Modular Prefabricated

Residential Construction
Constraints and Opportunities

Prepared By

Research Students
Naomi Javanifard; M.S. Candidate in Architecture
Debra Markert ; M.S. Candidate in Construction Management
Kristen Strobel ; M.S. Candidate in Architecture
Jason Yap ; M.S. Candidate in Real Estate

Research Lead

Studio Students
Team 1: Alena Birillo (Dual ),
Richardson Maneze (Dual), Kylie
Yamamoto (Arch), Marc David James
(Arch), Keri Woltz (Arch), Jacob
Jacobski (CM ), Eli Lemanski (CM)
Team 2: Chris Tritt (Dual), Mariam
Hovhannisyan (Dual), Flynn Wienker
(Arch), Katherine Sistek (Arch), U
Cheong (Leo) Lei (CM), Mamadou
Leigh (CEP )

Rahman Azari; Ph.D. Candidate in Built Environment

Supervising Faculty

Carrie Sturts Dossick; Ph.D., P.E., Associate Professor,

Department of Construction Management
Omar El-Anwar; Ph.D., Assistant Professor,
Department of Construction Management
Kathrina Simonen; RA, SE, LEED-AP, Assistant Professor,
Department of Architecture

Team 3: Evan Dunagun (Dual),

Yushang (Michelle) Deng (Dual),
Jason Duckowitz (Arch), Chen-ann
Fu (Arch), Alan Montufar (Arch), Mark
Kinsman (CM), Cory Hartwigsen (CM)

August 2013
PNCCRE Technical Report #TR002

University of Washington | Skanska Innovation Grant

Fall 2012

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The current practices in construction industry are labor-intensive and surrounded by significant
risks associated with market, site and weather conditions. In addition, the construction industry
has been critizised for lower productivity relative to other US industies in the last fourty years.
Many seek efficient improvements with respect to time, cost and quality. Modular construction
moves the construction site to manufacturing facility for a major part of the building and, in this
way, improves its predictability, increases productivity, and reduces the risks inherent in
construction. Modular buildings also generate great cost savings opportunities as a result of
compressed construction schedules.
The key objective of this report is to provide a review of the potential for modular prefabricated
construction for mid- to high-rise residential buildings in Seattle. To achieve this objective, we
identified 9 major constraints and 3 main opportunities in implementing this type of
construction. The constraints include market demand, transportation, logistics, costs, codes,
permitting and inspection, labor and unions, architectural design and delivery, and regional
manufacturing. Structural design is another constraint that is not covered in the present report,
but should be carefully considered particularly in seismic regions such as Seattle. Furthermore,
the major opportunities of this type of construction include schedule, cost, and quality. We also
studied several case-studies of modular mid- to high-rise buildings from a varity of regions
including the US, Europe and Australia to understand how this construction method has been
utlized globally. Finally, we present the design and analysis of three student studio teams in an
Integrated AEC studio which was conducted as part of Skanskas innovation grant. The student
team proposals are for mid-rise residential modular buildings in a hypothetic site in Seattle.
We conclude that there exists a great potential for modular construction in the delivery of highrise residential buildings. There is a strong demand for multi-family housing in the Tri-county
region, however, there appears to be significant oversupply of multi-family units coming onto
the market in the medium term, which should be considered prior to any release of units onto
the market. Therefore, it is suggested that further investigation is conducted to understand the
fluid nature of the housing demand and supply in the region. When such a project is
undertaken, the size and weight of the modules to be used in a modular building should be
carefully considered with respect to transportation, logistics. Typical module sizes are 11 feet
high, 12 to 16 feet wide, and 55 to 65 feet long. A maximum 200-mile distance from the site
location is probably the most cost-efficient option with respect to transportation of the
modules and trucks are usually the preferred transportation system. These transportation costs
are minimal as compared to the potential for reduced site construction and financing costs as a
result of smaller crew sizes and shorter construction schedules.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS .........................................................................................................................iii
1.

INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................................1

2.

CONSTRAINTS.............................................................................................................................2
2.1.

Market conditions ...............................................................................................................2

2.1.1.

Supply/Demand .................................................................................................................... 2

2.1.2.

Demand Drivers .................................................................................................................... 7

2.1.3.

Perception ........................................................................................................................... 10

2.2.

Transportation ..................................................................................................................12

2.2.1.

Transportation by Truck ...................................................................................................... 13

2.2.2.

Transportation by Rail ......................................................................................................... 16

2.3.

Logistics ............................................................................................................................17

2.3.1.

Site Considerations ............................................................................................................. 17

2.3.2.

Crane and Rigging Considerations ...................................................................................... 18

2.4.

Costs .................................................................................................................................21

2.4.1.

Materials and Labor ............................................................................................................ 21

2.4.2.

Design and Coordination..................................................................................................... 22

2.4.3.

Transportation and Logistics ............................................................................................... 23

2.5.

Codes ................................................................................................................................24

2.5.1.

Mechanical .......................................................................................................................... 25

2.5.2.

Electrical .............................................................................................................................. 26

2.5.3.

Plumbing ............................................................................................................................. 28

2.6.

Permitting and Inspections ................................................................................................29

2.6.1.

Permitting ........................................................................................................................... 29

2.6.2.

Inspections .......................................................................................................................... 30

2.6.3.

Costs/Fees ........................................................................................................................... 32
iii

2.7.

Labor, Skills and Unions .....................................................................................................34

2.7.1.

Project Teaming .................................................................................................................. 34

2.7.2.

Skilled Labor ........................................................................................................................ 34

2.7.3.

Unions ................................................................................................................................. 34

2.8.

Architectural Design and Delivery ......................................................................................36

2.8.1.

Pre-planning ........................................................................................................................ 36

2.8.2.

Procurement Methods ........................................................................................................ 36

2.8.3.

Some Issues to Be Considered in the Design Process ......................................................... 37

2.9.

Regional manufacturing ....................................................................................................39

2.9.1.

Inside Factory ...................................................................................................................... 39

2.9.2.

Manufacturers .................................................................................................................... 40

Manufacturer: One Build .................................................................................................................... 42

Manufacturer: Whitley Manufacturing .............................................................................................. 43
Manufacturer: Sustainable Living Innovations (SLI) ........................................................................... 44
Manufacturer: Method Homes ........................................................................................................... 45
Manufacturer: Blazer Industries ......................................................................................................... 47
Manufacturer: Guerdon Enterprises................................................................................................... 49
3.

4.

OPPORTUNITIES .......................................................................................................................50
3.1.

Schedule ...........................................................................................................................50

3.2.

Costs .................................................................................................................................52

3.3.

Quality Opportunities........................................................................................................54

CASE-STUDIES...........................................................................................................................57
Case Study 1 Atlantic Yards B2, US .............................................................................................57
Case Study 2 - SOMA Studios, US ..................................................................................................58
Case Study 3 The Modules, US ...................................................................................................59
Case Study 4 Victoria Hall, UK ....................................................................................................60
Case Study 5 Wilmslow Park, UK ................................................................................................61
Case Study 6 - Neapo, Finland .......................................................................................................62
Case Study 7 Little Hero, Australia..............................................................................................63
Case Study 8 - T30 Hotel, Xiangyin, China ......................................................................................64

5.

INTEGRATED AEC STUDIO .........................................................................................................66

5.1.

Team 1 ..............................................................................................................................66
iv

5.2.

Team 2 ..............................................................................................................................69

5.3.

Team 3 ..............................................................................................................................72

6.

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................75

7.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...............................................................................................................78

8.

RESOURCES ..............................................................................................................................79

Appendix A: Transportation - Application for Transportation Permits ................................................82

Appendix B: Inspection Requirements ..............................................................................................83

1. INTRODUCTION
Since the industrial revoltion, designers and builders have explored prefabrication concepts,
means, and methods. This type of construction is the practice of assembling the components of
a building in factory and then transporting them to the construction site for installation.
Modular prefabricated construction represents a specific type of prefabrication in which the
module building components are assembled off-site. Modules are complete box-shaped units,
containing walls, floor and roof with the interior space, which are built in factory, shipped to
the site, installed, and connected into a complete building. Faster speed of construction and
thus, faster return on the investment, is one of the major drivers of this type of construction
which can take place at a variety of scales, from single-house to high-rise, and for various types
of functions including residential, student housing, and commercial. Other benefits include
safer more productive working conditions in manufacturing settings, which is of particular value
in extreme climate regions. The manufacturing setting also presents challenges in terms of
inspections, permitting, labor organization, transportation and logistics.
Design and construction of modular buildings, however, require high levels of collaboration
among project parties, especially architect, structural engineer and manufacturer, in the early
design process to account for major constraints in the design with respect to transportation of
modules, installation logistics, permits and inspection schedules. More specifically, weight and
size of the modules to be transported and installed, and the structural capability of the final
product need to be carefully considered in the design of modular buildings. Buildings with this
type of construction are subject to the local codes in the United States, enforced by the
Department of Labor and Industries and local government agencies responsible for enforcing
the construction codes.
In addition to other limitations, modular buildings, especially in housing market, may face
market resistance if manufactured housing is perceived to be of lower quality. In our research,
we have found that this public perception may not extend to mid-rise and high-rise building
stock, and efforts in Europe and Asia are changing the public perception of modular
construction to one with potential for high design and a modern high tech image.
We start this report with a detailed review of some of the major constraints that surround
design and construction of this type of development in Seattle, followed by the opportunities to
achieve viable development models, and finally, we present some case-study examples from
around the world.

2. CONSTRAINTS
The main constraints associated with modular construction have to do with market conditions,
transportation, logistics, costs, codes, permitting and inspection, labor and unions, architectural
design and delivery, and regional manufacturing.

2.1.

Market conditions

Market analysis for the modular prefabricated housing product will be discussed in 3 ways; with
reference to supply, demand and perception of the product. Modular prefab for the purposes
of this study falls within the category of multi-family housing. Within the multi-family housing
market, any given property can generally be occupied in terms of a lease or purchased outright.
Hence, any given property competes with other housing assets in two main arenas: Sales
market and Rental market. Within these two markets, any given property also needs to
compete with new supply (i.e. currently marketed projects) and existing housing stock. We will
look at the trends in these two markets in turn with respect for supply/demand and how the
property can best be positioned in the market.
2.1.1. Supply/Demand

The modular prefabricated housing market is still nascent, particularly in the US, despite having
been in existence for at least 25 years. The shipping container approach was, for instance, first
patented as a Modular Container Building System in the USA in 1986 (Boyd et al, 2012). It is
difficult to find statistics on the exact number of modular prefabricated buildings, let alone the
number of multi-family modular prefab housing projects in the past, or necessarily the
percentage of projects by value. The numbers that are available are presented here.
National Market

According to the 2011 US census statistics reported by Modular Building Institute (MBI), an
industry body which accounts for about 60% of modular contractors, modular construction
makes up a small but growing percentage of the total construction industry (MBI 2012). The
statistics reveals that the total value of construction industry is $787 billion annually ($244
billion residential + $543 billion non-residential). $183 billion of the non-residential share of this
market represent lodging, office, commercial, healthcare, educational and religious building
types. Only 1.5% ($2.7 billion) of this $183 billion construction value is the share of permanent
modular construction (MBI 2012). It is worthwhile to note that this figure does not include
residential construction.
The question now is where modular housing stands in with this small market. Looking at the
market share breakdown (by revenue) reported by MBI member organisations, it seems that
multi-family and student housing comprises 20% of the permanent modular construction
market (figure 1).
2

Permanent Modular Construction

(non-residential)

Education

5% 7%

42%

26%
20%

Multifamily/student
Office/Admin
Retail/Hospitality
Other

Figure 1. Non-residential modular construction breakdown (by revenue)

(Data source: MBI 2012)

Extrapolating the data, we estimate that the multi-family modular market in 2011 was $675
million annually. This figure is only a conservative estimate as MBI does not represent some of
the significant modular construction builders, especially in the northwest region (e.g. Guerdon).
Moreover, considering the number of projects being designed as modular and forecasted in
Engineering News Record (ENR)projects such as Atlantic Sports Yardswe estimate that the
multi-family share in modular construction market is actually closer to $1 billion annually as a
conservative estimate.
A separate report by McGraw Hill construction indicated that the usage of prefab/modular
processes was common in 85% of industry players and 98% of respondents stated they would
be using it by 2013 (McGraw Hill Construction, 2011). The companies surveyed were
contractors, subcontractors, developers/owners, engineers and architects. 37% of the
respondents stated they had been using prefab/modular on more than 50% of projects, and by
2013, the survey suggested that, the 37% would grow to 45%. Note the report does not clearly
delineate offsite modular construction from lower levels of prefab systems (e.g. off-site precast
concrete components). Importantly, the report highlighted three major issues with respect to
modular construction (McGraw Hill Construction, 2011):
Reasons for non-usage
The primary reason why projects did not include modular was due to owner resistance (39%
of architects, and 54% of those currently not using prefab gave that as the reason). This puts
the impetus on developers for driving this model.
Current Usage
Among the current users, healthcare and dorms/educational buildings were estimated to
use modular process at 49% and 42% share, respectively. Only 23% of multi-family housing,
according to this report, was estimated to use modular processes.

 Future Potential
In terms of future, the respondents stated that the biggest potential markets for modular
construction are: healthcare (14%), commercial warehouses (11%), hotels (11%),
manufacturing (8%), high-rise office (8%), schools 7% and multi-family (7%). This may give
credence to the business strategies focusing on modular prefab processes.
The implementation of modular construction techniques can also be justified on the grounds of
rapid growth of multi-family housing, which lends itself to modular practices. Compared to
2011, the overall construction market has experienced a 6.5% growth. Indeed, the value of
construction market in 2012, excluding public projects, is $837 billion compared to $787 billion
in the year before. The share of multi-family housing has been $23 billion of the market in 2012,
which represents a 44.8% growth, compared to 2011. Altogether, multi-family housing
accounts for 7.7% of the total $273 billion residential market in 2012.
This growth is evident in the increased number of housing units. Indeed, new residential
construction increased from 647,000 units in 2011 to 872,000 units in 2012; a 34.8% growth.
The census data breaks this down with data for single family, 2-4 unit developments and 5 +
unit developments. Single family housing accounts for 70% (603,000 units) of new residential
construction in 2012. This represented a 43% increase compared to the 2011 figures. Multifamily residential with 5 or more units also experienced the growth, with an increase from
219,000 in 2011 to 260,000 units in 2012.
King County Residential Market

According to a 2012 report by Washington Center for Real Estate Research (WCRER 2012),
there exists 249,070 potential rental apartments in Seattle. Based on a WA Office of Financial
Management (OFM, 2012) report, the total housing units in the King County area as 861,895,
the share of rental apartments accounts for 29% of the total housing units. Figure 2 illustrates a
breakdown of this market for rental apartments.

Rental Apartment in King County

24%

18%

6% 10%

Studio
1BR

42%

2BR + 1 bath
2BR + 2 baths
3+ BR

Figure 2. Rental apartment market in King County

(Source: WCRER report)

As at Spring 2012, the average rent in King County area was $1098 with an average apartment
size of 826 square feet. The Table 1 shows the average rent and size for 1-bedroom and 2bedroom apartments.
Table 1. Average rent and size for apartments in King County area.
Apartment type
1-Bedroom
2-Bedroom-1 Bath
Average

Average Rent ($)

1001
1024
1098

Average Size (sf)

686
875
826

Vacancy Rate (%)

3.7
4.3
4.1

More recent data from September 2012 determined by both Apartment Advisors and Dupre +
Scott 4 quoted in the Seattle Times suggests the following changes since the figures in the
Apartment report by the WCRER:
In the Tri-County area:
The average rent is $1,103 - up 3.7% from March (and, about 5% annually).
The average vacancy rate is 4.27%.
Interestingly and as a side note, Trulia data 5 gleaned from USPS statistical data indicates
those properties receiving mail and those not, shows a vacancy rate of 2.4% for Seattle.
Apartment Advisors reports an average rent of $1,628 in downtown, Belltown and
South Lake Union, $1,756 in Bellevue.
With respect to the housing market, including condominiums and single family housing in King
County, the following statistics were provided by WCRER based on the Spring 2012 data which
is available on the WCRER website:
Building permits 146.2% annual increase (966 units authorised in March 2011)
3.1 months of housing supply available versus 5.3 in 2011. (Note: Months-of-supply is
the number of months it would take to sell the housing inventory based on the current
annualized sales rate).
4,978 housing units available (-34.4% compared to 2011)
12.1% increase in existing home sales
$322,400 median price (drop of 6.6% from 2011 annual median)
More recent data can be obtained from the Northwest Multiple Listing Service (MLS)6.
Professor Glenn Crellin indicates that the Northwest MLS represents accounts for
approximately 80% of the market. According to this data, as at September 2012:
4

http://seattletimes.com/html/businesstechnology/2019251870_apartmentrentsxml.html - accessed
October 22 2012
5
http://www.forbes.com/sites/trulia/2012/08/03/housing-glut-or-housing-shortage-americas-gotboth/ - accessed October 22 2012
6
http://www.nwrealestate.com/nwrpub/common/mktg.cfm
Northwest MLS website, Marketing Statistics, accessed October 20 2012
5

King County had 6,312 total active listings (vs. 10,382 in Sep. 2011); a 39.20% drop.
Pending sales figures are up from 2718 to 3,072 a 13.02% increase.
Closed sales figures are up from 1,999 to 2,312 a 15.66% increase.
The median reported increased to $355,000 from $310,000 a 8.06% increase.
Seattle in comparison to last year in particular had 36.12% fewer listings, almost 19%
greater sales figures (both closed and pending which increased to 888 from 748) and a
median that increased 2.2% to $370,000 (from $362,000). Of these, condos had the
following breakdown:
42.32% fewer listings (from 983 to 567)
Pending sales at a 2.48% increase
Closed sales up 43.8% (from 197 to 137)
A median of $250,000 (up 4.17% from $240,000)

