Proceedings of COBEM 2011

Copyright 2011 by ABCM

21st Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering

October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

A THREE-DIMENSIONAL DESCRIPTION OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY

THERMOMECHANICAL BEHAVIOR
Sergio A. Oliveira, [email protected]
Marcelo A. Savi, [email protected]
Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
COPPE Departamento de Engenharia Mecnica
Centro de Tecnologia Sala G-204, Caixa Postal 68.503
21.945.970 Rio de Janeiro RJ Brasil

Abstract. Literature presents numerous constitutive models that describe the phenomenological features of the
thermomechanical behavior of shape memory alloys (SMAs). The present paper introduces a novel three-dimensional
constitutive model that describes the martensitic phase transformations within the scope of standard generalized
materials. The model considers four macroscopic phases associated with austenitic phase and three variants of
martensite. The use of these phases are motivated by one-dimensional models and each one of them can be induced
either by volumetric or by deviatoric strains. Besides, plasticity and transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) are also
of concern. Numerical simulations show that the proposed model is able to capture the general thermomechanical
behavior of SMAs.
Keywords: Shape Memory Alloy, constitutive model, transformation induced plasticity, plasticity.
1. INTRODUCTION
Shape memory alloys (SMAs) have unique characteristics that make possible their application in different areas of
human knowledge. The thermomechanical behavior of these materials presents complex responses related to distinct
phenomena. The constitutive modeling of SMAs is related to the macroscopic phenomenological features being based
on mechanics of continua and thermodynamics (Popov & Lagoudas, 2007; Paiva & Savi, 2006). Savi & Paiva (2005)
and Lagoudas (2008) presented an overview of the SMA modeling with emphasis on phenomenological constitutive
models. The intent of this article is to present a three-dimensional constitutive model to describe thermomechanical
behvarior of SMAs including plasticity and transformation induced plasticity (TRIP).
Regarding the plastic behavior of SMAs Bata-Neves et al. (2004) and Paiva et al. (2005) presented onedimensional models that couple phase transformation and plasticity. Recently, Hartl et al. (2010) exploited the idea of
plastic behavior of SMAs investigating the interaction between phase transformations and yield surface. The classical
plasticity is a different phenomenon from the so-called transformation induced plasticity (TRIP). While the classical
plasticity results from an applied stress or a temperature change, TRIP is caused by the variation of phase proportions,
even for low-stress levels. Therefore, it is possible to observe plastic strains due to TRIP even inside the yield surface
(Leblond et al., 1989, Gautier et al. 1989; Gautier, 1998, Fischer et al. 2000, 1996, Sato & Tanaka, 1988). Concerning
the TRIP effect, this is characterized by the growth of a nonlinear irreversible deformation, while the phase
transformations is occurring in the solid state and results of internal tensions arising either by volume change
(Greenwood & Johnson, 1965) or change in shape (Magee, 1966, Marketz & Fischer, 1994).
This paper proposes a three-dimensional constitutive model developed in the framework of continuum mechanics
and generalized standard materials that is inspired on the one-dimensional model that is able to describe TRIP and
plasticity behavior of SMAs in a flexible way (Paiva et al., 2005). This one-dimensional model is built upon the
Fremenods model (Fremond, 1996). The numerical simulations are performed for uniaxial and multiaxial tests
considering a single point response that shows the capability of the proposed model to capture the general
thermomechanical behavior of SMAs.
2. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
The constitutive modeling of SMAs can be done within the framework of generalized standard materials under the
assumption that the thermodynamic state of the material can be completely defined by a finite number of state variables,
see Lemaitre & Chaboche (1990). Under this assumption, the thermomechanical behavior can be described by the
Helmholtz free energy density,
, and the pseudo-potential of dissipation, .
Experimental studies have revealed key aspects of the thermomechanical behavior of SMAs. Basically there are two
possible phases: austenite and martensite. In the martensitic phase, different orientations of crystallographic
deformation of the plates constitute what is known as martensitic variants. In the case of three-dimensional
environment, there are 24 possible martensitic variants that are organized into six groups of four plate variants by group
card. As the crystal structure of martensite is less symmetrical than the austenite, only one variant is created on the
reverse transformation (Zhang et al., 1991; Schroeder & Wayman, 1977).

