had been.

The collage participants were asked to think

back on the last several projects they had
worked on and use the words and images to
map the process for a design effort that used

The participants were then asked to describe

the process, including the points of positive,
negative, and desired collaboration.
Sanders, Elizabeth. Contextmapping: Experiences from Practice.
Design and the Arts, Vol. 1 No. 2, Taylor and Francis, 2005.

Designers and design researchers from six

firms completed an experience collage to
provide insight about the intersection of design
and ethnography, and the collaboration efforts
that occur between designers, researchers,
and anthropologists.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

2.3 EXPERIENCE COLLAGES

COLLABORATION BETWEEN DESIGNERS & ETHNOGRAPHERS

COLLAGE:
ARTEFACT

pg. 51

Process for design + ethnography:

1/ Understand Situation
2/ Proposal
3/ Research (with design)
4/ Research Output
5/ Client Participation
6/ Design

Seattle, Washington
Gavin Kelly Principal
Artefact is a creative consultancy that employs both designers and researchers. Ethnography is
a method Artefact regularly engages in as a means to formulate strategy for design. With both
designers and researchers working together, Artefact is able to use an iterative approach in their
process. By engaging in design ideation during the research phase, Artefact is able to test concepts
while still conducting fieldwork.
COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
Collaboration is integral to Artefacts process. Kelly noted only positive collaboration efforts
between designers and researchers, mapping no points of negative collaboration.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

It is customary for Artefact to involve both a

designer and a researcher in the fieldwork
stage, and the strengths of each are maximized
during this time. The researcher generally
takes a lead role in gathering interviews from
the subject. The designer, while still gaining
first-hand experience, usually observes the
process and focuses on the mechanics of field
research, such as taking notes and video.

Opportunities for Improvement

The one phase Kelly desires more designer/
researcher collaboration is during design
development. It is difficult to engage the
researcher during the design phase because
they are often needed for other projects.
According to Kelly, ideally researchers would
be present to continually contribute to (and
even challenge) the design development.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the beginning of the process highlighting positive collaboration efforts 3/ design ideation occurs during research and fieldwork at Artefact
2

Positive Collaboration
Kelly mapped a majority of phases in the
design process as ones that included positive
collaboration efforts. Artefact generally pairs
a designer and a researcher to work side-byside on projects.

COLLAGE:
CHESKIN
ADDED VALUE

pg. 53

Process for design + ethnography:

1/ Proposal
2/ Define Problem
3/ Preparation for Fieldwork
4/ Fieldwork
5/ Analysis
6/ Synthesis
7/ Strategy
8/ Reflection

San Francisco, California

Joanne Mendel Director, Design Methods Practice
Jan Yeager Senior Designer
LiAnne Yu Strategic Director
Cheskin is a leading market research firm in the United States. Cheskin uses ethnographic research
as a method for identifying market strategies and developing market segments.
COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
Cheskin employs both designers and anthropologists, allowing them to collaborate through much
of the process. There are several positive points of collaboration, especially in the middle of the
process. Cheskin is continually working to better their strategy for collaboration.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

Opportunities for Improvement

Researchers shoulder a large amount of the
work leading up to fieldwork. Designers are
often busy with their own workload, which sometimes prevents them from participating in this
preparatory stage. It would be beneficial if there
could be more collaboration during this time.
While Cheskin tries to include designers in
fieldwork, budget constraints sometimes prevent
them from being in the field with researchers.
When able to participate, designers contribute
significantly by gaining their own insights and
gaining a holistic picture of the project. It is
especially important for designers and researchers to be in regular communication (via phone
or even blogs) if designers cannot be present.
The Cheskin team placed a red arrow during
the reflections phase at the end of the process,
representing a difficulty in finding time to reflect
on the process once it is finished.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ a period of fuzziness often follows fieldwork 3/ detail of the middle of the process with blue, green, and red arrows
2

Positive Collaboration
There are several positive points of collaboration during Cheskins process. Specifically,
there is a gray period immediately following
the fieldworkwhen the pieces have not quite
come together and there is a shared feeling
of fuzziness and anxiety. When designers and
researchers collaborate during this period,
each brings unique problem solving skills and
different perspectives, leading to a sense of
excitement at the end of the phase when ideas
begin to flow and both parties continue to
work together.