Based on the comprehensive data above, it appears that Seattle is a strong and healthy market
and there is a particular appetite for condo projects, as evidenced by the falling number of
listings for the sale market (42% fewer listings), and the drop in vacancies in the rental market
(4.1% as at March 2012). Additionally, the average prices have increased for both housing and
rentals. The Northwest MLS further reports the median price at 8.06% higher (to $355,000) for
housing (houses and condos), and there is a 4.5% increase in the $1,635 Zillow rent index.
New Supply in the Seattle region
In order to effectively evaluate future market demand, the anticipated new supply of multifamily units in the region should be considered. These can be determined from the Seattle
Department of Planning and Development (DPD) website. In any given zone, generally the
planning department keeps a record of the permitting activity. For Seattle, these can be found
at: http://web1.seattle.gov/dpd/maps/
The city records the scale and type of project and thus the number of multi-family residential
projects can be identified, the city does not record the type of construction and thus the
number of modular buildings approved for construction cannot be identified. Whilst accurate,
the website is not indicative of what projects have completed at any given time. Therefore, we
quote here the research from Apartment Insights and Dupre+Scott, two main research houses
for apartment development in the Puget Sound Region. In April 2012, Apartment Insights7
suggests that in the Tri-county region (considering 50+ unit projects only):

8,155 units under construction (up from 6,457 in Q4 2011)

3,119 units expected to open in 2012.
5,539 units expected to be released in 2013
Additionally there are 9,428 in the design review/permitting process, or which have
already completed it, and an additional 9,953 units, which have rezone applications.

http://www.apartmentinsightswa.com/press.html
Apartment Insights, On-Site Magazine April 2012 - accessed October 22 2012
6

In the Apartment Development report 8 published in September 2012, Dupre+Scott presents

even larger numbers for the Tri-County region (based on 20+ unit projects):
Almost 36,000 in the development pipeline (planned or under construction) for Seattle
between 2012-2017
6,239 completed or under construction for 2012
8,167 planned or under construction (7,694 underway) for 2013 release
10,787 planned or under construction (3,834 underway) for 2014 release
7,381 planned or under construction (606 underway) for 2015 release
Between 2012-2015 32,574 units planned or under construction
2.1.2. Demand Drivers

Demand drivers for multi-family residential renters include:

Population
Household formation (non-child rearing ages)
Local Housing affordability
Employment Growth
This report is not designed to include macroeconomic data including unemployment/median
income/household formation. However, a pertinent question is whether the growth in
household formation, and removal of existing housing stock (due to obsolescence/conversion
of use) is sufficient to warrant the large supply coming on line.
According to the Washington State Office of Financial Management (2012), overall the
predicted population increase for the tri-county region is predicted to be 155,275 from April
2010 to April 2012. The population increase from April 1 2010 to April 1 2012 has been 25,751,
9,565 and 12,975 for King, Snohomish and Pierce Counties, respectively. In other words, a
48,291 net population increase in 2 years in the tri-county area. In terms of housing units, The
OFM data from 2010 to 2012 actually indicates that 18,420 new housing units were created
(OFM, 2012).
Delving deeper, we can do a quick analysis of this. In 2012, the average household size was
2.354 (OFM, 2012). But in reality the size of the households being formed by the population
increase infers a new household size of 2.621 (calculated from 48,291/18,420). This would
indicate the size of each household is getting bigger or that perhaps housing preferences is for
more people per household. However, this doesnt tell the whole story given that vacancy rates
have been falling and old stock has been taken up. This means the actual number of new
housing units + some of the existing stock were taken up by the additional population, and
hence the household size calculation of new households formed should be (48,291 / (18,420 +

http://www.duprescott.com/productsservices/articleinfo.cfm?ArticleId=583
Dupre + Scott, Build it and they will come, September 24 2012 - accessed October 22 2012
7

existing stock taken up). Other possible suggestions for the increased household size could be
an indication of more subleasing occurring.
Shortfall is one thing, but the anticipated supply coming into the tri-county region is another.
The actual number of units being released in 2013-2015 will be approx. 27,500 (from the
previous section) in the tri-county area. Assuming the OFM calculations are correct, population
growth should be approx. 107,000 new residents, and assuming the same rate of housing unit
formation (2.621 persons per housing unit), we can come up with an approximate no. of
required units as 40,800. Therefore, the supply of 27,500 new multi-family units in 2013-2015
(in the previous section) assumes that approx. 2 in 3 new households will be happy to live in
the multi-family housing units coming online. Indeed this could be a conservative estimate and
there is probably closer to 10-20% more units coming up in 2013, 2014 but the D+S data
doesnt include projects smaller than 20 units, hence we could almost suggest that 3 in 4 new
households are supposed to take up the new multi-family units on offer.
Population Projections

As mentioned earlier, The OFM (2012) provides data on population projections from 2012.
Current to May 2012, the data indicates that, between 2010 and 2015, the population growth
will be 155,275 in the Tri-county region. Taking into account the 48,291 already moved in from
April 2010 to April 2012, this would indicate approximately 107,000 new people needing to be
accommodated within the tri-county region.
Some demographers point to the Gen Y generation for instance the population between 1835 who are now leaving home and renting or purchasing their first homes. As presented at the
ULI Fall Convention 2012 the presentation suggested that this is an extremely nascent market
a growing number of 18-35 year olds are looking for such multi-family properties but are
subject to capital constraints in light of low starting salaries and debts out of college. A RREEF
study9 in May 2011 provided shed some light on the exact figures of this demographic
Generation Y (1983-2000 birth years) make up 80 million people, whilst Generation X (19651982 birth years) make up 65 million residents. Moreover, the % of single households, will be
increasing to 38% (from 34% over 2016-2020),
An important question is in regards to what the population projections are for this demographic
segment as they are the most likely occupiers of multi-family housing. OFM (2012) provides a
breakdown of different age brackets, and for breakdowns of each county. Taking into account
the demographic segment between 18 and 34 years old, between 2010 and 2015, the state
population growth in is due to be 38,311, out of a total 297,000 growth for the state (between
2010 and 2015). In the Tri-county area, the projection is for a growth of 13,130 in this 18-34
demographic according to medium estimates, compared to a total Tri-county growth across all
age groups of 155,275. This accounts for scarcely 10% of the projected growth. Given these

RREEF research report:

http://www.rreef.com/content/_media/Research_Demographic_Changes_May_2011.pdf
8

rather small figures, the question this raises is one of whether the demand exists for the multifamily product type which many deem as being perfectly suited for the 18-34 demographic.
We should also look at the population of retirees who desire smaller, multi-family dwellings as
a lower maintenance option in their retirement. The question is what the trends are for this
demographic. The OFM publishes population projections for each county breaking down into
age groups. This is available online. 10 Statewide, the over 65 population is 13.12% in 2012
estimates (894,811 persons, 40,000 more than 2011). In the Tri-County region it is: King
(11.67%, 228,477), Snohomish (11.12%, 80,375), Pierce (11.73%, 94,781).
In 2015 this is projected to be: Statewide: 1,020,605 persons accounting for 14.53% of the total,
King (12.52%, 252,100), Snohomish (12.02%, 90,203), Pierce (12.46%, 103,731). Thus we can
see that this target market is substantially increasing with the addition of almost 45,000
additon more people in the 65+ age bracket in 2015 compared to 2012.
Household Formation Projections

Using the existing average household size as a guide, the metric would be for a requirement of
approximately 45,500 new housing units from April 2012 to April 2015. This is based on the
average household size 2.354 holding true (from Census data), and an increase of 106,984
(calculated from 155,275 less population increases from April 2010 to April 2012).
As previously shown in the supply side section, half of the units permitted to September 2012
were multi-family (5 or more). This number is rising. Not including the 6,239 released in 2012,
26,000 of them are already earmarked as being due for completion in 2013-2015. Given what
we have just calculated in terms of household formation, we estimate that close to 2 out of 3
new households (26,000 multi-family units out of the projected 45000 housing units required)
will be living in multi-family.
This forecast does not match historical housing patterns and should be analyzed in more detail.
There are less than 1 in 3 current households living in multi-family currently (250,000 existing
apartments out of 860,000 total in King County) 11 and we would suggest that there needs to be
a significant structural change in housing preferences that number to double to account for the
2 out of 3 new units which are being released as multi-family. Some have postulated this is as
being necessary to cater for demand. This demand it is suggested is being driven by the influx of
young professionals drawn to Seattle to work for companies such Amazon and other major
corporations in inner Seattle.
Furthermore, this demographic has certain preferences for housing which many developers
are suggesting is the well located, transit oriented, multi-family housing type. To an extent, this
form of housing, is also necessitated by a lack of land supply, and significant population
increases of certain demographics (the X and Y Generations) in particular areas such as South
Lake Union where housing needs can only be met by multi-family.
10
11

OFM Population Projections: http://www.ofm.wa.gov/pop/gma/projections12/projections12.asp

Combination of OFM data and WCRER mid year report 2012
9

Job Growth

The OFM statistics factor job growth in, in their population growth calculations. However, for
the sake of clarity, we use the Bureau of Labor Statistics data:
March 2011-March 2012: Job growth 12 in the Seattle metro is 11,590 according to the
bureau of labor statistics (2.5% annual growth).
From Sept 2011 Sept 2012: in the Seattle- Tacoma Everett- Bellevue area, 39,300
jobs were added.
From August 2012 Sept 2012: 33,300 jobs were added.
Unemployment has gone from 8.4 to 7.3% (from Sept 2011 to Sept 2012).
Weekly wages in March 2012 13:
$1,265 in King ($65,780 pa)
$1,061 in Snohomish ($55,172 pa)
$840 in Pierce ($43,680 pa)
National average: $984 ($51,168 pa)
These figures state that job and wage growth seems strong, however the issue is whether the
estimated 2 in 3 new households (based on the population growth) will choose multi-family
living based on the supply coming through. Hence the question is, is it a sustainable venture to
keep building multi-family? Conversely, with no new/limited land supply, do we have any other
choice. It remains to be seen whether the socio-economic fundamentals will support the shift
to multi-family housing in the Seattle region.
2.1.3. Perception

12
13

The main concept is that prefabricated housing should not look like prefab housing but
rather like any other typical housing unit. The house purchase is a major decision as it
ties up substantial financial resources over time. Here are several key facts in regards to
housing purchases From international studies done in Turkey (Apaydin 2011), Slovenia
(Koklic and Vida 2011), and the UK (Edge et al 2002).
Price may be perceived as an indicator of quality (low cost might indicate low quality)
(Apaydin 2011).
Prestige is reflected through the products image
Housing is a representative of personal identity/self-concept buyers those need
customizability (Koklic and Vida 2011). The individualization and reflects the tenants
lifestyle whether ideal or actual.
Buyers are under time pressure, and other peoples opinions are important. People
need others experience/information in order to make effective decisions. (Koklic and
Vida, 2011).
First impressions of the company/manufacturer are highly important (Trust in the
process of production and delivery of house). (Koklic and Vida, 2011).

http://www.seattle.gov/economicDevelopment/indicators/jobGrowth.htm
http://www.bls.gov/news.release/cewqtr.t01.htm
10

Follow-ups are important in order to promote positive feelings toward a modular

product. (Koklic and Vida, 2011).
Consumers frequently seek external information to increase knowledge and decrease
perceptions of risk and uncertainty. (Koklic and Vida, 2011).
Customers exhibit limited pre-purchase information search even for expensive durable
goods (Koklic and Vida, 2011).
There is an antipathy to prefab (i.e. postwar prefab type) but new products need to
distance themselves from that, as customers will only have partial resistance to new
ideas and need to understand the value proposition. (Edge et al 2002)
The UK study has approximately 88 ideas noted down in regards to optimizing
preferences towards modular prefab construction (Edge et al 2002)

A case study in point provides a glimpse into how one project tackled the issue of perception of
modular housing. This building, called Little Hero and located in Melbourne, Australia, was built
by Unitised Building, an offshoot of a medium-sized general contractor called Hickory. This was
a groundbreaking new project and highly publicized. Several things mentioned in media reports
and the case study done by RMIT university (Boyd et al, 2012) which helped in selling the
product include:

Normalizing the faade/integrating it with the Central Business District building fabric
Association with high profile builders/architects and industry trade organizations
Positive media coverage
Having a price point not abnormally low, $369,500 per unit, which was normal in
Melbourne at the time of release (2009)

Perhaps the most pertinent study was a study performed by the Department of Housing and
Urban Development (Cantrell et al 2007). This study canvassed the opinions of 12,700
consumers (10,000 through a web-based survey and 2,700 in a phone survey).
The results are summarized as below:
Site-built housing, in addition to receiving the highest ratings against particular factors, is the
type of housing that respondents would likely purchase, followed by modular homes.
Respondents indicated that they are about equally likely to consider panelized and
manufactured homes for purchase.
In general, respondents who lived in site-built housing prefer that type of housing to all of the
three other types, and so would be less likely to consider purchasing a modular, manufactured,
or panelized home. Lower income respondents are more likely to consider purchasing a
manufactured home, as are respondents who value the ability to construct a home quickly.
Lower income and older respondents are more likely to consider purchasing a modular home, as
are respondents who live in the Northeast. Moreover, respondents who are knowledgeable
about factors associated with each housing type are more likely to consider purchasing modular
and panelized homes.
11

A key result in this study is that the telephone respondents who rated non-site built housing
types more favorably based on specific housing features were less likely to consider purchasing
these homes. In comparison, Web-based respondents who rated the homes based on
photographs of each housing type decided favorably on the likelihood to purchase them
This finding suggests that consumer willingness, (or lack thereof), to consider purchasing a
factory-built home is less a function of rating individual elements than the overall look of the
home.
Based on the attitudes of respondents, the marketing recommendations are derived from the
following key principles:
Quality of construction is important to respondents.
There is a distinction between respondents product knowledge and product
experience.
A marketing message and its medium of delivery should target those markets that show
the greatest promise for non-site-built housing technologies.

2.2.

Transportation

Studies have shown that shipping modules becomes cost prohibitive when they must travel
more than 150 to 200 miles from factory to site (Smith, 2011). The industry generally
recognizes 125 miles as the maximum practical distance modules should need to travel from
factory to site. For the current study average transportation costs could not be determined.
12

2.2.1. Transportation by Truck

Transportation limitations for roadways in and around Seattle are determined by the
Washington State Department of Transportation and the Seattle Department of Transportation.
The table below shows the allowable dimensions for transportation by truck (Washington State
Department of Transportation, 2013).
Table 2. Transportation limitations for truck

Width
Height1
Single Trailer
Length
Multi Trailer Length

Not Requiring
Permits
Up to 8.5 Ft.
Up to 14 Ft.

Maximum Dimensions
Subject to Special
Requiring Special
Requirements
Approval
Up to 16 Ft.
Over 16 Ft.
Up to 16 Ft.
Over 16 Ft.

Up to 53 Ft.

Up to 56 Ft.

Up to 61 Ft.

Up to 68 Ft.

All heights are measured from the roadway.

Weight Restrictions

The maximum allowable weight is dependent on tire size and number of axles. The Washington
State Department of Transportation guide lists criteria for determining the maximum weight
once a truck has been selected.
Oversize Loads

Oversize vehicles (width, height, or length) are required to be marked oversize load. Escort
vehicles are required when:
1. The vehicle(s) or load is over 11 feet wide. Two pilot/escort vehicles are required on
two-lane roads, one in front and one in back.
2. The vehicle(s) or load is over 14 feet wide. One escort vehicle is required at the rear of
the movement on multi-lane highways.
3. The vehicle(s) or load is over 20 feet wide. Two pilot/escort vehicles are required on
multi-lane undivided highways, one in front and one in back.
4. The trailer length, including load, of a tractor/trailer combination exceeds 105 feet, or
when the rear overhang of a load measured from the center of the rear axle exceeds
one-third of the trailer length plus load of a tractor/trailer or truck/trailer combination.
One pilot/escort vehicle is required at the rear of the movement on two-lane highways.
5. The trailer length, including load, of a tractor/trailer combination exceeds 125 feet. One
pilot/escort vehicle is required at the rear of the movement on multi-lane highways.
6. The front overhang of a load measured from the center of the front steer axle exceeds
20 feet. One pilot/escort vehicle is required at the front on all two-lane highways.

13

7. The rear overhang of a load on a single unit vehicle, measured from the center of the
rear axle, exceeds 20 feet. One pilot/escort vehicle is required at the rear of the
movement on two-lane highways.
8. The height of the vehicle(s) or load exceeds 14 feet 6 inches. One pilot/escort vehicle
with height measuring device (pole) is required at the front of the movement on all
state highways and roads.
9. The operator, using rearview mirrors, cannot see 200 feet to the rear of the vehicle or
vehicle combination.
10. In the opinion of the department, a pilot/escort vehicle(s) is necessary to protect the
traveling public. Assignments of this nature must be authorized through the
departments administrator for commercial vehicle services.
In addition to signage and escort vehicles, overwidth vehicles (greater than 8-6) are subject to
curfews (see Table 3 below).
Permitting Fees

Fees for oversize loads are minimal and range from $10 to $150 depending on the period of
time and type of permit required. These permits only allow oversize loads to operate on state
roads, additional costs for escort vehicles will most likely be far greater.
City of Seattle Restrictions

For oversize and overweight loads, independent permits to transport material in the city of
Seattle are required. Pilot car requirements within the city of Seattle are as follows:
1. Front and rear pilot cars are required when the load extends beyond the centerline or
center of the road on all two-lane roads.
2. On multiple-lane roads, a rear pilot car is required when the load is between 12 and
13-11.
3. Both a front and rear pilot car are required when the load is 14 to 15-5.
4. A Seattle Transportation CVEO Traffic escort is required when the load is 15-6 or
wider.
5. A front pilot car is required when the vehicle load combination is 14-1 to 14-11 high.
6. A front and rear pilot car are required when the vehicle load combination is 15 to 15-5
high.
7. A Seattle Transportation CVEO Traffic escort is required when the vehicle load
combination is 15-6 or higher.
8. A rear pilot car is required if the vehicle is 81 to 89 feet long.
9. A front and rear pilot car are required if the vehicle is 90 to 99 feet long.
10. A Seattle Transportation CVEO Traffic escort is required if the vehicle is 100 feet or
more.
11. A front and rear pilot car are required if the overhang is more than 15 feet from the rear
axle.