21st Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering

Proceedings of COBEM 2011

Copyright 2011 by ABCM

October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

The three-dimensional description of the thermomechanical behavior of SMAs is usually inspired on onedimensional models using a limited number of martensitic variants. Motivated by the one-dimensional models, the
proposed model considers four macroscopic phases: austenite , the twinned martensite , which is stable in the
absence of a stress field, and two other martensitic phases ( and 
). The definition of the Helmholtz free energy
density proposes different expressions for each of the macroscopic phases, assuming that they are functions of strain,
and temperature .
 

 + 2     ! " #
 $  + %    +
 :
  , , ,   =  








 

 + 2     + ! " #
 $  + %    +

:
  , , ,   =  


 
)
 $  + % )   +
 + 2 )    ") #
:
(  , , ,   = ) 








 

 + 2     + " #
 $  +
:
,  , , ,   =  



 
& '  

 
& '  


  .
& *  
  

%  + '  

&

(1)

Here the indices  and  are related to the martensitic and austenitic phases, respectively;  and  are the Lam
coefficients, is a parameter related to the hysteresis loop, and " and ") are temperature functions that define the
stress level of phase transformation; # is a tensor related to the thermal expansion coefficients, $ is a reference
temperature that indicates stress-free state; % is the plastic modulus, - is the kinematic hardening coefficient; the
internal variable  is related to isotropic hardening and  is kinematic hardening tensor; finally, is the material
density. Moreover, it is defined an equivalent strain field as,



! = 
+ ./31 .sign

(2)


 

 

 
 
 
  9
1 = 7

+ 
((
+ ((

+ 6
+ (
+ (

(3)


(


(

that is dependent of:


6






= 
+ 
+ ((

=>
where sign

+1,
1,


if 
0D

if 
<0

(4)

The equivalent strain field, !, contributes to the phase transformations taking into account that phase
transformations can be induced either by volume expansion (represented by the first term), or by deviatoric effect
(represented by the second term). This hypothesis is based on experimental observations showing that both effects
induce the phase transformation. Torsion tests indicate that the experimental stress-strain curves are qualitatively similar
to those obtained in tensile tests (Jackson et al., 1972; Manach & Favier, 1997; Aguiar et al., 2010). Under this
assumption, the equivalent field ! can be interpreted as an inductor of phase transformations, which defines what kind
of martensitic variant is induced. Note that if ! 0 the  variant is induced. On the other hand, the 
variant is
induced when ! < 0. Furthermore, it should be noted that, since the sign of shear stress does not appear in this inductor,
it has a neutral influence, tending to follow the influence of volume expansion.
At this point, it is necessary to define the free energy density of the mixture, setting the volume fraction of
martensite variants E and E , associated with de twinned martensite ( and 
, respectively) and E( , for the
austenite . The fourth phase is associated with twinned martensite  and its volume fraction.

 , , ,  , E , E , E( , E,  = ,GH EG
G  , , ,   + IJ E , E , E( , E, 

(5)

whereIJ E , E , E( , E,  is the indicator function associated with the convex set (Rockafellar, 1970) establishing the
conditions for coexistence of phases:
= LEG O

0 EG 1Q = 1,2,3,4; E + E + E( + E, = 1
DX
E = E = 0 if T = 0 and EW = EW = 0

(6)

The restrictions 0 EG 1Q = 1,2,3,4 and E + E + E( + E, = 1 are related to the coexistence of phases.
Moreover, the phases  and 
should not appear for a stress-free state. In order to consider this aspect of the
physical behavior, it is adopted the restriction E = E = 0 if T = 0 and EW = EW = 0 where EW and EW provide
information about the loading history and corresponds respectively to the values of E and E when each phase

21st Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering

Proceedings of COBEM 2011

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October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

transformation begins. Now, it is possible to use the condition E, = 1 E E E( to define a free energy density in
terms of only three macroscopic phases:

 , , ,  , E , E , E( , E,  = 7E 

,  + E 

,  + E( 
(
,  +
, 9 + IY E , E , E( 

(7)

0 E[ 1\ = 1,2,3; E + E + E( 1
DX
Z = LEG O
E = E = 0 if T = 0 and EW = EW = 0

(8)

The indicator function IY E , E , E(  is related to the convex set defined as follows, which can be geometrically
interpreted by a tetrahedron in the E , E , E( space, shown in Fig.1.

M+

Figure 1. Tetrahedron of the constraints .