COLLAGE:
MICROSOFT
ENTERTAINMENT
& DEVICES

pg. 55

Process for design + ethnography:

1/ Frame Goals & Purpose
2/ Research Planning
3/ Action
4/ Analysis / Synthesis
5/ Execution (of design)

Redmond, Washington
Sue Jin Kim User Experience Researcher
A design researcher at Microsoft, Kim regularly conducts ethnographic research to inform design at
Microsoft. Kim was trained as an interaction designer before moving into the field of design planning.
COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
In general, Kim believes that collaboration efforts during the design process are positive. She maps
points of positive collaboration throughout the process. As an overarching goal, Kim believes there
should be more collaboration between designers and ethnographers through the entire process.
Designers tend to design in an exclusive or secretive manner, and the process would improve if
there were more interactions.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

Opportunities for Improvement

Kim placed red arrows in the beginning stages
of the process, representing the potential for
unproductive collaboration with designers. Kim
says that designers often focus on specific ideas
and deliverables, and this is sometimes a source
of frustration for researchers. Researchers have
a broader approach when defining project goals
and planning design research.
Kim wishes there were more interactions during
the middle stages of the process. Her observation is that designers are often exclusive during
the design/research process, only presenting
work when it is in a somewhat formalized state.
Researchers work in the opposite way, with
transparency throughout the process. When
designers work exclusively, they may formulate
their own insights and develop design without
the researchers considerations.
Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ Sue Jin wishes there could be more collaboration during fieldwork 3/ detail of the beginning of the process, with positive and negative interactions

Positive Collaboration
In Kims process, positive interactions take
place throughout the process. She notes that
designers collaborate well by generating ideas,
finding insights in field research, and contributing in concept development and visualizations.
In the beginning of the process, Kim particularly enjoys working with designers who often
bring enthusiasm to the project.

COLLAGE:
MICROSOFT
SURFACE

pg. 57

Process for design + ethnography:

1/ Formulate Hypothesis
2/ Planning (for research)
3/ In Situ Research
4/ Analysis
5/ Synthesis
6/ Design Development

Redmond, Washington
August de los Reyes User Experience Director
Reyes, a designer for Microsofts Surface (an interactive, tabletop display) teams with ethnographers
in the design process as an effort to arrive at a research question and articulate design problems.
COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
Reyes identifies many points of positive collaboration. While there are also a few points of negative
collaboration, the main finding is Reyes desire for ethnographers to be involved in the entire
process including the initial phase (formulate hypothesis) and the final stage (design development).
Opportunities for Improvement
The only potential for an unproductive exchange
occurs during research planning. Difficulties
may arise when coming to an agreement on the
design problem and methods for gathering data.

Reyes wishes the designer were present more

during the in situ stages of the design/research
process. The budget and perceived lack of value
surrounding this activity often prevent the
designer from doing so. If present, the designer
could bring their direct observations into
guiding design strategy.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

Ethnographers are often absent during the

beginning and the end of the process, but Reyes
wishes for more collaboration at these stages.
Ethnographers could assist in validating the
design question and framing opportunities for
research methods if they were present in the
beginning. Ethnographers could provide
additional interpretations and further clarifications on the research findings if they were to
be present at the end of the process.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the design stage, in which more ethnographer collaboration is desired 3/ more ethnographer collaboration is desired in the beginning
2

Positive Collaboration
Positive collaboration interactions occur
during planning, in situ research, analysis,
and synthesis. During the research planning,
collaboration is critical. Reyes considers this
time the most important point of exchange
because there is the potential for positive (as
well as unproductive) collaboration efforts.