14

Vehicles are considered over-weight when the single-axle weight is greater than 20,000 pounds
or the dual-axle weight is greater than 34,000 pounds. Also, the maximum overhang is onethird the total length of the vehicle.
Washington Department of Transportation issues curfews for major roads in the Seattle vicinity
as outlined in the table below:
Table 3. Curfew for truck transportation in Washington State

Transportation Route

For transportation planning purposes, a theoretical site at 800 Stewart St., Seattle, WA was
investigated. This site is immediately adjacent to the Seattle Downtown Traffic Control Zone
(Appendix A) restricting daytime access from the southwest. Truck access to the site would
most likely be via the route shown in the figure below.

15

Figure 3. Truck access to the potential site location at 800 Stewart Street

When selecting a site for modular construction, truck access to the site will be important to
consider as the accessibility will impact the possible schedule for modular delivery as well as
potentially restricting the possible dimensions of the units.
2.2.2. Transportation by Rail

Rail transportation is generally more expensive than transportation by truck (Smith, 2011).
Relative costs between truck and rail transportation could not be acquired. Maximum
dimensions of modules when transported by rail are 11 to 14 feet with a check to ensure the
route supports the necessary clearance. A maximum height of 17 feet is allowed given that the
route doesnt have any obstacles that prevent this. There is a maximum length of 59 or 88 feet
and is dependent on the type of rail car. As compared to transportation by truck, these module
sizes are less restrictive in terms of length and height and more restrictive in terms of width.

16

2.3.

Logistics

While logistical considerations for modular construction are typically the same as traditional
construction, there are differences between the two as well. Modules can easily weigh up to 22
tons, and span over 50 feet, which affects crane options. Moreover, the lack of areas for tie-offs
can present challenges with transporting materials and crews.
2.3.1. Site Considerations

The following is a description of the typical logistical issues and constraints found once
prefabricated modular units arrive at the construction site. A majority of logistics operations
and decisions remain comparable from typical on-site construction to modular construction,
but differences also exist.
Staging

Due to limited storage space at many urban construction sites, the weatherproof wrapping
modules arrive in, and because of delivery distances, a staging area is one of the most
important logistical considerations for modular construction projects.
Modular units vary in size, but most often are in the range of 11' wide, 14' high, and 55-65 feet
long. Modules for the Atlantic Yards B2 project, a 32-story apartment complex in Brooklyn, New
York, have been designed at 14 wide, 10 high, and 36 long. Depending on the project setting,
module size can prohibit deliveries and interrupt workflow. Additionally, modular units are
shipped from the factory with temporary weatherproofing, which consists of polyethylene
sheets or tarp covers. These covers are engineered with proper spacing and attachment points
so that the module is properly secured to the truck during transportation.
According to Maslenikov, project manager at Skanska USA Building, when a module arrives on
site, time and manpower are required to remove this wrapping. Another reason a staging area
is required for modular construction projects is because of the distance the modules typically
travel. Jeff Brink, structural engineer at DCI Engineers, explains that relying on just-in-time
deliveries has the potential to delay the project and is considered too risky. Accordingly, the
modular supplier should deliver units at the staging area, and develop a backlog of available,
completed modules. Brink also states that number of units stockpiled in the staging area is a
function of how many units the project has, how fast the manufacturer can fabricate and ship
the units, and how many units the crews can place per day.
Brink suggests that, ideally, the staging area should be within 50 miles of the project. Gene
Rega, the preconstruction director at Skanska involved in the Atlantic Yards B2 project, states
that they will have a staging area both at the factory, and at a site within 2 blocks of the project.
Staging area workers should prepare units for delivery to the jobsite. These preparations
include removing the weatherproofing, and applying the necessary rigging so that it is ready to
be picked by the crane when it arrives at the construction site.

17

A dedicated delivery vehicle should be available to move modules from staging to the site.
Based on weight and potential size, the modules will more than likely result in oversized load
deliveries. Any special flagging, street closure, or special permit considerations should be
evaluated once the staging area is selected.
Elevators and Vertical Worker Transport

One concern with modular construction is vertical transportation for field crews. Based on the
speed of construction, time to erect personnel and material transport platforms can be a
challenge. At a Skanska site for Swedish Edmonds Cancer Care Center, a local, 2-story modular
construction project, the buildings core elevator shaft will be constructed prior to the
placement of modules, and used for material and personnel transportation. A mid-to-high rise
project could follow this example and construct the core prior to placement of modules. This
option would result in scheduling delays, but more importantly, if a traditional elevator core
and shaft are not part of the design plan for the building, challenges can persist.
As discussed in a previous section, another option is a prefabricated elevator shaft. Companies
such as InnoShaft in Illinois, or NEAPO in Finland, can deliver factory-finished elevator shafts
and staircases up to 50 in height.
Andrew Morrow, of Morrow Equipment in Seattle, states that material hoists can be used, but
that there are considerations to be made. A hoist is typically installed with the building
structure at approximately every four floors. A tie-in from the hoist mast to the structure is
installed approximately every 25 for support. Typically the hoist can typically travel one floor
above the uppermost tie-in. For modular construction, the hoist can tie in, but jumps would
have to be made more frequently based on the speed of construction. Morrow suggested the
possibility of creating an independent tower structure for the hoist to tie-in.
Atlantic Yards B2 in New York, the tallest modular building in the US, will use a hoist the same
way a conventional project would, with jumps occurring more frequently due to the speed of
construction. The project will have one hoist, tied into the center of the building attached to
modules. The modules used for tie-in will receive finishes on-site, after major construction, to
reduce the potential for damage to the units. The hoist will span a 32-story section of unitized
curtain wall. The project team is planning to construct and use a mini-crane on the roof to lift
and set materials after the hoist is removed.
Other costs for the lessee include: equipment footings, electric power, erect/dismantle of the
hoist, and equipment operators. For budgetary purposes, Andrew Morrow suggests:

Hoist erect/dismantle$35,000 total (with jumps)

Equipment operator$70 per hour base, $90 per hour overtime

2.3.2. Crane and Rigging Considerations

The following is an examination of crane and hoisting considerations that should be made when
working with modular units.
18

Hoisting and Final Positioning

Modular structures undergo the greatest force during hoisting. Careful planning and
consideration is necessary to reduce and minimize the amount of time the module spends
suspended on the crane. Some designers, including Kullman Buildings, which publishes an
annual modular design manual, suggest including a 1/2" clear space between the modules to
help speed the placing process (Garrison and Tweedie, 2011). There are also options that
include a special pin and loop rigging system to allow for quicker attachment and removal of
the module rigging.
The critical goal of rigging is to reduce damage to the module. Rigging should be designed so
that no hoisting loads are imposed on the unit walls, which could cause the structure to shift or
warp. Lifting points should be located so that there is no uneven weight distribution. The
preferred lifting point location is at the bottom of the unit and located at 25% of the modules
length (Garrison, Tweedie, 2011). Additionally, when units are maneuvered across the floor, live
loads and clearances must be taken into consideration. Jacking points should be incorporated
for finite adjustments (Gibb, 2008).
Damage to exterior cladding is not usually a problem, since modules typically arrive with only
sheathing and a vapor barrier. Exterior finishes are added on site once the units are placed.
On an innovative note, at a previous project completed by Skanska, the modular electrical and
telecom rooms had flat concrete bottoms, which had to be set on ice in order to remove the
slings. As the ice melted, the units dropped into their final positions.
Crane Options

Crane selection is based on weight and reach, and for modular construction, typically requires a
greater reach than with on-site construction. Also, modular construction can require a crane
with a capacity of up to 40 75 tons, depending on design (Garrison and Tweedie, 2011).
Andrew Morrow, of Morrow Equipment, suggests using a tower crane for constructing a midto-high rise building in an urban setting. Because of the estimated size and weight of the
modules, he recommends the Liebherr 630 EC-H 20 Litronic, as the tower crane of choice. The
Atlantic Yards B2 project in Brooklyn will also use a tower crane.
Regardless of whether the developer, contractor, or manufacturer coordinates the crane, it is a
costly part of the construction process, so coordination efforts should be made to ensure the
crane is never idle. Other costs for the lessee include: equipment footings, electric power,
erect/dismantle of the crane, and equipment operators. For budgetary purposes, Andrew
Morrow suggests:

Crane erect/dismantle$90,000 total

Equipment operator$70 per hour base, $90 per hour overtime
19

In terms of speed of construction, Jessica Fabro at OneBuild, a Seattle-based modular

fabrication facility, estimates the crane can set 8 modules a day. Gene Rega, at the Atlantic
Yards B2 project in Brooklyn, states that they placed their 6-module prototype in 3.5 hours.
They are estimating they can place 10-12 modules per day.

20

2.4.

Costs

Cost constraints of modular buildings primarily result from materials, labors, design and
coordination, transportation, and logistics.
2.4.1. Materials and Labor

The following is a description of the typical materials and labor cost issues and constraints
found in prefabricated modular construction, when compared to on-site building methods.
Financing
On-site building allows for materials and labor to be spaced and phased throughout the
construction schedule. Due to the way work is divided and completed, payments can be made
throughout the construction process. With modular projects, however, there is a larger
concentration of payments and financing needed up-front. Because each module acts, in
essence, as a miniature building, trades move through the schedule more quickly to complete
their scopes. In many cases, the manufacturer will require a sizeable deposit, if not a paid in full
requirement, prior to starting fabrication (Pickerell, 2012). Additionally, construction loans and
financing typically only cover on-site work.
Jeff Brink, structural engineer at DCI Engineers, explains that the potential for a higher
concentration of upfront costs does not necessarily equate to higher overall costs. The overall
cost benefit of modular construction will be discussed and examined in the Cost Opportunities
section of this report.
Union and Open Shop Labor

Much of the labor on modular construction, from structure to specialties, can be completed in a
factory setting. Providing a controlled environment has a host of benefits including quality
control, safety, and labor costs. These benefits will be discussed in greater detail in upcoming
sections. Despite its many rewards, a factory work environment has the potential to conflict
with regional union agreements.
Off-site construction has caused concern among some labor unions. One concern is the reduced
crew size. At the Atlantic Yards B2 project in Brooklyn, NY, it is estimated that 190 fabrication
workers will be needed to complete construction of approximately 930 modules in the factory
(Bagli, 2011). At the Miami Valley Hospital project in Dayton, OH, only 18 factory workers were
needed to preassemble 178 patients rooms (Post, 2010). Another concern is factory location,
which might invite owners to set up modular construction factories in states or areas with
lower labor costs, and then ship the finished modules to the more expensive area for site
assembly (Kastenbaum, 2012). In the case of Atlantic Yards, a union agreement is needed prior
to securing a bank loan (Post, 2010) and as such might be a topic of consideration on other
modular construction undertakings.
The Swedish Edmonds Cancer Center, a 2-story modular construction project in Seattle, has not
encountered any issues with union agreements. As Pete Maslenikov, the project manager
21

overseeing construction on that project explains, although signatory to unions, the contractor
does not produce the module; the manufacturer is responsible for who works on its factory
floor.
Redundant Materials

When two separate modules are stitched up to form two separate units, the potential for
redundant materials exists. For instance, if two apartment units are stitched together, both
come prefabricated with partition assemblies. When those two apartments are placed next to
each other, there is now a double partition. This is great in terms of acoustic control, but for
larger projects, especially in an urban setting where space is limited, critical useable space is
lost (Cameron and Di Carlo, 2007).
Another example of redundant materials is additional structural material needed for hoisting
the modules into place. Andrew Morrow, of Morrow Equipment, states that the module may
need to be reinforced with temporary structural elements due to connection stresses.
Fabrication Costs

Although it operates on a shorter timeline, and assembly workers in a factory setting are often
paid less than on-site laborers, modular construction can have comparable or even more
expensive fabrication costs (Schoenborn, 2012). Manufacturing facilities require overhead for
utilities, equipment, and overall maintenance, which can affect pricing. Manufacturing facilities
are not always used at full capacity. Additionally, there is a potential for higher material costs,
especially due to transportation issues. It is possible for finished items to become damaged if
they are not properly secured during shipment. Project teams may need to keep an attic stock
of materials to replace damaged items on site.
2.4.2. Design and Coordination

This section examines and discusses potential cost constraints caused by, or affecting, the
design and coordination of modular construction.
Design

With modular construction, a majority of the design must be completed prior to the start of
construction. A strong and complete design can help organize the flow and work of trades
within the modular factory. Although there is a heavy push for up-front designs and
coordination, design fees for modular construction are typically comparable to on-site
construction, with a few minor exceptions. According to Scott LeBenz, principal at
GroupArchitect, MEP costs can be higher because Labor and Industries requires plans to be
submitted rather than relying on design-build during construction. Another area involving the
potential for increased costs involves how RFIs are handled during modular construction
projects. Because of the faster pace of fabrication in the factory, design decisions need to be
made upfront or run the risk of stopping construction, and delaying the schedule.

22

One way to potentially offset design delays and subsequent scheduling issues is to prepare a
full mock-up. Mock-ups allow the project team to predict the outcome of the modular units
design and construction to a high degree of certainty (Garrison and Tweedie, 2011). Mock-ups
can be produced at a much lower cost than with on-site construction mock-ups, and typically
take around a month to complete. With on-site construction, a mock-up does not replicate the
process, rather the end result. With modular construction, however, the process is prototyped
along with the actual module, which allows for a smoother process going forward.
VDC/BIM

Because of a faster construction schedule and multitrade setting in prefabrication factories,

modular construction requires a meticulous level of coordination and management. Having the
capability to use BIM on modular projects is essential. Helen Juan, VDC/BIM Manager at
Skanska USA, states that modeling plays an important and critical role in design coordination; a
seamless and efficient design, especially when unique assemblies or heavy MEP work are
involved, helps cut down on defects and construction scheduling times.
Firms using modular construction are typically higher users of BIM. One survey, conducted by
McGraw-Hill Construction, shows that of the respondents who have used modular construction,
78% use BIM on other projects; of the respondents who have not used modular construction,
only 48% use BIM (McGraw-Hill, 2011).
2.4.3. Transportation and Logistics

There are cost considerations and constraints relating directly to transportation and logistics,
primarily including modular size and shipping distance. These issues are discussed specifically in
both the Transportation and Logistics sections of this report.
Staging Area

It is important for a modular construction project to also have an area where the modules can
be unwrapped and prepped. If there is no room to store and prep units on site, a separate
staging area will be required. Costs for the space, security, and staff are dependent on the size
of the project, but should be considered while preparing a logistics plan.

23

2.5.

Codes

Washington State Legislature oversees the codes for both site-built and factory-built housing.
Generally, the standards call for the same code requirements for factory-built as compared to
site-built development.
Additionally local government amendments and special rulings may apply to the adopted
codes. These are listed on the websites of the relevant local government agencies (Department
of Planning & Development for Seattle) and also on the website of the State Building Code
Council (SBCC, an advisory board setup to advise on amendments where necessary), if they are
residential single/multi-family properties.
For factory-built housing and commercial structures, the codes are defined by the Washington
State legislature Washington Administrative Code (WAC) and Revised Code of Washington
(RCW) - as follows:
1) The State Building Code (Chapter 19.27 RCW)
2) The Energy Related Building Standards (Chapter 19.27A RCW; Seattle Energy Code)
3) The National Electrical Code (Chapter 19.28 RCW; Chapter 296-46B WAC)
The State Building Code is listed by the SBCC and is the minimum construction requirement for
the State of Washington. The SBCC has the power to amend codes and is defined as the
following documents:

2009 International Building Code with statewide amendments

ICC/ANSI A117.1-03, Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities, with statewide
amendments
2009 International Residential Code with statewide amendments
2009 International Mechanical Code with statewide amendments
2008 Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code (NFPA 58)
2009 International Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54) for LP Gas
2009 International Fire Code with statewide amendments
2009 Uniform Plumbing Code with statewide amendments
2009 Washington State Energy Code
2008 National Electrical Code (NFPA 70)

The state codes may have local government amendments which are required by law in RCW
19.27.074. They are listed here on the SBCC website. The amendments are required to cater
for:

Climatic conditions that are unique to the jurisdiction.

Geologic or seismic conditions that are unique to the jurisdiction.
Environmental impacts such as noise, dust, etc., that are unique to the jurisdiction.
24

Life, health, or safety conditions that are unique to the local jurisdiction.
Other special conditions that are unique to the jurisdiction.

The site specific local government planning/codes website should be checked prior to beginning
a new project. For instance there are local government amendments to date on 38 topics in
Seattle. The local government website also lists other changes that may be enacted.
Note every 3 years new codes are released, and the SBCC may recommend the uptake of
updated codes. In 2013 this may be as designated in the following website:
https://fortress.wa.gov/ga/apps/sbcc/Page.aspx?nid=203
It is noted that while the factory-built housing/commercial structure needs to meet the
guidelines in the State Building Code, National Electrical Code and Energy Code, it must be
tailored specific to the relevant county in which the site is located. Hence, the code
requirement for any particular modular building is the same as that for site built. The
enforcement of the code and inspections is conducted by Department of Labor and Industries
(L&I) for construction in the factory and by Department of Planning and Development (DPD) for
construction on site in Seattle.
2.5.1. Mechanical

The International Mechanical Code 2009 governs Mechanical systems installed in buildings in
Seattle. The reference mechanical code document can be found at the following link:
http://ecodes.biz/ecodes_support/free_resources/Seattle2009/09seattle_mechanical/09seattl
e_mechanical_main.htm
The Washington legislature has made several slight amendments for statewide uses which can
be found at: https://fortress.wa.gov/ga/apps/sbcc/Page.aspx?nid=14
Some of considerations with respect to mechanical code include:
The mechanical systems require a permit for work except for that designated by 115.2.1
and 115.2.2 in the Code.
If the cost of the mechanical systems in the module exceeds $50,000 a registered and
licensed mechanical engineer is required to inspect, stamp and sign each sheet of the
construction documents.
Inspections governed by section 119 of the code do not make a requirement for a cover
inspection but doing this would be ideal for practical purposes.
There are requirements for testing equipment, for example Refrigeration equipment
(under Chapter 11) and Fuel oil piping.
Under section 119.5, approvals are required (i.e., written approval needs to be obtained
and the code official satisfied) before the next successive step can commence.