COLLAGE:
PORTIGAL
CONSULTING

pg. 59

Process for design + ethnography:

1/ Define Problem / Proposal
2/ Detailed Planning
3/ Fieldwork
4/ Synthesis
5/ Share
6/ Ideate
7/ Viability

Pacifica, California
Steve Portigal Founder
Portigal Consulting provides ethnographic and other forms of customer research to develop
recommendations for the design of products and packaging, among others. Note: Portigals experience primarily reflects collaboration with clients, which may or may not include the design team.
COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
Portigal believes that most collaboration efforts during the research process are positive. In fact,
he placed green arrows at every phase where collaboration occurs. Portigal also desires to have
more collaboration through much of the process.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

Opportunities for Improvement

Portigal included only two points of potentially
unproductive collaboration, occurring in the
first two phases of design. Portigal feels that he
sometimes needs to convince clients to reframe
original problem statements in order to reach
the best potential project outcome. Portigal
desires more flexibility in suggesting alternative research methodologies.
Portigal notes that often the insights gained
from research do not make their way into the
clients work. The clients, while usually in
agreement with Portigals recommendations,
sometimes conclude the recommendations
are not feasible to implement at that time.
This is perhaps where time spent in the field
can influence a client to make changes.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of the inputs in the beginning phases of research 3/ detail of the beginning stages, where both positive and negative collaborations occur
2

Positive Collaboration
Portigal noted that the most valuable collaboration efforts occur during fieldwork. Participating
in field studies helps the client see what is
actually happening and gives them enthusiasm
for the project. Because collaboration is very
productive at this stage, Portigal desires for
more of it.

COLLAGE:
ZIBA DESIGN, INC.

pg. 61

Process for design + ethnography:

1/ Proposal development
2/ Kick-off / immersion
3/ Gather brand/marketplace knowledge
4/ Research protocol development
5/ Fieldwork
6/ Synthesis
7/ Concepting
8/ Design and development
Portland, Oregon
Wibke Fleischer Senior Specialist, Insights & Trends
Abby Margolis Design Ethnographer
William Reese Director of Consumer Insights & Trends
Ziba is a design consultancy with designers, anthropologists, and researchers on staff. Ziba
conducts ethnographic research to understand the beliefs, values, and behaviors of the individuals
they are designing for.
COLLABORATION OVERVIEW:
The Ziba team found the overall collaboration effort to be positive, especially when designers
let the researchers take the lead during the intensive research periods, and the researchers let
the designers take the lead during the design phase. Collaboration efforts during fieldwork were
particularly noteworthy. Interactions during this phase can range in their effectiveness.

The Ziba team desires more collaboration during

the majority of the process. Ziba especially finds
benefits to including researchers in the design/
development stages, which sometimes does not
occur. A researchers presence assures that the
design is developed according to the actionable
frameworks that were previously identified.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

Opportunities for Improvement

If designers are not trained in research, they
sometimes jump directly to why questions,
whereas researchers usually ask how questions.
Why questions attempt to force a direct
explanation from participants, whereas how
questions follow a participants experience
more closely, and thus yield better information.
However, the Ziba team also placed a blue
arrow in field studies, indicating a definite
desire for designers to be present in the field.
It is possible that designers may misinterpret
research findings if they are unable to experience fieldwork first-hand.

Clockwise from top: 1/ results of final collage 2/ detail of jump from the concepting to design, with desire for more collaboration 3/ detail of the fieldwork phase with blue, green, and red arrows
2

Positive Collaboration
There are several phases where collaboration
efforts are positive, including research protocol
and tool development, fieldwork, and frameworks/concepting. Field studies have particular
potential for positive collaboration because
designers gain direct exposure to the experience when they are present, which benefits
the design process that follows.

fluctuate throughout the process. While researchers

and designers should participate throughout the research
and design process, researchers should take the lead
during research planning and field studies. Designers

DESIGNER

pg. 63

The levels of responsibility for designers and researchers

RESEARCHER
Proposal

Research Planning

Field Studies

Analysis/Synthesis

Ideation

Design

Refinement

Production

Understanding

should take the lead during design and design production.

The proposal, analysis/synthesis, ideation, refinement
and production phases are split fairly equally.

The levels of responsibility for designers and

researchers fluctuate throughout the process.
While there are commonly points in the process
where collaboration efforts produce negative
results, the overarching trend is that most
painpoints occur when either the designer or
the researcher is absent. This occurs consistently
through all phases in the process.
For best results, researchers should take the
lead during research planning and field studies.
Designers should take the lead during design
and design production. The proposal, analysis/
synthesis, ideation, refinement and production
phases are split fairly equally.