25

Factory

As mentioned earlier, L&Is mechanical inspector is the code official for inspection of factorybuilt mechanical systems.
Construction Site

Several requirements are noted in here from the Seattle Mechanical Code:
The Code official is the director of the DPD.
According to the Section 104.5: Application to Existing Mechanical Systems - Moved
Buildings, no building can be moved into the City unless, prior to moving, the code
official has inspected the building for compliance with its code and the permit holder has
agreed to correct all the deficiencies found and has been issued a building permit for the
work.
2.5.2. Electrical
Factory

Chapter 19.28 RCW is the State code that applies to electrical systems of modular prefab
housing in factory construction: http://apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=19.28
Hence, the factory installation of electrical is the same as that on site and the following
considerations are applicable:

The National Electrical Code applies.

Energy code and Fire Code requirements need to be met.
A permit is required with some exceptions (but there is no minimum amount of dollar
worth for electrical and hence, it is more onerous than mechanical).
Workers must be licensed electricians, or else a registered electrical contractor.
In the Puget Sound region, 85% of contractors are signatories to the electrical union,
hence shop wages apply for the majority of this work. This was noted in an interview
with Tommy Key, a National Electrical Contractors Associations (NECA) representative
Inspections (and testing): by L&I (under RCW 19.28.321) cover inspections and final
inspections, and an inspection on site before the utilities are connected and current is
activated.

Construction Site

The Code official for electrical systems on site is the Director of the DPD. The National Electrical
Code amended for Seattle notes the following related to movable buildings:

Section 80.4. Application to Existing Buildings (E) Moved Buildings: Electrical permits
for electrical work performed on a building or a structure moved into or within the City
shall be obtained from the authority having jurisdiction. The authority having jurisdiction
26

will inspect the electrical system for deficiencies and issue corrections. Deficiencies shall
be corrected before a certificate of occupancy will be issued.
The service to the moved building needs to comply with the code, whereas if the
original occupancy classification of the bldg. has not changed it does not need to comply
with the code unless it is substantially different.
Section 80.50 Permits A permit is required for installation/extension/connection of
any electrical equipment in a building. Part of obtaining a permit is submission of plans
which meet the National Electrical Code and comply with the Seattle Energy Code (2
copies of plans & specs need to be submitted. They must indicate with clarity the
electrical items noted in 80.52. (Plans and Specifications e.g. circuits, switchboards
schedules and layouts, grounding equipment, telecommunications equipment).
Additionally, the Seattle Fire Code must be met requiring review by the Seattle Fire
Department. If the site is in a flood zone it is subject to floodplain ordinance.
Section: 80.52 Permits Issuance The authority having jurisdiction may issue a permit
for the installation of part of the electrical system of a building or structure before
complete plans for the whole building or structure have been submitted or approved,
provided adequate information and detailed statements have been filed complying with
all pertinent requirements of this Code. Holders of such permits may proceed at their
own risk without assurance that the permit for the entire building or structure will be
granted.
Inspections at the L&I and DPD end need to satisfy 80.54 Inspections which means:
(1)The authority having jurisdiction is authorized to conduct cover inspections when all
of the following work has been completed:
(a) All piping, ducts, plumbing and like installations of other trades which are liable to
interfere or run in close proximity to the electrical installation are permanently in place
and inspected, but prior to any work to cover or conceal any installation of electrical
equipment, and;
(b) Electrical equipment grounding (boxes, equipment, conductors and provisions for
grounding receptacles, etc.) for all systems shall be completely made-up.
(c) For conduit systems, after all conduit has been installed and properly secured to the
structure.
(2) Final Inspection. The authority having jurisdiction is authorized to conduct a final
inspection after all wiring has been completed and all permanent fixtures such as
switches, outlet receptacles, plates, electric hot-water tanks, lighting fixtures and all
other equipment has been properly installed. The permit holder shall call for a final
inspection when the work described on the permit has been completed.
Persons, firms, partnerships, corporations, or other entities making electrical
installations shall obtain inspection and approval from an authorized representative of
the department as required by this chapter before requesting the electric utility to
connect to the installations.

27

2.5.3. Plumbing

In Washington, the 2008 Universal Plumbing Code (UPC) edition is adopted; except for any
provisions of such codes affecting sewers or fuel gas piping. L&I and DPD enforce exactly the
same requirements as above. Here are some main considerations:
A permit is required for plumbing work (under 103.1); except for repairs of stoppages,
leaks, etc.
Plumbing requires that contractors must be licensed plumbers or registered plumbing
contractors (Chapter 18.106 RCW PLUMBERS).
Plans need to be provided with engineering calculations, diagrams, specs reviewed and
approved.
Inspections need to occur before the system is covered (see further below)
Testing of Systems is required. Plumbing systems need to be tested and approved by the
Authority having jurisdiction.
Some of inspection requirements for moved buildings which might be applicable to modular
housing too are as below:

103.5.1.1 Inspection. No water supply system or portion thereof shall be covered or

concealed until it first has been tested, inspected, and approved.
103.5.1.2 Scope. New plumbing work and such portions of existing systems as may be
affected by new work, or any changes, shall be inspected by the Authority Having
Jurisdiction to ensure compliance with the requirements of this code and to ensure that
the installation and construction of the plumbing system is in accordance with approved
plans.
103.5.1.3 Covering or Using. No plumbing or drainage system, building sewer, Private
sewer disposal system, or part thereof, shall be covered, concealed, or put into use until
it has been tested, inspected, and accepted as prescribed in this code.

28

2.6.

Permitting and Inspections

This section summarizes the process for permitting and inspections of mid-rise modular
apartment development in Seattle, WA. The section outlines the steps that are needed in order
to obtain approval from both the State Department of Labor and Industries and the Seattle
Department of Planning and Development. In the appendix B of this report, there are two
tables which compare different types of factory-constructed structures and the requirements
for each type. Lastly, the diagram at the end is an attempt to understand the process as a
streamlined system.
2.6.1. Permitting

Before installing a factory-installed structure on-site you have to apply for a building permit
from the Seattle Department of Planning and Developments Applicants Service Center (located
on the 20th floor of Seattle Municipal Tower). Along with the application you must supply two
sets of plans and specifications for the factory-constructed structure and provide verification
of design and construction approval from the Department of Labor and Industries. You also
need to include any foundation details and a site plan of the site showing the location of the
factory-constructed structure in relation to setbacks and yard requirements that should be
noted on the document in order to guarantee compliance with the Seattle Land Use Code.
It is important to note that only the building plans, and not the factory in which the modules are
built, have to be certified. In addition, the installation permit does not cover any additions or
extra structures constructed on-site (i.e. porch, deck or garage) unless specifically included in
the L&I initial approvals. In order to gain permitting you either have to include these in initial
application to the Seattle DPD or in an additional building permit application.
Other permits are issued through different agencies:
Curb cuts for the creation of new driveways an additional permit must be acquired from
the Seattle Department of Planning and Development.
Gas-powered appliances require a separate permit for gas piping must be acquired from
the Seattle-King County Department of Public Health.
Plumbing permit is granted by the Seattle-King County Department of Public Health.
Service connections are issued by Seattle City Lights. Furthermore, if there is any
excavation, then a DPD Construction Stormwater Control Plan and/or a Drainage Plan is
required.
Sewer hookup a side sewer permit from the DPD is required.
In the case of an Environmentally Critical Area (ECA), then a plan review is required and
the foundation plan is required to be designed by a licensed structural engineer and
approved by geotechnical engineer that is licensed in the State of Washington. Also, a
soil report must be prepared by the geotechnical engineer.

29

2.6.2. Inspections

Factory-built buildings will generally need inspections and approval by 2 layers of authorities
the Department of Labor & Industries (L&I) and secondly, at the local government level
(Department of Planning and Development (DPD), for Seattle) (figure 4).

Figure 4. Factory (by L&I) and on-site (by DPD) inspection procedure

Inspection in Factory by L&I

Modular construction for residential and non-residential use is approved by the Department of
Labor and Industries (L&I) with issuance of serial number and a gold seal insignia certifying that
the project meets the standards of the Washington State Building Code. These structures are
regulated by state standards for housing body and frame construction as determined by state
law. As mentioned in the previous section, standards are outlined in the Washington
Administrative Code 296.150B and the structure must comply with Washington State Building,
the Mechanical, the Plumbing, and the Energy codes and must be placed on a permanent
foundation conforming to Seattle Building Code (SBC). The gold insignia must be placed on or
near the meter base or where electrical service enters the structure. Further, any alterations
made before occupancy must be approved by the L&I. After occupancy, it is up to the local
jurisdiction to approve any alterations.
In order to get approval from the Department of Labor and Industries, you have to submit two
sets of plans and specifications for the factory-constructed structure. Once everything is
submitted, assuming there are no revisions, the approximate time for approval is 5 to 6 weeks.
This approximation is based off of what it may take for a 5 story structure. There have not been
enough, if any, reviews of mid-rise modular apartment building for more specific estimates for
a review of taller structures.

30

According to the Washington State Legislature of factory-built housing/commercial

structures14, the inspection and approval process at the L&I level can be summarized as below:
1. There is no statutory requirement for plans to be approved prior to construction in the
factory, however it makes practical sense that the plans are complete as possible and
approved, as these are what the inspection is based off and no insignia is provided
without
sighting
approved
plans
in
the
factory
(see
http://apps.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=296-150F-0500
2. Construction occurs in line with the code complying plans.
3. Inspection consists of Design Approval and Physical Inspection.
4. DESIGN APPROVAL of the plan is required PRIOR to the final inspection.
Design approval consists of:
A completed approval request form
Payment of fees filing fee + design plan fee (see fee discussion)
Two complete sets of design plans, specs and engineering analysis. One of the
sets needs to have the original wet stamp from the Professional Engineer or
Architect licensed in WA the stamped set will be retained by the L&I.
Engineering analysis needs to show the structural design meets the code.
A key drawing showing arrangement of the modules if there are 3 or more.
For specific building types (Hospitals, institutional, health care) - electrical plans
showing review - electrical plan review is part of the inspection process.
Other items.
5. The L&I inspection will be at the factory (and may require multiple inspections) and
occurs prior to occupation, whereas the local government inspects on-site following
occupation. This includes:
a. Checks of insulation and vapor barrier
b. Other required code inspections.
c. L&I inspection of the unit needs to occur BEFORE the walls are covered this
ensures mechanical, electrical, plumbing, structural systems are checked.
6. After plans are finally approved, a final inspection is carried out
7. The L&I inspector has authority to approve/deny the insignia.
8. Inspection by the L&I needs to occur on site if the module/component is damaged in
transit.
Inspection on Site

After placing the factory-constructed structure on site, you have to schedule an on-site
inspection with the Seattle Department of Planning and Development. They must ensure that
the structure is properly sited and that it meets all applicable code requirements. Manufacturer
instructions must be on site for the inspector to review and reference during inspection.

14

http://apps.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=296-150F
31

Requirements for Inspection on Site

The Department of Planning and Development (DPD) is in charge of inspecting: yard and
setback requirements, the permanent foundation, electrical hookup, site grading, side sewer,
storm water control used during construction and installation, and any required infiltration pit
or commercial parking lot drainage.
The Seattle Transportation Department inspects any driveway or curb cuts. Public Utilities
inspect the water hookup. And the Seattle-King County Department of Public Health inspects
plumbing and gas piping.
The inspection process at DPD level can be summarized as below:
1. The relevant developer/contractor engages a design professional who can design to the
required code design is developed to the codes
2. Applications for the land use/planning permit as per the DPD website procedures. The
land-use needs to go through the Design Review panel.
3. Land use permit provided
4. Building Permit issued
5. After approval, construction commences on site and in factory
6. Modular components shipped to site
7. DPD (the local government agency) receives a notification from the L&I which:
a. Specifies what connections, standards, and incomplete items the local enforcement
agency must check when the unit is installed; and/or
b. Estimates the expected time of arrival of the factory-built house or commercial
structure to the site.
8. L&I may need to inspect the unit if it is damaged in transit.
9. DPD may refer items to other departments e.g. Fire Code compliance is monitored by
the Seattle Fire Department, whereas the Uniform Plumbing Code is enforced by Seattle
King County Public Health. For some elements, e.g. Fire Code, the codes nominate the
relevant agency which will be the approving authority, and in other cases it is simply
mentioned as the Approving Authority.
10. DPD cannot open up the walls to inspect the module i.e. concealed construction of the
unit cannot be compromised if the insignia is attached.
2.6.3. Costs/Fees

At the DPD stage, costs and fees include permitting, development and construction permits for
on-site work. At the L&I stage, the costs are delineated by WAC 15. Typically the cost is based on
a standard formula and does not take into account more expensive or less expensive
construction methods. It will be:
1. Building Permit Fees:
15

http://apps.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=296-150F-3000
32

a. Determined by a table of square footage rate of construction costs and standard

tiers
b. For $1,000,000, this is $5,608.75 for the first $1,000,000 plus $3.65 for each
additional $1,000.00, or fraction thereof;
i. Hence approximately 0.5% of the standard project cost and lower.
2. Additive to miscellaneous fees for design review:
a. Structural Plan Review fee
i. One year design: 35% of building permit fee
ii. Master Plan Review: 50% of building permit fee (min 2.5hrs @ $85.50/hr)
b. Fire and Life safety review (required for all structures > 4000 sqft)
i. One year design: 15% of building permit fee
ii. Master Plan Design 25% of building permit fee
c. Plumbing plan review fee ($18 + $6/fixture)
d. Electrical Plan inspection and review16
i. For Commercial/Industrial: Determined by feeders/service first one @
$100 + 50 per extra feeder/service
ii. For multi-family: first one @ $60 + $6 per extra per circuit
iii. Progress inspections: $45/half hour
iv. Electrical plan review: 35% of work permit fee + $74 (submission fee)
e. Design renewal or submission: both charged for @ 10% bldg. permit + $85.50
3. Notification fee to Local Agency (e.g. to DPD; $37)
4. Insignia fee: $273.40
As a rough guide, these fees can add up to 1-2% of the total construction cost. It should be
investigated whether DPD-level inspection would result in a double up on the fees or whether
the DPD fees will cover the value of substructure construction only.

16

http://apps.leg.wa.gov/WAC/default.aspx?cite=296-46B-906
33

2.7.

Labor, Skills and Unions

Selection of the right project team is of significant importance for the successful delivery of
modular buildings. In addition, hiring union versus non-union labors is associated with cost and
quality implications.
2.7.1. Project Teaming

The consultant selection process can be more difficult with modular construction than with
traditional on-site construction in many markets (Cameron and Di Carlo, 2007). It is important
to work with consultants familiar with modular construction. With on-site construction, it is
relatively simple to visit a completed project to gain an understanding of quality. With modular
construction, it can be more challenging, primarily because there are not as many completed
projects. The Pacific Northwest does not have the same experience level with modular
construction as Europe or even the east coast, and therefore finding firms with the necessary
experience and expertise can be a challenge in this region. In particular, structural and MEP
engineering requires specialized knowledge (Garrison and Tweedie, 2011), and should be
vetted.
2.7.2. Skilled Labor

With most traditional on-site construction, the contractor is able to select which subcontractors
it will use, either based on cost, qualifications, or both. With modular construction, however, it
is typical for the contractor to not have control over which teams are used in the factory. Paetra
Orueta, project manager for Blazer Industries Inc., a manufacturing company, explains that in
their employees are full-time, rather than seasonal or employed on a per project basis. Some
employees specialize in certain construction techniques, and some are general construction
laborers. Orueta also states that specialty work can be subcontracted if it is extensive, or highly
time sensitive. In Blazers experience, they have found that some of these extensive
components can be completed at lower costs, and often more efficiently, by specialty
subcontractors. Costs and quality are weighed when decided between using staff labor or
subcontractors.
One significant benefit to using skilled labor in an open-shop factory setting is that each worker
has the potential to work on multiple trades. Multi-trade labor helps reduce crew size since a
worker can, for example, finish and paint drywall.
2.7.3. Unions

To understand union constraints, it is worthwhile to study how the issue is handled at the
Atlantic Yards project in New York. The union agreement for Atlantic Yards is consider to be
one of the most exciting innovations of the project.
The Atlantic Yards is a 6.5 million square foot development in Brooklyn, New York. The B2
portion of the project is a residential high rise poised to be the worlds largest modular building.
For unions and union activists, the project equates to the promise of jobs for members.
34

However, estimates have placed job creation around 190 if work can be prefabricated. The
potential loss of union jobs and wages had an effect on project financing, which has caused
construction delays. Mary Anne Gilmartin, director of commercial and residential development
for Forest City Ratner Cos., the sites developer, stated, "We need an agreement with labor
before we can get a bank loan, and [we] are working on both (Post, 2011). Currently, it is
reported that union labor will be used in the prefabrication factory, to a significant cost savings.
Union and Open Shop Labor

Union work ensures a quality end product; however, it is more expensive than open shop labor.
In 2012, after fringes and taxes, union rates for electricians and carpenters in Seattle are close
to $60 an hour. A union ironworker is close to $70.
Eric Franklin, of Carpenters Local 131, states that if non-union labor is used in a factory, to
remain mindful of the following:

Ensure the factories are using licensed workers to perform technical trades (MEP trades)
Ensure that an actual, licensed supervisor is signing off on the work.
Ensure that workers are documented.
Ensure safety is a priority. Modular construction is often touted as a safer construction
option, which can precipitate lax safety attitudes and practices. Franklin reiterated that
a factory is still a dangerous setting, with dangerous tools and situations.

Franklin also went on to state that due to the nature of factory work versus on-site construction
work, pay scales for union workers would be adjusted and ultimately cost less. This is similar to
Atlantic Yards estimates and finding, where a union carpenter who earns $85 an hour on site
might only earn $35 an hour in a factory (Chaban, 2011). Tommy Key, of the National Electrical
Contractors Association, however, states that at the moment electricians base rate is not lower
in a factory setting, but since fewer overall hours are worked, costs tend to be lower.
For contractors that are signatory to union labor, agreements need to be honored and
implemented during factory work if the contractor or one of its entities owns the factory.
However, when purchasing materials, in this case a module, from a vendor, the vendor is
responsible for the decision to use a union or non-labor workforce. For the on-site portion of
modular construction, such as stitch-up and finishing mate lines, union contracts need to be
honored by signatory contractors.
This is a sensitive issue, and one that is likely to be clarified further as modular construction
gains in popularity.

35

2.8.

Architectural Design and Delivery

This section is a list of constraints on the innovation and progress of modular construction from
an architectural design and delivery perspective. This review includes constraints outlined in
previous sections and here we articulate how and in what ways these constraints impact the
design process.
An analysis of case studies demonstrated some of the process constraints associated with use
of modular construction methods, which are discussed in more detail in the following
subsection, and are as follows:

The amount of planning needed in the upfront design process, may be increased if the
architect is not familiar with modular construction constraints.
As compared to typical construction, there is an increased need for project coordination
between architect and manufacturer and general contractor.
Design is constrained by and has to account for the methods of shipping the modules
from factory to the site.
The module size and shape are fairly inflexible.

2.8.1. Pre-planning

First, the amount of pre-planning associated with modular construction is much greater than
the development of on-site construction. According to conversations with John Harvey, IPIA
Administrator and FAS Plan Review Supervisor for the Washington State Department of Labor
and Industries, by the time documents are submitted to the state they should at least be in
Construction Document phase. (An argument will be made later on in this report suggesting
that architect and manufacturer collaborate to produce a single set of shop drawing to enlist
the manufacturer in optimizing the design for fabrication and construction).
2.8.2. Procurement Methods

There are four standard routes that the client may take when going through the process
of construction procurement for modular construction: design-bid-build, negotiate bid, designbuild, and strategic partnering (Garrison and Tweedie 2011). The first method known as designbid-build is the most conventional method in which the project is designed by the architect and
then bid among competing builders. While this is the standard method used, it does not take
advantage of the collaboration process between the architect and the manufacturer. Next, in
negotiate bid, the architect and client team work with a modular manufacturer from the
beginning of design and ideally a great amount of collaboration occurs in which manufacturers
standards are used as known constraints in the design process. In design-build the client and
the modular manufacturer enter into a single contract where the modular manufacturer can
either undergo the design process in house or involve an outside architect who completes
documents created by the modular manufacturer in-house. Finally strategic partnering is when

36

a client procures a modular manufacturer for an extended period of time to complete multiple
projects.
There is a vital need for collaboration of architect and manufacturer in the design process of
modular buildings. The benefits of this collaboration include:
1. Estimates in the early stages of the design process can provide more accurate pricing
than in typical building.
2. Greater transparency and understanding of means and methods of construction results
in ability to monitor work quality more efficiently.
3. Collaboration on Construction Documents provides integration of manufacturers
methods into design and eliminates some of the drawing redundancy associated with
construction methods. Combination of construction documents with shop drawings
further streamlines process.
There are three different ways in which collaboration between the architect and the
manufacturer may occur. In the first method the architect produces the set of construction
drawings and then from this set the manufacturer will produce the shop drawings. This method
does not take full advantage of the collaboration discussed earlier in this paper. Next, the
manufacturer may be involved from the beginning in an advising role and then will begin to
produce drawings at a stage in between final design development and construction documents.
Finally, if using a design-build method the architect may produce bridging documents that are
given to the manufacturer to complete in house.
While collaboration from the start is the preferred method for modular construction, often
times the decision to use modular construction is only made after the design process is
finished. In this case the general contractor or owner decides that they would like to use
modular construction methods. Accordingly, the completed design drawings are translated into
modular construction that maintains the plan layout and the look of the facade. This is
mentioned in order to demonstrate that the constraints associated with modular housing
construction are not always considered in early design development but can still be worked into
the project.
2.8.3. Some Issues to Be Considered in the Design Process
Shipping Methods

As previously mentioned in the transportation section of this report, physical constraints that
should be taken into account during the initial design process include the limitations of modular
size and weight that are in accordance with designated shipping method and path of
procurement. By deciding methods of construction early on in the design process, overall
dimensions of modular size and structural methods can be established. One of the most limiting
factors is the height of the shipping container in which the module is transported. As a result,
ceiling heights are almost consistently limited to 12 feet high. Width and length are also subject
to transportation constraints.
37

Inflexibility of Modular Unit and Design Implications

Also, the inflexibility of the modular unit has to be considered. While modules can be combined
in order to create larger spaces, the shape is governed by the standard module size and shape.
Also, the module designs tend to create structural redundancy. The goal of optimization of the
system should be taken into account and perhaps leverage for acoustics in the design process.
Interior Openings

The size of a typical module structure results in a typical opening dimension of 8-0. However,
openings as wide as 9-6 are possible without any modifications. If a clear span opening is
desired, there are a couple choices of ways in which to modify the module in order to create
the desired effect. Clear span openings can be achieved by: increasing beam depth,
incorporating of interstitial truss modules, or welding frames across mate line.
Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing Systems

Because of the nature of modular construction, a decentralized MEP system is the most
common form of distribution. One reason for a decentralized system is because of the
limitations on the ceiling height of modules which does not allow enough room for these
system to be placed within the ceiling. Also, by decentralizing the system and treating each
module as more or less self-contained, the architect can play with alternative design choices of
component interaction. Thirdly, decentralization also allows for a higher quality of
environmental control within each module (Garrison and Tweedie, 2011).
It is important for the architect to note that hookups are connected after the module is placed
on site, requiring field access. This can be accomodated by the removal of floor or wall panels
and should be integrated into the design of interior and exterior finishes.

38

2.9.

Regional manufacturing

As part of our investigation, we examined the capabilities required for a regional manufacturer
of modules and idenified some of the major regional players.
2.9.1. Inside Factory
The Factory Environment

There are two typical types of manufacturing processes, an assembly line and static production.
In an assembly line, the product moves through different stations while fabrication is complete.
In static production, the workers move to the module. A benefit to the static assembly option is
that it mimics a typical jobsite. A benefit to an assembly line process is that any mistakes are
identified earlier than in the static production process (Cameron and Di Carlo, 2007).
Capabilities

Manufacturers output capabilities depend on the size of the facility and the overall design of
the modules. Production varies between 100 single-family homes a year at smaller fabrication
warehouses, to 12,000 square feet a day at some of the larger facilities (Cameron and Di Carlo,
2007). At the Marysville, Washington location of Whitley Manufacturing, they typically employ
35 to 70 skilled workers, depending on the project. Another factor to consider when assessing a
factorys capabilities is whether they specialize in wood or steel construction. Many
manufacturers in the Pacific Northwest use wood framing, and transportation costs may
increase if a factory in a different geographical region is selected.
It is also possible for larger developers and contractors to start and run their own factory. Gene
Rega, preconstruction director at Skanska, states that the manufacturing facility used at Atlantic
Yards B2 will be a Skanska-owned facility.
Finishes and Stitch-Up

The goal of modular construction is to complete as much as possible in the factory setting.
Units are typically shipped at 60% - 80% finished. There will still be, however, requirements for
on-site construction trades, to attach and seam the units when put in place, especially
depending on the level of finish completed in manufacturing. In addition to site preparation and
foundation work, there are common components that would not typically be completed in the
factory. There is a higher probability for damage to these areas if they were completed early,
but more importantly, it is difficult to design these components with the necessary matching
seams and lines needed for stitch-up. These areas commonly include:

Flooring Finishes
Ceiling Finishes
Casework
Exterior Cladding

39

Given that it is sometimes difficult to align factory installed finishes once on-site, consideration
can be made whether to completely install them on-site, or to partially install them in the
factory. Manufacturers are able to finish a majority of the module, leaving mate-lines
unfinished so they can be completed and aligned in the field. On-site workers will be needed to
stitch-up the modules. Jessica Fabro, at OneBuild in Seattle, states that a good estimate to use
for conceptual cost estimates is approximately $1,500 per module.
2.9.2. Manufacturers

Part of the study involved canvassing the current market for regional manufacturers involved in
the prefabricated modular scene. We have specifically avoided looking at manufactured home
builders as these specialize predominantly in single-family homes, which is a rather well
established market and not the main focus of this study.
To determine the main modular manufacturers within the industry we relied on several
resources including the main body representing the interests of the industry, the Modular
Building Institute (MBI), informal networks with parties involved in the construction industry,
and internet searching. We found that in the local Seattle region the industry is very much in its
infancy. The players headquartered in Seattle are mainly new companies (started within the
last 5 years). Such names include OneBuild (est. 2010), Sustainable Living Innovations (est.
2008) and Method Homes (est. 2007). Whilst Seattle does not have any large home-grown
modular manufacturers, that is not to say that modular projects are not happening in Seattle.
Rather, it seems to be that the established operators that are active in Seattle are based in
other states within the Pacific Northwest such as Idaho, Oregon and across the border in British
Columbia.
Some of the companies operating within the Pacific Northwest in the multi-family market
include:
1. Guerdon (Idaho-based)
2. Whitley Industries (Indiana-based but with a factory in Washington formerly
Evergreen
3. Blazer Industries (Oregon-based)
4. Sustainable Living Innovations (Seattle-based)
5. One Build (Seattle-based)
6. Method Homes (Seattle-based)
7. Britco (based in British Columbia)
8. Shelter Industries (based in British Columbia)
We have provided company profiles on 6 of these players. The manufacturers specifically
addressed are those doing/those have previously done multi-family projects within the Seattle
region. The manufacturing profile detail manufacturing capabilities, project history and
construction methods.
Table 4. Major Regional Modular Manufacturers
40

Distance
from Seattle
(Mile)

Production Cost
per sqft

No. of
Modules per
month

First module
Manufacturing
time

Typical
Module size

Construction
Material

Guerdon

510

N/A

100

7 days

N/A

Wood frame

Whitley

40

65-500

12-16

N/A

14 x 60-66

All

Blazer

230

N/A

60

N/A

14 x 64

All

SLI

N/A

N/A

N/A

N/A

Steel frame

One Build

450

75-150

30

12 days

15 x 60-68

Wood, Steel
and SIPs

Method Homes

100

150

~3-4

1.5 months

16 x 65

Wood frame

National players which have performed significant projects outside of the northwest but which
have held discussions with local players include modular companies such as Warrior Group of
Texas. Both Hensel Phelps and Absher Construction have held discussions with Warrior Group
of Texas, who is a significant player nationally. Hensel Phelps was the GC on a major 1.6 million
square foot multi-family project (in Texas) involving Warrior Group as the modular supplier.
In addition, the Canadian companies are well developed in the prefab modular industry. A
strong reason for this may be the fact that initially the oil and mining industry in remote regions
of Canada have driven prefab modular demand, and this form of construction technology has
flowed onto less remote regions of Canada. As a result, both Shelter and Britco seem to be
established players in their respective fields exporting to the USA and Asia.
General Contractors do not equate to Modular Manufacturers:
A majority of these contractors specialize in only the manufacturing side of projects. They are
not the main developers nor are they the general contractor. Hence on any given project, they
are usually subcontracted to the General Contractor.
We informally interviewed the representatives of a number of general contractors in Seattle to
confirm industry opinions on prefab modular. The companies included:

Absher Construction
Lease Crutcher Lewis
Walsh Construction Company (Seattle)
Howard S Wright/Balfour Beatty
Hensel Phelps
Rushforth Construction

Of the above names, Walsh, Absher, Howard S Wright and Hensel Phelps have recently
completed or are in the midst of construction for modular prefab projects; usually with a
modular manufacturer as a partner. An interesting question is why the general contractor has
41

not generally been the same company as the prefab modular manufacturer. Several dominant
reasons exist for this in Seattle which have been informed with discussions with modular
manufacturers and general contractors:
1. Newer smaller companies, such as One Build, do not have sufficient bonding capacity
(which can be 5-10% of the project value) and hence, cannot post a bond for the
purposes of a large project in its entirety.
2. General Contractors have much more on-site expertise and hence lower costs in doing
the site works than the modular manufacturers, hence the modular manufacturers do
not generally perform site work.
3. Small to mid-size general contractors seem unwilling to take the risk of new technology
and construction systems such as modular prefab unless there is significant proven
benefits and demand for the modular construction type a wait and see approach.
Hence, subcontracting allows the shifting of risk to those who have the most expertise.
4. Inherently developers being the financiers and hence owners of projects have driven the
process of the project design. They have decision-making ability and often drive the
decisions to use modular manufacturing. General contractors are generally risk averse.
Developers in adopting modular are led by market demand for modular apartments, but
the flipside is perhaps that lack of understanding of the process has held back modular
adoption by developers.
5. Designers have been the drivers for construction innovation, and play a critical role in
specifying the modular construction methods for a project.
Whilst we have found that the general contractor side has been somewhat reluctant to
embrace prefab modular in its entirety we do note that prefabrication has been utilized it to
some extent in a smaller capacity, e.g. precast panels, or panelized/assembly based systems,
prefab of MEP.

Manufacturer: One Build

City/State/Country
Seattle, WA

Total no. of completed projects

1 (senior housing in Vancouver)

Experience (yrs)
2 (previously operated as Transform
and IBS) established 2010
Extent of completion
85%
Module dimensions
68ft length x 15ft wide x12ft high

Address:
1326 Fifth Ave, Suite 459
Seattle, WA 98101
For information and photos, click here.

Capacity (module/yr)
1/day (after the first 12 days lead up
time)
Project type:
Multi-family, Hotels
Structural type:
Wood frame modules, Light Gauge
and SIPs also possible
Tel:
(206) 801 1675

Overview
One Build is a new company (2 years old) that was formed by Dale Sperling formerly the CEO of UNICO properties.

42

The company is mainly interested in multi-family and hotel projects, and is interested in mainly higher quality
projects. One Build consists of the assets of Transform a modular builder from Mt Vernon and Bellingham, WA,
and the production facility of One Build is that of Integrated Building Solutions (IBS) which was a manufacturer of
light steel gauge panels, SIP panels and also acted as a modular builder.
Methods:
Modules are built in the factory and transported to site by a semi-trailer.
Typically modules are 85% complete in the factory, finished on the inside and wrapped in Tyvek.
The system is a fully automated assembly line and involves computerized cutting machines
One Builds system is approx. 30-50% faster than on site and production takes approx. 12 days
Almost 1 module can be produced per day after that.
Modules:
Longest - 68ft length x 15ft wide x12ft high
Up to 16ft
Base: $3700 per module transport from factory to site from OR to Seattle
Setting with crane: $1500 per module
Material Cost: material about the same
Cost: $75 psf (inc overhead and margin) up to $120 psf
Skills/Labor/Capabilities:
Onebuild - Framing is automated
Specialist trades subcontracted
20 factory staff as at 2011.
Cost: can be between $80-250psf (depends on level of finishes)
Factory located in Klamath Falls, Oregon
Targeted Area:
Seattle at present, OR, WA, ID there is reciprocity.
Timeframe:
12-14 months vs. 22 months for a conventional project
4-5 weeks site work, 8 crane picks per day, Button up required for marriage line between modules

Manufacturer: Whitley Manufacturing

City/State/Country
Indiana, USA

Experience (yrs)
Since WW2 veterans housing
Extent of completion
80-90%
Module dimensions
14 x 60-66ft long optimal

Total no. of completed projects

40,000 units
Address:
Based in Indiana 3 factories.
Washington factory located at:
Whitley Evergreen, 14219 Smokey Point Blvd, Marysville, WA 98271
For information and photos, click here.

Capacity (module/yr)
Ramp up 3 to 4 Modules per
week in WA factory
Project type:
Commercial and Educational
Structural type:
All
Tel:
+1 (360) 653-5790
+1 (360) 659-7735 fax

43

Overview
Commercial aspect mainly, offices and educational, up to full campuses
Not much in multifamily
Completed almost 40,000 units in its almost 70 year history
Modules:
Typically for multifamily
Typically: 14ft wide, up 16ft (any larger it gets called a superload), 72ft long DOT restrictions
If the width is over 8-10 ft in Seattle it may need to be hauled at night
Height under 13ft 2 (bottom to top of highest projection) this allows you to put a trailer under it
$100sf factory costs (range: $65-500/sf)
Extent of Completion - Protection
Custom projects so may vary drywall typically in and painted and finished, as much as possible
Temporary heat may be used while modules are being stored
Protection: tarps and membrane roofing, walls covered with plastic
All Structural types:
Container box (20x 8 or 40 x 8) , wood frame, steel frame, clear-span, slab on grade
Timeframe:
Varies A 21,000 sqft dormitory (accommodates 68 in 4 stories) was finished in 90 days
Transport:
Varies: $3000-5500up to 300 miles
Examples of multifamily:
Frank & Anne Oropeza Hall, Indiana Institute of Technology
21,000 sqft dorm facility, 4 stories, 68 beds
Evans Kimmel Hall, Indiana Institute of Techniology
4 stories, approx. 72 beds
Rogers-Yergens Hall (3-Story Dormitory)
18,000 sqft dorm, 3 stories, 45 beds

Manufacturer: Sustainable Living Innovations (SLI)

City/State/Country
Seattle, WA

Experience (yrs)
Founded in 2008; Offshoot of
CollinsWoerman, DCI, McKinstry
and Lydig construction
Extent of completion

Total no. of completed projects

Module dimensions
Prototype only
Panelized system
Address:
710 Second Avenue Suite 1400, Seattle, Washington 98104-1710
For information and photos, click here.