RESEARCH PLANNING & FIELD STUDIES

Ethnographers should take the lead when
planning research and doing field visits because
they are trained in specific questioning, but
the designers presence is still recommended.
While often prevented from participating in
fieldwork by budget constraints, a designer
contributes by adding an alternative perspective,
their own insights, and design thinking.
Information gathered by ethnographers and
subsequently passed down to designers is not
as affective as information witnessed first-hand
by the designer. Designers may suffer from
misconceptions from simply not being there.
DESIGN DEVELOPMENT
Similarly, designers should take the lead during
the design and production phases, but a
researchers input is advantageous to have
during this time. Researchers are skilled at
being able to relate the developing design back
to user insightsensuring a user-centered frame
of mind. In the absence of an ethnographer,
the design might veer off course into a direction
not fully supported by research findings.

FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings from the collage activities,
it is recommended that in order to produce the
best possible results in a design and ethnography effort, designers and ethnographers should
work in tandem throughout the entire process.
While each discipline brings strengths to the
process and should take the lead at various
stages, the presence of the other serves as a
real benefit throughout the process to ensure
understandings and insights are grounded.

Lines are commonly blurred between the roles

of designers and researchers. Designers and
researchers who work together over time begin
to take on each others roles, sharing sensibilities
from each discipline. In fact, several of the
researchers who participated in the experience
collages were educated in design and went into
research fields later in their careers.

INCORPORATING ETHNOGRAPHY INTO VISUAL COMMUNICATIONS

2.4 COLLABORATION MODEL FOR

DESIGNERS AND DESIGN RESEARCHERS

pg. 65

ROLES ARE
OFTEN BLURRED.
DESIGNERS +
ETHNOGRAPHERS
SHOULD WORK
IN TANDEM.
COLLABORATION
IS IDEAL FOR ALL
PROCESS PHASES.

pg. 67

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADDITIONAL SOURCES

AIGA and Cheskin. An Ethnographic Primer, 2006.

DESIGN RESEARCH:

Geertz, Clifford. The Interpretation of Cultures. New York: Basic Books, 1973.

Bennett, Audrey, ed. Design Studies, Theory and Research in Graphic Design. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2006.

Hammersley, Martyn. Reading Ethnographic Research: A Critical Guide. London: Longman, 1990.

Bestley, Russel and Noble, Ian. Visual Research. New York: AVA Publishing, 2005.

Stocking, George W. The Ethnographers Magic and Other Essays in the History of Anthropology. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1992.

Hanington, Bruce M. Generative Research in Design Education. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Carnegie Mellon University School of Design, no date listed.

Laurel, Brenda, ed. Design Research: Methods and Perspectives. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2003.

Ladner, Sam. Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research. Design Research blog, 2007.

ETHNOGRAPHY:

IDEO. IDEO Method Cards. Palo Alto, 2003.

Dvila, Arlene. Latinos Inc. The Marketing and Making of a People. Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2001.

Sanders, Liz and VanPatter, G.K. Science in the Making. NextDesign Leadership Institute, 2004.

Lindenbaum, Shirley. The Value of Critical Ethnographic Engagement: Comments on the Social Production of Health. New York: CUNY Graduate School, 24 Nov. 2004.

Bainbridge, Mike and Millman, Debbie. Design Meets Research. AIGA: 2008.

Saville-Troike, Muriel. The Ethnography of Communication. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2003.

10

Sleeswijk Visser, Stappers, van der Lugt and Sanders. Contextmapping: Experiences from Practice. The Netherlands: Delft University of Technology, 2005.

11

Kolari, Preetham. Personal Interview, February 2009.

ETHNOGRAPHY AND DESIGN PRACTICE:

12

Rhea, Darrel. The Rise in Popularity of Ethnography. Cheskin Added Value blog, 2003.

Chipchase, Jan. Tales of Passion. Monterey, California: TED Conference, 2007.

13

Li, LiAnne. Personal Interview, March 2009.

Dourish, Paul. Implications for Design. Montreal, Quebec: Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, Department of Informatics, 22 April 2006.

14

Dreyfuss, Henry. Designing for People, Third Ed. New York: Allworth Press, 2003.