Capacity (module/yr)
N/A
Project type:
Hotels, Housing, Resorts
Structural type:
All
Tel:
Rick Osterhout: (206) 245-2100

44

Overview
SLI is a new company set up to provide a scalable form of construction of medium rise structures. It is
particularly tailored to efficient construction of housing, in terms of time and product waste by using
prefabricated off-site components and a standardized system of construction. The SLI product is particularly
tailored to multi-family housing/accommodation.
Method of Construction/Modules:
The system is not modular per-se but is built out of componentized/panelized parts and assemblies
which are assembled on site.
After substructure work, post tensioned concrete floor slabs are poured on site. 2. A structural steel
frame is erected. This is generally externally located similar to an exoskeleton.
The wall and internal assemblies are brought onto site and installed. These may include panelized
floors with the ceiling substrate already in place.
Individual floor is then hoisted to the highest floor. Working from the top floor downwards, hence the
next highest floor is brought in etc.
The glass wall faade of the building is installed.
SLI teams up with the GC, and hence SLI is a supply chain management organization as such.
Structural steel assembly is done by the steel sub. Site work and substructure is done by the GC.
Positive design features
More usable space a saving of 20% space - overall 10% less common space required, 10% less wasted
space in each unit
No internal point is less than 20ft from a window
Floor to ceiling glass walls
Heat recovery from the grey water system
The targeted level of quality is higher than that of the market. Hence the system is not intended to be
cheaper but rather better value.
Structural types:
Steel braced frame structure
Timeframe:
Delivery for a standard building supposed to be 6-9 months (commencement to end)
Targeted areas:
Seattle, San Francisco, New York

Manufacturer: Method Homes

City/State/Country
Seattle, WA

Total no. of completed projects

Not confirmed
20 cabins completed; 18 projects in
2011; 10 homes in 2010; 2 homes in
2009; 1 home in 2008

Experience (yrs)
5 years (since 2007)
Extent of completion
85-90%
Module dimensions
Up to 16 x 65 ft

Capacity (module/yr)
20,000 sqft/year
Approx 15-20 projects per year
Project type:
Housing, Resorts
Structural type:
Wood frame

45

Address:
Reference:
2921 Eastlake Ave. E.
Senior Project Manager
Seattle, WA 98102
Bec Chapin
For information and photos, click here.

Tel:
206.789.5553

Overview
Method Homes is an organically grown company setup by Mark Rylant (a builder) and Brian Abramson (a
commercial real estate broker). In an interview with the Puget Sound Business Journal (Oct 12-18 2012), the
founders stated that the company was first started to provide prefab vacation homes to people in the
northwest - in particular to remote sites where weather was poor and skilled labor hard to find. As a result the
company first started focusing on vacation homes and in particular cabins.
Method of Construction/Modules:
Method homes projects are designed for modular but traditionally built inside the factory in Ferndale.
There is no overhead cranes, no assembly line as such. The main construction typology is a wood frame system.
Method Homes can also act as the general contractor through their sister company Method Contracting.
However it is essentially up to the owner to decide which general contractor they wish to use. If several
modules are combined for one unit (3 units may be combined together) the tie in system/detailing may be as
follows:
Use of special timberlocks/steel hold-downs and in those areas no drywall will be used
Leaving one side unclad so as not to be over-width
Leaving off drywall at structural connections
Finishes left off to 2 feet either side of the connection point (marriage line) - e.g the wood paneling
may be setup
Construction Typology:
A standard construction type may be:
2x6 wood-frame construction with strengthening around openings by use of aluminum frames/steel
members; Batt insulation; Drywall structural mod board; 50/50 rigid wrap for the exterior
Window walls may make use of a steel column/beam
Typical sizes quoted are 14-16 x 65ft. Maximal dimensions are 22ft width and 72ft long
It was noted that much wider units add to transportation costs, and longer/wider units get too heavy
with resulting drywall cracks
Extent of Completion/Design:
85-90% complete prior to being brought to site
Method Homes tends to have 2 types of modular buildings:
a. Modular built according to a standardized design; i.e. off the shelf plans which encompasses those
on their website for instance their Cabin Series, M Series, HOMB Series, Option Series, Paradigm
Series
b. Non-modular designs which are converted to modular these include one off projects such as ski
resorts/cabins
There is a notable architecture fee saving with standardized designs, as the design fee is limited to a
small royalty for the plans, and to any significant design changes (some minor changes included in the
pricing).
Structural types:
Wood frame construction
Costs:

Typically $150/sqft and site costs on top. A range of $130-220 sqft for the prefab construction cost
(excluding soft costs design, engineering, permitting and excluding site costs)

46

Standardized units can cost from $80,000 upwards for a 565sqft unit (1BR,1Bath) with 123sqft deck

Timeframe
Typically this may be 1-3 months for a unit (one unit sighted in the factory took 2 months due to
waiting for MEP equipment). For a new build the company typically takes 3 months.
On-site work usually takes 2 weeks 2 months
Transport:
A typical module to transport will cost $1000 to Seattle (from Ferndale); $14,000 to LA
Targeted areas/markets:
The company specializes in high end commercial/residential, and markets itself as a green/sustainable builder.
A particular market segment that Method homes is looking at includes cabins/remote location properties.
Method is looking to grow in California and the East Coast, but is taking an organic approach to growth.
Examples of multi-family:
According to the Puget Sound article, Method Homes is planning to build:
A modular motel in BC, Canada
An apartment complex in Portland
An apartment complex in Bellingham

Manufacturer: Blazer Industries

City/State/Country
Aumsville, OR

Experience (yrs)
36
Founded in 1976
Extent of completion
90-95%

Total no. of completed projects

17,000 units

Module dimensions
14 x 64

Address:
945 Olney Street, P.O. Box 489, Aumsville, OR 97325
For information and photos, click here.

Capacity (module/yr)
$39 million/year
Average over last 7 yrs:
454,000 sf
750 modules/year
Project type:
Education, Commercial Office &
Retail mainly, Specialty,
Residential (least)
Structural type:
Wood-frame, light gauge and SIPs
also possible
Tel:
Paetra Orueta: 503-749-1900

Overview
Blazer Industries is a company setup in 1976 to provide mobile restroom buildings. This later changed to include
mobile office trailers and commercial buildings. In the 2000s the company started on concrete block buildings
like restrooms, and specialty products like Starbucks drive-throughs, Fast Lube buildings and custom houses.
They are particularly experienced in the northwest.
Method of Construction/Modules:
Blazer produces a large range of module designs - usually wood frame construction inside a factory but also do
concrete block buildings and have capability with light gauge steel and SIP panels.
Framing in one area, level and bolt together in another area, then completed as much as possible inside the

47

factory. It is then disassembled thereafter for transportation.

Module size is typically 14 x 64 , but can go up to 16 x 70
Non-union labor is used, on site work (if required) is paid at the prevailing wage rates
Extent of Completion/Design:
Varies across projects.
Timeframe:
Typically 550 hours per month for a basic 2 module classroom.
Can produce 60+ modules per month.
Manufacturing Facilities:
Aumsville, OR - commercial
Stayton, OR residential
Total: 155,000 sqft, 24,000 sqft warehouse space
Over last 7 years Blazer has done an average of 454,000 sqft of modules adding up to 750 modules, 450
buildings and $25 million of work per annum
Transport:
Dealers handle transport and usually use trucking companies that specialize in moving modular buildings.
Modular units are up to 63,000 lbs.
Transport can be anywhere from $800 to $12,000. This can be reduced by splitting modules into 2 smaller
pieces.
Transport to further areas- Hawaii/Alaska are shipped to Seattle and then by barge.
Craning costs:
Typically $3500 crane mobilisation (in/out) fees, $150 p/h craning cost
Targeted areas/segments:
Pacific Northwest, and Hawaii, Alaska and California.
Educational projects are generally cost driven especially the portable classroom market. Blazers product is
one of higher quality (also potentially higher prices) and hence the company is targeting more commercial
builds.
Past work:
STEM school in Redmond. 161 modular units, 63,000 sqft
Blazer supplied modular units for Absher Construction (the GC) on this project
(http://www.absherco.com/portfolio/in-progress/stem-secondary-school/)

48

Manufacturer: Guerdon Enterprises

City/State/Country
Boise, ID

Experience (yrs)
11

Capacity (module/yr)
1,200 modules per year

Extent of
completion
90-95%

Project type:
Multi-family (majority of projects),
Single-family, Commercial
(office/hotels), Government housing
Structural type: Wood-frame
Phone: 800-473-3586
Fax: 208-336-9269
[email protected]

Total no. of completed projects

Address:
556 South Federal Way
Boise, ID 83716
For information and photos, click here.

Overview
Guerdon is a leading modular manufacturer and one of the main modular manufacturers in the western USA.
Extent of Completion/Design:
Varies across projects. In-house engineering and drafting staff with experience in MEP, Structural, green
building and code compliance.
Timeframe:
Typically the first module can be churned out in 1 week. Delivery can be done in 3 months. 2/3 of the time
taken off of the construction process. 70% of the work done in the factory, 30% done on site
Manufacturing Facilities:
Primary 20-acre site; 125,000 square feet of production area; Additional plant with 30,000 square feet
facility for steel fabrication and overflow production capacity; Assembly line process with 24 line
stations; Annual capacity of 1200+ modules/year
Transport:
Organized and arranged for by Guerdon. in storage in Boise, insurance protection, delivery, staging and
storage near the site and transportation to the crane. Guerdon owns 200+ special purpose trailers for use in
bringing the modules to site until craning occurs and these are reused. Typically transported 600 miles away.
Targeted areas/segments:
10 western USA states, Canada and Alaska
Examples of multifamily:
Cahill Park in San Jose 160 units, townhouses (3 stories), $28 M project value, 13 months
Harbour Landing in Regina, Saskatchewan 314 rental apartments, $30 million, approx. 6-7 months
(site work until C of O)
Fort Lewis Town Center in Fort Lewis, WA 220 units (350,000 sqft), 17 months

49

3. OPPORTUNITIES
The main opportunities associated with modular prefab buildings can be categorized into three groups
of schedule, cost and quality opportunities.

3.1.

Schedule

Modular construction allows for compression of the building schedule, due to the ability to
overlap module construction with site work similar to fast-track design-build construction.
Some questions remain as to whether the permitting and design process will have the same
duration as site-built construction or if it will take longer due to the unfamiliarity of the building
department with modular construction.
A McGraw-Hill study found that in 66% of modular and prefabricated construction projects the
schedule was positively affected with time savings of 4 weeks or more in 35% of projects. For
the 34% of projects not reporting time savings, 6% said that prefabrication/modularization
increased the projects duration while the other 28% noted that prefabrication/modularization
made no difference to the projects schedule. The schedule was measured from the beginning
of design through project completion. Time savings are achieved through concurrent factory
and on-site work, fewer weather delays, and less on-site material staging. For modular projects,
design is often more time intensive due to the added degree of coordination necessary to allow
for module fabrication (McGraw Hill Construction, 2011).
Due to the highly customized nature of modular fabrication, it is difficult to find metrics for
average production rates. This is also due to the small number of manufacturers currently
building large-scale projects in the United States as well as the propriety nature of the industry.
In factory schedule for module assembly varies substantially from project to project depending
on the complexity of each module and the degree to which modules within the building are
alike. One manufacturer noted that a standard two-module classroom could be completed in
550 man-hours in factory. Other manufacturers cited times ranging from 12 days to 3 months
for the manufacture of single units. Other quotes we received include: 4 modules/day, 20,000
sf/yr, 1-3 months/unit, 21000 sf/3 mo, 3-4 modules/ week, and 1/day.
Large manufacturers interviewed cited production rates of up to four modules per day. For
smaller manufacturers the production rate can be much slower producing less than one module
per day and at the slowest producing one module every few months. This rate is subject to a
high degree of variability depending on the project and module complexity. Once completed,
modules can be stored until they are ready for site delivery assuming adequate storage space
exists at the factory.
The degree to which modules are complete when sent to the site also varies substantially from
project to project. Many manufacturers recommend completing the modules to the greatest
50

extent possible to minimize on-site construction time. For multi-module buildings, finishing
around connection points on site is recommended to allow for greater installation tolerances.

51

3.2.

Costs

A recent McGraw-Hill survey indicated that 65% of firms currently using prefabrication or
modular construction reported reductions in their project budgets (McGraw-Hill, 2011). A
majority of these costs are due to secondary items, such as a shorter construction schedule, the
reduction of expensive labor, less waste, and increased quality control.
The previous section outlined specific scheduling opportunities, but it is also worth briefly
mentioning here. According to Jeff Brink, structural engineer at DCI, the shortened construction
schedule is the biggest cost opportunity on a modular project. Reducing the time that large
expenses, such as cranes and hoists, are needed on site is a reduction in the overall project
budget. An accelerated construction schedule also means that owners can carry their financing
costs for shorter periods (Pickerell, 2012). Simply put, time is money.
Labor Rates

Work in a factory can be done quicker than work on-site, due to the controlled climate,
ergonomic factory organization, and optimized repetition. Eric Franklin, from Carpenters Local
131, states that based on commuting distance and scheduling consistencies, base wages for
union carpenters would be lower in a factory setting than they would be on a typical
construction site. Franklin did not give specific examples for what that reduced pay rate might
be, but estimates at Atlantic Yards B2, in Brooklyn, New York, state that workers who might
typically earn $85 in the field, would earn $35 in a factory (Chaban, 2011).
Franklin also mentioned that the carpenters union realizes that modular construction is the
wave of the future, and accordingly does not see an adversarial relationship with it, especially if
contractors keep the door of communication open on projects. Tommy Key, of the National
Electrical Contractors Association, echoes this general premise. Key states that the electrical
unions may not be in total favor, but realize this is the only way to work and maintain a share in
certain markets.
Even within open-shop conditions, there is an opportunity for cost savings depending on the
factorys location. Shipping costs would need to be weighed against labor cost savings, but a
factory in a more rural setting may have lower overhead than an urban factory.
Crew Size

Because of the condensed setting in a manufacturing facility, and because of the speed of
construction, crew sizes in a factory are smaller than they would be on site. The University of
Washington Medical Center Expansion project, a $130 million project in Seattle, had roughly
300 subcontractors and field workers on site. Meanwhile, estimates for the Atlantic Yards B2
building, a 32-story apartment tower slated to be the worlds largest modular construction
project, is estimated to take 190 factory workers (Bagli, 2011). Construction crews operating in
a factory setting might not always get a lower hourly base rate, but with a smaller crew size and
reduced schedule, cost opportunities are present.

52

Materials

McGraw-Hill reports that 47% of survey respondents cited reduced materials and installation
prices on modular construction. There is debate on whether modular construction uses more or
less materials, so this statistic is particularly interesting. McGraw-Hill mentions that owner
interviews suggest that many find prefabrications overall quality much higher, so even if
materials costs are more expensive, it is worth the premium. Jeff Brink, of DCI Engineers,
mentions that a majority of the projects he has worked with have broken even with, or spent a
bit more on, materials costs when compared to on-site construction.
One possible way to save on materials costs is when the manufacturer purchases the items in
bulk at the beginning of the execution of the contract (Cameron and Di Carlo, 2007), thereby
reducing the potential for price escalations and repeated delivery fees.

53

3.3.

Quality Opportunities

Opportunities associated with modular construction are not limited to schedule and costs. This
section is a discussion of the opportunities for higher quality in modular construction. Modular
projects report lower errors and defects, higher worker productivity and safety, improved
material quality, building performance, and improved sustainability.
Lower defects and rework

Because components of modular units are constructed in a factory setting, the overall process
can result in a higher quality product. In the factory, workers can mock up an entire module and
work out many of the design defects before the rest of production begins. This process can
reduce the amount of unseen defects associated with typical on-site stick built construction.
Also, building within a factory allows for a greater consistency of parts and makes it much
easier to reproduce the module quickly and accurately (this is a typical characteristic of a
factory assembly line). The assembly line technique allow for close tolerance, standardization,
predictability and consistency among parts.
Also, before modular units are placed and stitched-up, supervisors and workers alike have a
unique advantage to inspect work from both, or all, sides. The occurrence of defects is
decreased when the process is so visible (Garrison and Tweedie, 2011). Monitoring assemblies
as they are installed, as well as the units construction as a whole, can help ensure lower
incidents of error or defect, which in turn could help speed up the overall schedule and keep
costs down.
Worker Productivity and Safety

Modular factories provide the opportunity to work within a controlled environment, away from
the elements of on-site construction. For instance, many moisture issues are eliminated simply
by moving construction indoors.
The factory setting also allows for easier access to technology. Computers with the latest
construction documents, or 3-D modeling information, can be provided and readily accessible.
This helps cut down on assumptions and communication errors, and ensure employees are
working from the most current set of plans and specifications.
The factory setting also offers improved physical access to workstations, as well as a faster flow
of work. Improved ergonomics, and working on a ground level rather than multiple stories
above the ground, helps keep workers safe and focused. Additionally, tools and materials are
centrally located. Rather than lugging equipment from floor to floor, factory workers are able to
move from module to module, or even have the module come to them. This helps create a
production flow, and enables the overall schedule decrease.
Building Performance

Performance and quality of acoustics, insulation, air infiltration and structural capacities are all
increased in modular construction when compared to quality of on-site stick built construction.
54

First, acoustics in modular building are usually better as a result of the inherent qualities of
multi-unit construction. Because each module is framed independently, there is no chance for
direct sound transfer allowing for a more isolated environment (Garrison and Tweedie, 2011).
This is an important aspect to consider in apartment complexes with many units. Furthermore,
additional acoustical barriers can easily be added and integrated in each module increasing the
isolation.
Attaching the insulation and vapor barrier in the factory lends to a much higher quality
installation than what can typically be achieved by on-site construction crews (Garrison and
Tweedie, 2011). As a result of the higher degree of quality installation and workmanship the air
infiltration can be expected to be much less in a modular building. According to an essay by Ed
Zdon on Permanent Modular Construction, testing by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
determined that air infiltration for permanent modular buildings was as much as 49% less than
the Corps' stringent guidelines for building tightness and low air infiltration (Zdon, 2012). This
results in a higher thermal performance as well as an increased quality in indoor air.
While conventional buildings are often prone to leaks in walls around windows, roofs, and floor
joints this is not a problem in modular buildings because everything is carefully sealed in the
factory setting. Walls are built with electrical and plumbing included and sealed before they are
fully constructed. Further, insulation comes from the air barriers between modules, which are
sealed when the permanent roofing system is attached. The enhanced building performance is
important when considering sustainable aspects of modular construction (Zdon, 2012).
Sustainability

Inherent to modular construction are aspects that provide an increase in the sustainability of a
modular project. According to a report published in the Journal of Industrial Ecology, modular
construction has fewer impacts, on average, than on site construction for all environmental
impact categories studied (Quale et al 2012). The factory assembly of modular construction
lends itself to an increase in sustainability opportunities associated with LEED. First, off-site
modular construction provides a factory setting in which to test and utilize technological
advancements. This is a result of the ability for a factory to mock-up entire modules before
production as well as the ability to take advantage of reproduction of a single or few different
types of modules. Second, there is not a lot of on-site construction that typically produces
significant particle matter, run off and pollutants. Associated with pollutants from on-site
construction other less quantifiable disturbances to adjacent sites such as noise and traffic
congestion are also greatly reduced as a result of decreased on-site construction. Along with
decreased pollutants, air infiltration and air quality are greatly increased in modular
construction and are associated with improvements in the energy performance of modular
apartments.
Next, the issue of recycling and waste is potentially more manageable in modular building. As
discussed earlier in the section on quality in factories, the assembly line techniques associated
with off-site factory construction allow predictability and consistency among parts; this
significantly reduces building waste of modular constructed projects. The use of steel is also
55

beneficial because the recyclability is much higher than other building materials. Finally, the
modularity increases the ease associated with the disassembling of parts required in order to
recycle building materials after the building is no longer used.
The life of the building plays a key part in determining sustainability. The factory setting makes
it possible for a higher quality in construction and in turn increases the expected longevity of
the life of the structure. Many projects such as The Modules at Templetown are also taking
advantage of technologically advanced green features. This student housing project located in
Philadelphia, incorporates a water source heating and cooling system along with a highly
insulated building faade for a major reduction in the buildings year round energy
consumption. Additionally, The Modules at Templetown incorporate a storm water
management system, green roof and pervious paving which results in a major reduction of
water runoff (Meinhold, 2012). While these aspects of sustainability mentioned above are
possible in any form of construction type, modular building seems to present an easier setting
in which to employ these methods.