Hanington, Bruce. Methods in the Making: A Perspective on the State of Human Research in Design. Design Issues: Volume 19, Number 4, Autumn 2003.

15

Wasson, Christina. Ethnography in the field of design. Human Organization: 59(4), 2000.

Sanders, Elizabeth. Ethnography and the Empowerment of Everyday People. White paper for Microsoft Corporation, 2004.

16

Sanders, Elizabeth. Ethnography in NPD Research. How Applied Ethnography can Improve your NPD Research Process. Visions Magazine; Aug. 2006.

Sanders, Elizabeth B-N., From User-Centered to Participatory Design Approaches. In Design and Social Sciences, edited by J. Frascara. Oxford: Taylor & Francis Books Ltd, 2002.

17

Faiola, Anthony. The Design Enterprise: Revising the HCI Education Paradigm. PowerPoint Presentation from SIGCHI Workshop; 2004.

Van Veggel, Rob JFM. Where the Two Sides of Ethnography Collide. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Design Issues: Volume 21, Number 3; Summer 2005.

18

OGrady, Jennifer Visocky and OGrady, Kenneth Visocky. A Designers Research Manual. Gloucester: Rockport Publishers, Inc., 2006.

19

Joziasse, Frans. Corporate Strategy: Bringing Design Management into the Fold. In Building Design Strategy, edited by Thomas Lockwood

SOCIALLY-DRIVEN DESIGN:

and Thomas Walton. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008.

Glaser, Milton and Ili, Mirco. Design of Dissent: Socially and Politically Driven Graphics. Beverly, MA: Rockport Publishers, 2005.

20

Lockwood, Thomas and Walton, Thomas. Building Design Strategy. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008.

Holland, DK. Branding for Nonprofits. New York: Allworth Communications, Inc, 2006.

21

Jensen, Anna Krarup. Strategic Design: Achieving Utopian Goals. Copenhagen: Danish Centre for Design Research, 2009.

Laundy, Peter and Vignelli, Massimo. Graphic Design for Non-Profit Organizations. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt Pub Co, 1991.

22

McCullagh, Kevin. Strategy for the Real World. In Building Design Strategy, edited by Thomas Lockwood and Thomas Walton. New York: Allsworth Press; 2008.

Sanders, Elizabeth. Design Serving People. Cumulus Working Papers, Copenhagen: Publication Series G, 5 May 2006.

23

Koppel, Ted and Smith, Jack for ABC News. The Deep Dive. Princeton, NJ: Films Media Group, 2007.

24

Brown, Tim. Design Thinking. Harvard Business Review, 1 June 2008.

25

Mariampoliski, H. Ethnography for Marketers: A Guide to Consumer Immersion. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc, 2006.

26

Portigal, Steve. Personal Interview, April 2009.

27

Stinson, Tommy. Personal Interview, February 2009.

28

Voluntary Service Overseas website: www.vsointernational.org.

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Glasband, Debbie. Email message to Leslie MacNeil, March 2009.

30

Above the Influence website: www.abovetheinfluence.com.

31

Denniston, Robert. Email message to Leslie MacNeil, May 2009.

32

Schmuckler, Eric. Foote Cone & Belding. Mediaweek, June 2006.

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Kotler, Philip and Lee, Nancy. Social marketing: Influencing Behaviors for Good. Los Angeles: Sage Publications, 2008.

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Mazzarella, William. Shoveling Smoke: Advertising and Globalization in Contemporary India. Durham: Duke University Press, 2003.

35

World Health Organization. World Health Report, 2008.

Designed and written by Leslie MacNeil

Printed in an edition of 50 copies
Cover 130# Mohawk Superfine Double Thick Cover, Ultrawhite, Eggshell
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Printed in Denver, Colorado by Prescient Solutions Incorporated
Copyright 2009 by Leslie MacNeil Weber.
This document may be reprinted and distributed for non-commercial
and educational purposes only, and not for resale. All other rights reserved.

DESIGN
ETHNOGRAPHY:
STRATEGY
FOR VISUAL
COMMUNICATIONS
Ethnography, a field of anthropological study and a research technique,
helps visual communication designers create materials that evoke meaning
and inspire action in their audiences. Ethnography enables a designers
understanding by uncovering cultural contexts and social norms.