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4. CASE-STUDIES
Case Study 1 Atlantic Yards B2, US
Project name
Atlantic Yards B2
Architecture firm
SHoP
Construction year
2012 (December)
Number of floors
32
Project overview

Location
Brooklyn, NY
Construction company
Skanska USA Building
Project value ($)
130,000,000
Number of unit types
363

Owner
Forest City Ratner
Manufacturer
XSite Modular & Forest City Ratner
Project size (sf)
340,000
Unit size(s) (sf)
Avg. 940

B2 is the first of three new residential towers envisioned to cradle the Barclays Center arena, and is
part of a $49 billion, 22-acre Atlantic Yards project in Brooklyn. The 3 new residential buildings will
contain a total of approximately 1500 units of residential housing. B2 will be the first of the
residential buildings to break ground, and at 32 stories and 363 units, will be the tallest modular
building in the world.

Pros

1. Reduced schedule up to 4-6 months

2. Reduced labor to approx. 190 factory workers
3. Reduced costs by up to 25%
4. Ease of construction
5. Innovation and trendsetting
.

Potential Cons

1. Labor agreements
2. Permits
3. Heavy use of BIM during design
4.
5.

Additional Information
Approximately 150 studios, 165 one-bedrooms, and 48 two-bedrooms.
Approximately 4,000sf of retail on the ground floor, and 20,000sf of arena storage in the
cellar and base of B2.
Expected to achieve LEED Silver
As designed, only 17 of the 930 modules are exactly the same.
Potential to be worlds tallest modular building
Used 25-story dorm in England as its model
Prefabrication can reduce the construction schedule by 4-6 months
Forest City Ratner is in talks with the City regarding permits and unions. If labor agreements
cannot be reached, B2 will be constructed without modules.
Forest City and XSite are setting up a prefabrication factory a few miles from the site
High use and coordination of VDC-BIM during design phase
Each module will have a tubular-steel chassis, and a single point of electrical connection
(units will be wired in the factory)
Scheduled to break ground in December 2012
For further reading, click here and here.

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Case Study 2 - SOMA Studios, US

Project name
SOMA Studios
Architecture firm
Lowney (Construction) and
Trachtenberg (Faade)
Construction year
2012
Number of floors
4
Project overview

Location
San Francisco, CA
Construction company

Owner
Panoramic Interests (Berkeley, CA)
Manufacturer

Pankow
Project value ($)
$4.5 - $5M
Number of unit types
23

ZETA
Project size (sf)
~15,000
Unit size(s) (sf)
300

SOMA Studios, or 38 Harriet St., is a 4-story LEED Platinum residential project. The building will
include 5 or 6 units per floor, an elevator, lobby, and 1,000 sf backyard. Units are 300 sf which is a
design that fits with the growing demand for MicroHousing within dense urban communities such as
San Francisco. The cost for the project comes in around $200,000 per unit, and each apartment will
rent for around $6/sf.
Units are 12 x 29 and come pre-furnished. To make the design less claustrophobic, ceilings are 9
high and windows are 7 high.

Pros

1. Factory located within 100 miles of site

2. Micro Housing design catered toward existing
and growing demographic
3. Factory control allows for superior product
(sound insulation, LEED)

Cons

1. Outside of target demographic, not

marketable
2. Urban setting limits size of project

Additional Information

Factory is owned by ZETA, which is 91,000 sf, and can produce 300-400 homes annually
Modules for SOMA Studios trucked over Bay Bridge from ZETAs Sacramento factory
Estimated construction time for traditional construction of this project was 13 months
Modular building process took 3 months
Modular erection of all 4 floors took 4 days
Green features incorporated into design LEED Platinum achieved
50-90% less waste used on project due to controlled factory setting and procurement

For further reading, click here, here and here.

58

Case Study 3 The Modules, US

Project name
The Modules
Architecture firm
Interface Studio Architects
Structural Engineer
Larsen and Landis
Construction year
2009-2010
Number of floors
4
Project overview

Location
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Construction company
Equinox Management &
Construction, LLC

Owner
Carlisle Street Partners, LLC
Manufacturer
Equinox Management &
Construction, LLC

Project value ($)

Project size (sf)

8,000 sf
Unit size(s) (sf)

Number of unit types

72

The Modules at Templetown is a five-story student housing development expected to earn a LEED
silver certification. The layout takes the shape of a double H giving access to views and light from
each apartment. It is expected to be the largest modular LEED-certified building in the country. The
whole process took a total of 1 year, 3 months for design and then 9 months for construction.

Pros

1. Pre-fabrication generated less waste and

contributed to LEED certification.
2. Modular is construction process not particular
product.
3. Tighter construction and better indoor air quality

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Cons

Additional Information

The cost is approximately $135 per square foot

Timber frame components came from modular manufacturer IDBS
Floors of residential accommodations top a single story steel and concrete parking structure
Modular size 15 X 35 or 55 x 10
The modules were fabricated in Harrisburg and trucked in to the site in less than 6 weeks.
The modules arrived with plumbing and wiring installed and interiors almost completely
finished.
Pre-fab units are wrapped in a rainscreen made up of fiber cement panels.
Generously sized operable windows, light-filled common spaces and a green roof terrace that assists
in the facilitation a 50 percent-reduction water runoff.

59

Case Study 4 Victoria Hall, UK

Project name
Victoria Hall, University of
Wolverhampton
Architecture firm
OConnell East Architects
Structural Engineer
Bailey Johnson Hayes, Barrett Mahoney
Construction year
9/2009
Number of floors
25

Location
Wolverhampton, England

Owner
Victoria Hall Ltd.

Construction company
Flemming Group
M&E Consultant
Martin Buckley Associates
Project value ($)
$34 M
Number of unit types
2 (Primarily multi-bedroom
suites)

Manufacturer
Vision Modular Structures
Construction Duration
27 weeks
Project size (sf)
Unit size(s) (sf)

Project overview

Victoria Hall, Wolverhampton, was constructed by Victoria Hall Ltd. to address a shortage of student
housing near universities in the UK. The 25-story tower consists of a bottom site built floor with 24
modular floors constructed atop it. The upper stories are constructed of 383 modular units which tie
into site built concrete cores.
Each module has a structural steel frame with a concrete floor. Modules were shipped complete with
drywall, plumbing, fixtures, finishes, cabinets, and furniture. Each module weighed between 21 and
29 tons and were welded into place.
The modular manufacturer, Vision Modular Structures, is a unit of the greater construction company
(Flemming Group) that built the project. The decision to use modular construction was arrived at
after the initial design phase; therefore, the modular type of construction did not influence the
architectural design.

Pros

1. Faster construction times.

2. More predictable costs.
3. Safer, fewer on site hazards.
4. More predictable schedule and completion date.
5. Better quality assurance.
.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.

Potential Cons

For further reading, click here, here, here and here.

60

Case Study 5 Wilmslow Park, UK

Project name
Wilmslow Park
Architecture firm
Odgen Associates
Engineering Company
Veryards Ltd.
Construction year
2002
Number of floors
7
Project overview

Location
Manchester, UK
Contracting company
Watkins Jones Construction
M&E Consultant

Owner
University of Manchester
Manufacturer
Rollalong
Construction Duration

Project value ($)

Project size (sf)

Number of unit types

3 (three, four and five bedroom)

Unit size(s) (sf)

The project is a mixed-use residential commercial development; used for student residence,
worker accommodation and retail premises.
1425 Modules = 945 study bedrooms+130 worker apartments+6 rooms for people with
disabilities.
Completed in 4 months
Main structure is steel modules, constructed on a steel-composite podium structure at first
floor.
Modules were self-supported. Corridors were integrated in them to reduce site-work and
increase weather tightness.
Width of modules ranged from 2.4 to 3.6 meters and modules arranges in 3, 4 and 5 bedroom
clusters.
A rain-screen cladding system was attached to the building after modules were installed.

Pros

1. 60% time saving relative to intensive construction

2. High quality manufacture
3. Dimensional accuracy
4. Reduced site infrastructure
5. Reduced waste
6. High level of safety in installation

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
.

Potential Cons

For further reading, click here.

61

Case Study 6 - Neapo, Finland

Project name
Neapo

Location
Helsinki, Finland

Architecture firm
Hedman & Matomki Architects
Structural Engineer

Construction company

Owner
Housing Finance and
Development Centre of Finland
Manufacturer

M&E Consultant

Construction Duration

Construction year
2012
Number of floors
5

Project value ($)

Project size (sf)

25,000 sq. ft.
Unit size(s) (sf)
730 sq.ft.

Number of unit types

38

62

Case Study 7 Little Hero, Australia

Project name
Little Hero
Architecture firm
Fender Katsalidis
Construction year
2010
Number of floors
8 (7 residential levels)
Project overview

Location
Melbourne CBD, Australia
Construction company
Unitised Building/Hickory
Project value ($)
$12 M
Number of unit types
3

Owner
Manufacturer
Unitised Building/Hickory
Project size (sf)
Unit size(s) (sf)

63 one and two bedroom city apartments and duplex penthouse residences.
Built as pods similar to steel shipping containers- and shipped to site.
Priced from $369,500, which around market price for a 1BR apartment at the time.
In factory:
Factory built in Brooklyn, Victoria, which is approx. 20km west.
Using linear assembly line techniques and robotics, then stationary for fitout.
20 modules/week, floor space for 120 modules.
Set out by laser projector onto the floor
Fitout time 30 days (reduced from 95-105 days)
Integrated project teams important for services (esp. hydraulics) and cores
On site:
Excavation, concrete foundations and podium level constructed while pods factory built.
10 day on-site delivery within that time there were strict controls over traffic management, with
mandatory deliveries before peak traffic flows, control of pedestrians and on-lookers and closure of
the adjoining street for pod lifting.

Pros

1. Difficult site
2. 6 months lower construction time vs conventional
build
3. High quality finishes
4. Stable rental product (5.6% gross yield, based on
$369,500 purchase price, $400pw rent)
5. High market demand

Potential Cons

1. Limited floor plans

2. Capital appreciation minimal (pricing issue?)
3.
4.
5.
.

Additional Information
Structurally, the initial steel pods are made from roll-formed sheet and purlins, spot welded to form a
monocoque structure or outer shell. Four columns with a patented locking mechanism absorb line
loads, whilst tortion and sheer loads are absorbed by the box shell. Sheet bracing is added to the end
of the pod, and the structure typically braces against the core. The pods are manufactured in a jig,
which is calibrated to ensure levels are within a one millimeter tolerance. The fixed column design,
which is essentially a tapered plug, is designed in consideration of the installation sequence, and
allows a point of relativity to ensure facades meet on installation.

63

Case Study 8 - T30 Hotel, Xiangyin, China

Project name
T30 Hotel

Location
Xiangyin, Hunan Province, China (2
hrs southwest of Shanghai)
Construction company
Broad Group
M&E Consultant
Broad Group

Architecture firm
Structural Engineer
Broad Group
Construction year
2011

Project value ($)

$17 million
$1000 per sqm ($93 per sqft)
Number of unit types
N/A

Owner
Broad Group
Manufacturer
Broad Group
Construction Duration
15 days (not inc substructure
work)
Project size (sf)
17,000 sqm (183,000 sqft)

Number of floors
Unit size(s) (sf)
30
N/A
Project overview
Broad was founded in 1988 as an A/C manufacturer. Building large absorption chiller units.
Approx 10 years ago, Broad started its subsidiary Broad Sustainable Building, and is a design build
contractor/modular manufacturer in particular office and multi-family projects.
There are 2 factories 90 mins drive from Changsha, there are also another 8 factories being built to meet the
demand. Employees live in dorms in Broadtown and eat all their meals on campus. The company values and
work culture is deeply in-house workforce is deeply indoctrinated.

Pros

1. 30% lower cost

2. Accelerated schedule 2 floors per day typical
3. High standards of quality assembly method ensures quality
checks and standardised processes
4. High standard of safety no accidents on the T30 project
5. High market demand franchisees around the world are
adopting the product
6. Low embodied energy
7. High energy efficiency
Additional Information

Potential Cons

1. Standardised look aesthetics generally

plain
2. Difficulty integrating non standard design
e.g larger lobbies/irregular shapes etc
3. mistrust of made in china product may
not be suitable for application to the USA
immediately
4. Undefined acoustic rating

The project:
358 Hotel rooms, 30 stories
Structural steel frame, curtain walls
90% built in the factory
Particularly energy efficient/low carbon due to low emission manufacturing and efficient products
within the project such as quad pane glass, efficient A/C units
Several smaller story prototypes exist
Built to withstand a 9.0 Richter scale earthquake
Finished in 15 days (on site work)
Quality is high, except on-site workmanship not so good according to observers
Unclear how long factory fabrication and site work took
$1000 per sqm (almost 30% less than comparables in China, much lower than the western world
approx. 80-90% cheaper)
Construction Process:

64

On site:

Excavation, concrete foundations constructed while work occurs in the factory.

15 day on-site delivery for 30 stories- including internal fitout
Floor platforms are craned into place, and connections are made by bolting.
All vertical elements--columns, internal walls, facade modules--laid flat on the finished floor surface
and located where it needs to be (i.e preloaded)
Internal walls are steel frames panelized and plasterboard is installed on top of this wall framing.
Curtain wall installed conventionally while this occurs
$1000 per sqm vs $1,400 for conventionally built commercial buildings

In factory:
Structure is made from braced steel frames with a proprietary design, and with curtain wall exterior.
Proprietary panelized system for floors/ceilings, panelized systems are assembled in the factory, these
are steel framed with MEP rough in already complete, and plastering done.
The basic building block of the system is a steel-framed floor platform, measuring 3.9 meters in width,
15.6 meters in length and 450 millimeters in depth. This module weighs 12 tons. MEP is roughed in,
then the ceiling grid is installed, concrete topping and floor tiles installed.
Elevator systems base, rails and machine room installed in the factory.
Broad Groups next project:
BSB Sky City
220 stories, 838m residential, office and retail tower
1,000,000 sqm of floor space
104 elevators
7 months (factory and on-site time), 90 days timeframe modular framing, due to commence in 2013
Location: Xinjiang River in Changsha, $628 million, 95% complete from the factory
6x more efficient with material (i.e. less construction material needed per occupant)
Energy Efficiency in embodied energy: Each sqm produces 20kg of carbon emissions per sqm vs 20005000kg of carbon emissions of comparable buildings
Energy Efficiency in Operation: every sqm -uses 5kW of primary energy same as 16kg of carbon per
sqm - 1/7 to 1/10 of existing bldgs.
Sky City has been designed to house 31,400 people in its luxury and low-income communities. Residential area
will occupy 83% of the tower, all serviced by schools, hospitals, offices, shops and restaurants within the
building.
The structure will be constructed using approximately 200,000 tonnes of steel, and will be built to withstand
earthquakes of a magnitude of up to 9.0 on the Richter scale, and to resist fire for up to three hours.
Environmentally radical, Sky City will also be equipped with 15cm thermal insulators, four-paned windows, fresh
air heat-recovery systems, and a host of other equally eco-friendly features. Use 1/5 of the energy of a
conventional bldg.
Perhaps the boldest claim is that the cost of the construction of Sky City will come at less than $1,500 per m2 a
tenth of the cost of the Burj Khalifa with its $15,000 per m2 price tag.
For further reading, click here, here, here and here.

65

5. INTEGRATED AEC STUDIO

As part of the Skanskas innovation grant, the students and faculty members at the University
of Washingtons Departments of Architecture and Construction Management worked on three
mid-rise residential modular building designs in a hypothetic site in Seattle.
This Integrated Studio was a projectbased architecture/construction management studio
where students from the two disciplines and allied fields worked in a collaborative environment
to develop and deliver design proposals using a working process modeled on the practice of
Integrated Project Delivery (IPD). IPD is a design approach that integrates people, systems,
business structures and practices for harnessing the talents and insights of all participants to
optimize project results, increase value to the owner, reduce waste, and maximize efficiency
through all phases of design, fabrication and construction. Professionals from the design and
construction industry worked regularly with our three student teams to provide instruction
advice, and critique. Building Information Modeling (BIM) and other computational tools were
applied to the analysis, design, project management and communication of the conceptual
designs. Students applied skills acquired in previous coursework and as a team they worked
through collaboration exercises. In addition to a fully developed architectural design proposal,
each team developed a conceptual cost estimate, a construction plan and a schedule. The
outcome of three student teams are presented below.

5.1.

Team 1

Alena Birillo (Dual 17), Richardson Maneze (Dual), Kylie Yamamoto (Arch), Marc David James
(Arch), Keri Woltz (Arch), Jacob Jacobski (CM 18), Eli Lemanski (CM)
Team 1 started with exploring the opportunities and challenges presented when designing with
narrow and wide modules for a mid-rise modular residential building. They realized they could
obtain more rentable square footage using the narrow modules. However, the unit layout
brought out the difficulty of designing within small spaces.
The students continued with site analysis and several iterations to achieve the final design. In
design iterations, sustainability performance, aesthetics, community-oriented design, structure,
cost and schedule were the main considerations that the students tried to optimize for the final
solution. The outcome the first teams proposal is presented in the following figures.

17
18

Dual Degree in Construction Management and Architecture

Construction Management
66

Figure 5. Final design proposal (Team 1).

Figure 6. The layout of modules (Team 1).

67

Figure 7. Manufacturing detail of modules (Team 1).

Figure 8. Proposed delivery schedule (Team 1).

68

Figure 9. Cost analysis of the proposed design (Team 1).

5.2.

Team 2

Chris Tritt (Dual 19), Mariam Hovhannisyan (Dual), Flynn Wienker (Arch), Katherine Sistek (Arch),
U Cheong (Leo) Lei (CM 20), Mamadou Leigh (CEP 21)
The second team used the same procedure as team 1 to optimizing design with respect to
modular design, sustainability, transportation and logistics, structural design, cost and
schedule. The outcome of their work is presented below.

19

Dual Degree in Architecture and Construction Management

Construction Management
21
Community, Environment and Planning
20

69

Figure 10. Exterior view of the proposed design (Team 2).

Figure 11. Layout of the proposed design (Team 2).

70

Figure 12. Lighting analysis of interior spaces of the proposed design (Team 2).

Figure 13. Logistics of the proposed modular design (Team 2).

71

Figure 14. Proposed schedule for the modular design (Team 2).

Figure 15. Cost analysis for the proposed design (Team 2).

5.3.

Team 3

Evan Dunagun (Dual), Yushang (Michelle) Deng (Dual), Jason Duckowitz (Arch), Chen-ann Fu
(Arch), Alan Montufar (Arch), Mark Kinsman (CM), Cory Hartwigsen (CM)
The third team considered many building massing options, and their final design encompassed
elements from every iteration. Their designs core concepts included maximizing daylight,
simplifying circulation, and creating movement by stepping volumes.

72

Figure 16. Various iterations to achieve final design (Team 3).

Figure 17. Exterior view of the proposed design (Team 3).

73

Figure 18. Logistics in construction of the proposed design (Team 3).

Figure 19. Breakdown of construction cost areas for the proposed design (Team 3).

74

6. CONCLUSION
The main conclusions of this study are summarized as below:
Market: In this market study we performed a supply and demand analysis. The market demand
for prefab modular multi-family is essentially that of multi-family housing. This demand is highly
dependent on several important factors: employment growth, household formation,
population increases, and housing preferences among others. On the market supply side,
factors such as housing affordability, renting vs. buying, shortfalls/oversupplies of housing units
and future releases of new projects/units/land should be considered. We found is that there is
a strong demand for multi-family housing in the tri-county region, however there is also
potentially an oversupply of multi-family units coming onto the market in the medium term.
We can however suggest that any construction method that promises to deliver high quality
housing, and which is fast and simple to build as prefabricated modular construction aims to be,
holds potential for the future.
Transportation: Transportation is likely to be a primary constraining factor for the module
size and manufacturing location. Transportation by truck is likely to be the most economical
mode of transport, so long as the modules are manufactured less than 200 miles from the site.
The optimal module size should balance the overall number of modules needed for the building
with the escort requirements and other transport limitations such as weight. Typical module
sizes, as reported by modular manufacturers, are 11 feet high, 12 to 16 feet wide, and 55 to 65
feet long.
Logistics: In most regards, logistical considerations for modular construction mirror that of
traditional construction. However, there are differences that contractors and developers should
be aware of. Modules can easily weigh up to 22 tons, and span over 50 feet, which affects crane
options. Additionally, the speed of construction and the potential lack of areas for tie-offs can
present challenges with transporting materials and crews. The team who developed the
logistics plan at Atlantic Yards B2 has decided on using a tower crane, and will jump the on-site
materials hoist frequently as modules are placed. It is estimate that 10-12 modules can be
placed each day at Atlantic Yards, and in general a good practice is to ensure the availability of a
staging area that would allow modules to be unwrapped and rigged in an effort to increase the
cranes picking efficiency.
Labor and Unions: Deciding on a fabrication facility is one of the largest components in
modular construction. From location to assembly style, selecting a manufacturer affects the
final outcome of the project. Some factories will employ union labor, which carries wage
premiums but often produces a higher quality product; other factories might have non-union
labor, but cost savings might not be fully realized due to potential quality issues, or even
shipping costs depending on delivery proximity. Some contractors, such as Skanskas New York
office, which is overseeing construction on the Atlantic Yards B2, opt to own their own
manufacturing facility. Since the manufacturer is responsible for assembling, shipping, and
75

delivering the modules, finding a factory that is capable of meeting the projects needs is a
critical component to success.
Costs: Modular construction is not as popular as traditional, on-site construction, especially in
the Pacific Northwest. Because of the unknowns, many firms are reluctant to enter the market
or take on the associated risks. However, many firms that have built using prefabricated
modular construction have done so successfully, despite the somewhat different financial
considerations. Higher start-up costs, levels of management and oversight, coordination and
sequencing, as well as increased logistical considerations such as transportation, and staging, all
play an important role in determining the overall feasibility of the project.
The biggest area for cost opportunities stems from an accelerated schedule, both during
fabrication and stitch-up. Although it is typical to expect the design phase to carry a somewhat
longer schedule depending on the projects complexity, the repetitive nature of modular
construction shortens the construction schedule. This allows for cost savings with crane and
material rentals, General Conditions and General Requirements such as flagging and on-site
offices, as well as a reduction in labor wages. Other areas for cost reductions include reduced
crew sizes in the factory, the overall quality control and safety benefits of working in a
controlled environment, and the potential to buy bulk materials.
Codes: Factory-built housing and commercial structures should meet the requirements of the
codes defined by the Washington State legislature Washington Administrative Code (WAC)
and Revised Code of Washington (RCW). These codes include State Building Code, Seattle
Energy Code, National Electrical Code and Universal Plumbing Code.
Permitting and Inspection: All factory-constructed structures must have the Department of
Labor and Industries insignia plate (gold seal insignia) for modular structures. All alterations
occurring prior to occupancy must be approved by the Department of Labor & Industries while
alterations post-occupancy should be submitted to the Department of Planning and
Development. If a module is damaged en-route to the site, the issue must be brought to the
attention of L&I and someone from the department will come out to the site and re-inspect the
module after it is repaired. Lastly, the site should be tested for adequate drainage and loadbearing capacity and a foundation system designed for factory-installed structures. Finally, if
planning to install a solid-fuel burning appliance of any kind, then you must have a UL-listed
appliance that is specifically for use in manufactured housing.
Architectural design and delivery: High levels of collaboration and planning are needed in
early design process of modular buildings. Shipping methods, inflexibility of modules, interior
opening, and MEP systems are some of the issues that should be considered in design of these
buildings. Integrated delivery methods are beneficial for modular construction.
Regional Manufacturing: The Puget Sound market seems ripe for an influx of modular
manufacturers. Current competitors based in Seattle are of smaller scale, hence local
competition is limited at this point. For large future projects it would be particularly pertinent
76

for a general contractor to approach a larger regional manufacturing partner with intentions for
an alliance, leveraging off their significant manufacturing capabilities whilst providing on-site
expertise.
Schedule: Modular prefabrication is expected to result in schedule savings for most projects
with more pronounced benefits for projects that are designed and planned as modular
construction from the early stages. This allows for the maximum overlap between site-work
and fabrication. Module fabrication varies greatly by project and manufacturer. Given the
controlled nature of fabrication, rates could likely be increased as required by adjusting the
number of laborers at the factory.
Quality: Modular buildings in general have the potential to benefit from higher quality with
respect to improved material quality, improved building performance, sustainability, etc. In
addition, production in factory environment results in higher worker productivity and a safer
and healthier environment in modular construction compared with on-site construction.

77

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Skanska USA building, and the following individuals in
particular, for their support and contribution.
Skanska USA Building: Dan Matheson, Tony Hill, Alan Dunbar, Kevin McCain
DCI Engineers (DAmato Conversano, Inc.): Jeff Brink
We also appreciate the following individuals who helped us with their feedback and
information:
Jessica Fabro, OneBuild
Saeed Danilai, University of Washington
Ghang Lee, Yonsei University
The following individuals participated in this project as faculty and students.
Name

Program

Role

Carrie S. Dossick
Omar El-Anwar
Kate Simonen
Rahman Azari
Naomi Javanifard
Debra Markert
Kristen Strobel
Jason E. Yap
Alena Y. Birillo
Grace Crofoot
Marc-James S. David
Yushang Deng
Jason Flynn Duckowitz
Evan Christopher Dunagan
Chen-Ann Fu
Cory Hartwigsen
Mariam Hovhannisyan
Jacob P. Jacobski
Mark R. Kinsman
Nowelle M. Knutson
Mamadou Leigh
U Cheong Lei
David James Jr. Lemanski
Richardson C. Maneze
Alan Montufar Ochoa
Ciao-Jyun Pi
Katherine F. Sistek
Christopher D. Tritt
Flynn S. Wienker
Keri K. Woltz
Cameron K. Wu
Kylie K. Yamamoto

Construction Management
Construction Management
Architecture
Built Environment
Architecture
Construction Management
Architecture
Real Estate
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture
Construction Management
Architecture
Construction Management
Architecture
Construction Management
Construction Management
Real Estate
Construction Management
Construction Management
Construction Management
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture
Construction Management
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture
Architecture

Faculty
Faculty
Faculty
PhD student/Research Assistant
Graduate student/Research Assistant
Graduate student/Research Assistant
Graduate student/Research Assistant
Graduate student/Research Assistant
Undergraduate student
Graduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Graduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Graduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student
Undergraduate student

78

8. RESOURCES
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Opportunities, Department of Housing and Urban Development.
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Chancellor, N.B., Akbas, G., Sause, R., Rickles, J.M., Tahmasebiand, E., Joo, A.L. (2012). Evaluation of
Performance-based Design Methodology for Steel Self-centering Braced Frame. STESSA 2012, 73743.
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Moment Resisting Frame. Journal of Constructional Steel Research 78, 117-30.
City of Seattle (2012). Over-legal Vehicles and Loads. Seattle Department of Transportation. Accessed on
12 Nov. 2012: http://www.seattle.gov/transportation/overvehicleloads.htm
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Research Association of New Zealand. Print.
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Energy Dissipating Fuses. Steel Construction 4.3, 171-75. Print.
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Commercial Use. Department of Planning and Development.
Edge, M., Laing, R., Craig, A., Abbott, L., Hargreaves, A. (2002). Housing the Future: Key Opportunities
and Constraints in New Housing Innovation, Robert Gordon University
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Gardner, J. (2011). Atlantic Yards: Can prefab be fabulous. The Real Deal: New York City Real Estate
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Garlock, M., Sause, R., and Ricles, J.M. (2004). Design and Behavior of Post-Tensioned Steel Moment
Frames. 13th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering. Print.
Garlock, Maria M., Ricles, J.M., Sause, R. (2008). Influence of Design Parameters on Seismic Response of
Post-tensioned Steel MRF Systems. Engineering Structures 30, 1037-47. Print.
Garlock, M., Moreyra, E., Li, J., Vanmarcke, E.H. (2009). Floor Diaphragm Design of Steel Self-centering
Moment Frames. STESSA 2009, 939-44. Print.
Garrison, J., and Tweedie, A. (2011). Modular Architecture Manual. Lebanon: Kullman Buildings Corp.
Habitat '67 (2001). Canadian Architecture Collection. McGill University, 2001. Accessed on 14 Oct. 2012:
http://cac.mcgill.ca/safdie/habitat/default.htm
Herning, G. M., Garlock, M.E.M., and Freidenberg, A. (2012). Comparison of Welded and Post-tensioned
Steel Moment-resisting Frames. STESSA 2012, 709-15. Print.
Ikenaga, M., Nakashima, M., and Nagae, T. (2009). Reduction of Residual Story Drift of Moment
Resisting Frame Using Self-centering Column Bases." STESSA 2009, 465-71. Print.
Kastenbaum, S. (2012). High-rise Housing Going Modular. CNN Blog This Just In (2012). Accessed on 23
October, 2012. http://news.blogs.cnn.com/2012/02/01/high-rise-housing-going-modular/
Koklic, M.K., Vida, I. (2011). Consumer strategic decision making and choice process: prefabricated
house purchase. International Journal of Consumer Studies 35(6), 634-643.
Lin, Y.Ch., Ricles, J.M., and Sause, R. (2012). Seismic Performance of a Steel Self-Centering Moment
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Lpez-Barraza, A., et al (2012). Seismic Energy Demands on Steel Framed Structures with Rigid and,
Alternatively, with Post-tensioned Semi-rigid Connections." STESSA 2012, 697-702. Print.
MBI (2012). Permanent Modular Construction; 2012 Annual Report, Modular Building Institute (MBI).
McGraw Hill Construction (2011). Prefabrication and Modularization: Increasing Productivity in the
Construction Industry. McGrawHill Smartmarket Report.
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http://www.ofm.wa.gov/pop/april1/default.asp
Pickrell, B. (2012). Modular Apartment Buildings on the Rise. Seattle Daily Journal of Commerce.
Accessed
on
7
October,
2012.
http://www.djc.com/news/re/12042419.html?query=boyd+pickrell&searchtype=all
Post, N. (2011). Racking Up Big Points for Prefab. ENR: Engineering News-Record. Accessed on 25
October,
2012.
http://enr.construction.com/buildings/construction_methods/2010/0908prefabpotential-1.asp
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Comparing Environmental Impacts of Building Modular and Conventional Homes in the United
States. Journal of Industrial Ecology, Volume 16, Number 2, 1 April 2012, pp. 243-253(11).
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Resisting Frames with Friction Devices. Journal of Structural Engineering, 529-40. Print.
Roke, D., Ricles, J.M., and Gonner, N. (2009). Damage-free Seismic-resistant Self-centering Steel
Concentrically-braced Frames. STESSA 2009, 3-10. Print.
Roke, D., and Jeffers, B. (2012). Parametric Study of Self-centering Concentrically-braced Frame Systems
with Friction-based Energy Dissipation. STESSA 2012, 691-96. Print.

80

Schoenborn, J. (2012). A Case Study Approach to Identifying the Constraints and Barriers to Design
Innovation for Modular Construction. Thesis. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. ETS,
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14 Oct. 2012: http://itac.utah.edu/ITAC/ICLT_files/R.Smith ICLT final.pdf
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Codes:

Chapter 18.106 RCW; Plumbers: http://apps.leg.wa.gov/RCW/default.aspx?cite=18.106

DPD Codes: http://www.seattle.gov/dpd/codes/
Local Governmental Amendments: https://fortress.wa.gov/ga/apps/sbcc/Page.aspx?nid=61
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Seattle Mechanical Code:
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echanical_main.htm
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81

Appendix A: Transportation - Application for Transportation Permits

82

Appendix B: Inspection Requirements

Table B.1: Comparison of the Three Types of Factory-Constructed Structures

Insignia
Required

Use

Red Seal
(Manufactured
Housing)

Residence

Gold Seal
(Modular
Construction)
Black Seal
(Commercial
Coaches)

Residence
or
Non-Residence
NonResidence
(Temporary
Only)

Construction
Code
Requirements
Federal
Housing and
Urban
Development
(HUD)
Washington
State
Building Code
Washington
Administrative
Code Commercial

Construction
Location

Who Inspects
Construction in
Factory?

Who Inspects
the On-Site
Structure?

Factory

State Labor
and Industries
(L&I) for HUD

City of Seattle

Factory

L&I

City of Seattle

Factory

L&I

City of Seattle

Table B.2: Installation Requirements for Factory-Constructed Structures

City Permits and
Information
Required

Types of Factory-Constructed Structures

Red Seal Insignia

Gold Seal Insignia

Black Seal Insignia

Expedited review (ER),

with installation
certification per L&I
requirements

ER, but more extensive

plan review may be
required for difficult
sites or complex
foundation plans

ER

Site Plan
(see DPD CAM #103
and #103A)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Site Drainage Plan

Yes

Yes

Yes

Site Grading Permit

(Excavation Plan)

If exceeding grading
threshold, or if located
in an ECA

If exceeding grading
threshold, or if located
in an ECA

If exceeding grading
threshold, or if located
in an ECA

Structure Foundation
Plan

Yes

Yes

Yes

Type of Building
Permit Required
from DPD

83

Copy of L&I
Approved Factory
Constructed
Structure Plans
Electrical Permit
from DPD
Certificate of
Water Availability
from Seattle Public
Utilities
Plumbing Permit
from KC Public
Health Dept.
Site Inspection by
DPD Inspector
Foundation
Inspection by
DPD Inspector

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes, except special

inspections required
for HUD foundations

Yes

Yes

84

Pacific Northwest Center for Construction Research and Education

Department of Construction Management
120 Architecture Hall, Box 351610
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98118-1610