Therefore, the free energy density of the mixture has the following form:
 
 +

 , , ,  , E , E , E(  = ! ]E 1 ^ "E + E  + _ )  
)

#
#
 $  "( + % ) %    + `




 $  + "( + %    +
#



& '

& *

  + IY E , E , E( 




& '

 )    

 
 +     b
a   b E( + _  



(9)

where " = 2" and "( = " + ") . The elastic strain is defined by establishing an additive decomposition given by:
 =    +
c

dc

e
 E



E sign

(10)

e
where  is the plastic deformation,  is the TRIP deformation and 
is responsible for the horizontal size of the
hysteresis loop.
From the generalized standard material approach, the thermodynamical forces associated with each internal variable
are defined as follows (Lemaitre & Chaboche, 1990):
c

T  , , E , E , E(  =

fg

k
fhij

dc


= 
l + 2 + m E E  #  $ 

e
n opq
= ! + " + r 
#  $  opq IY
e
n ops
= ! + " r + 
#  $  opq IY

)

n( opt
= "( + r +  #
#
 $  % ) %    `

u =
x =

fg

vw

fhij
fg

fg
fz

{ =
} =

fhij



l

+ m E E 



#

$  = T



 $  = T
= 
l + 2 + m E E  #

=%
fg

f|ij
fg

f~i

2

= 


&

& *

(11)


& *

a   opt IY

(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)

= o 1

(19)

where n , u, x , y, { and } are thermodynamics forces while T represents the stress tensor. The preceding equations
have used the following auxiliary parameters:

r = 
l + 2 

e


+ E E 


(

e


O(sk O



sign

(20)

21st Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering

Proceedings of COBEM 2011

Copyright 2011 by ABCM

October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil


r = 
l + 2 

E E 

e



(

e


O(sk O



sign

(21)

 
 
 + 2 )    +  
 + 2    b
r( = _ ) 


Where

1 = 7
6
e 
( ( 9


e


e

 


+


e


e

(( 


+
((

e
((

(22)

e

 ((


 + 6


e 
 

e 
( (

(23)

Here the op   represents the subdifferential with respect to E[ . Note that the material parameter is given by a
kind of rule of mixtures, being defined as follows:
 =  + E( )  
 =   + E(  )   

)

# = #
+ E( #
#


)

% = % + E( % % 


&

&'

+ E( `

&*

&'

(24)

It is also important to observe that,

m = l +

(

k
k
(hij

h
ij

(O(sk O



sign

(25)

Moreover, the functions and 3are temperature dependent as follows:

" = 2" = L

$ +
$

"( = " + ") =

'

   if  >  D

if

)$ +

'

   if  >  D

(26)

(27)
)$
if
 
where  is the temperature below which the martensitic phase becomes stable. Besides, $ , , )$ and ) are
parameters related to phase transformation critical stresses. Note that, based on the previous definition, the phase
transformation stress level is constant for  < 

Since 
l + 2 =   , it is possible to rewrite the stress-strain relation as follows:
T =   + m E E  #  $ 

(28)

 =  
 and =

(29)


)

where  = 
+ E( 

. In case of isotropic materials, Lam coefficients can be expressed in terms of
engineering constants as follows:

 

where is the elastic modulus, is the shear modulus and is the Poison ratio.
The thermomechanical behavior of SMAs is intrinsically dissipative and therefore, it is important to establish the
pseudo-potential of dissipation that allows the description of dissipative materials. By assuming that this potential may
be split into mechanical and thermal parts, its mechanical part may be considered as follows:










[
n , x , y, { , u, }  =
n +  y + 
{  +
n +  y + 
{  +
n(  y 
{  +
q
s
t
u ( E + ( E( E + ( E + ( E( E + ,( E( + (, 1 E E E( E( + .E .} + .E .} +
.E( .}( + I nG  + I x , y, { , u, } 
(30)
where I = I E , E , E(  is the indicator function related to the convex set , that provides constraints associated with
phase transformation evolution. This set establishes conditions for the correct description of internal sub-loops due to

21st Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering

Proceedings of COBEM 2011

Copyright 2011 by ABCM

October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

incomplete phase transformations and also to eliminate the phase transformations M+ M or M M (Savi & Paiva,
2005). Basically, for T 0:
E 0; E( 0 if > 0D
= LEG O 
X
(31)
E 0; E( 0 if < 0

And for T = 0:

< 0 if  > 0, T < Td and EW 0 D

 E >

= 0, otherwise

< 0 if  > 0, T < Td and EW 0D

D

E
>


= EG
= 0, otherwise

E( 0



E E E( = 0 or E E E( = 0

(32)

where EW and EW are the values of 1 and 2, respectively, when the phase transformation begins to take place.
Moreover, Td , which actually has different values for tensile or compressive behaviors, is the critical stress value for
M M+ and M M phase transformations.
The parameter [ \ = 1,2,3 is associated with the internal dissipation of each phase of the material, while  and

 are respectively, isotropic and kinematic parameters related to plastic-phase transformation coupling: ( =
( , ( = ( and (, = ,( are parameters associated with the TRIP effect.
In order to contemplate different aspects of kinetics of phase transformation, parameter i may assume different
values for cases of loading or unloading behaviors:
L

 =  if > 0 D
 =  if < 0

(33)

where  and  are internal dissipation parameters related to variable E during loading or unloading process,
respectively.
At this point, it is important to define aspects related to classical plasticity. The indicator function I is associated
with a function f, which is related to the yield surface:
= .  . T %

(

(34)

where f obeys the conditions of Kuhn-Tucker condition defined by:

0,

T ,  ,  0

and

and the consistency conditions, defined by:

T ,  ,  = 0

T ,  ,  = 0

(35)

(36)

Here,  is the deviatoric tensor from T , T is the yield stress of Von Mises and is the plastic multiplier. The yield
stress T has different values for austenitic and martensitic phases. For high temperatures the value of T tends to
decrease. Therefore, the yield stress is temperature dependent being defined as follows:
T = T if  

'
*
 *,i 
' 
T =
if  <  ) D
*
'
(37)




*
T = *,i
 *,
if

<


where  is a high value reference temperature and ) is the temperature above austenite is the only stable phase.
The description of the TRIP is made by considering the parameter variation with respect to a variable that represents
the accumulation of phase transformation,  . Under this assumption, it is possible to control the stress-strain hysteresis
by considering the following definitions:

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[ ~q 

e


e


where

ij

.ij .

if 0



[ ~s 

e


October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

if < 0


`
[ ~q a


ij

.ij.

e `
[ ~s a ij



.ij.

= 0 if .T . = 0.

(38)
if 0
if < 0

(39)

Moreover, it is important to define the parameters of functions " , " e "( , by the same way,
$ = $
$ =
)$


[ ~q 



[ ~s 
$



[ ~t 
)
$

And the TRIP strain is characterized by:

( exp\  
( = 
( exp\  
( = 
(, exp\ ( 
(, = 



[ ~s 

=
)


[ ~q 

(40)



[ ~t 


(41)

(42)

( exp\  
( = 
( exp\  
( = 
,( exp\ ( 
,( = 

(43)
(44)
(45)

In order to control the amount of TRIP strain at different temperatures, the parameters associated with the TRIP
effect should also be temperature dependent. Thus, the parameters assumed to be linearly dependent on temperature.
For example, to the following expression is adopted:
0 if  < 
D
( =  


(

if





(46)

( is a reference value of ( at  =  and  is at a temperature below which transformation plasticity

where 
( , 
( and 
( . For the sake of simplicity, this article
(TRIP) should not exist. Similar expressions are used to 
(, = 
,( = 0
considers 
These equations form a complete set of constitutive equations, summarized the set equations that follows.


T  , , E , E , E(  =   + m E E  #  $ 


e
 |ij
E = _! + " + r 
#  $  +  % 
opq IY b + opq I
E =
E( =

opt I

q


s


_! + " r +

)
_r( +"( + #
t

e
 # 


#


$   %

$ 




% )

&
 |ij

&
  

ops IY b + ops I

& *

& *

(47)
(48)

a   + % +


 |ij

&

= 2T ( E + ( E( E + ( E + ( E( E + ,( E( + (, 1 E E E( E(
 = .E .
 = .E .
( = .E( .
c
 = Q  
dc



 = +  E + E + E( 
(



 = - + 
E + E + E( 
(

(49)

opt IY b +

(50)
(51)
(52)
(53)

(54)
(55)

3. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
This section presents numerical simulations that are carried out in order to evaluate the model capability to capture
the general thermomechanical behavior of SMAs. Initially, TRIP effect is of concern by considering experimental tests
by Lagoudas et al. (2003). Basically, the SMA is subjected to a cyclic stress loading. Model parameters are presented in

21st Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering

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October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

Table 1 (where plastic parameters are omitted) and Figure 2 shows the comparison between experimental and numerical
stress-strain curve. Note a good agreement between results showing the ability of the model to represent the
phenomenon of saturation. After a few cycles, there is a stabilization of the SMA behavior and the TRIP effect is no
longer observed. This result is particularly important because it enables the understanding of saturation in SMAs,
allowing the description of the SMA training necessary to its use in various applications. Figure 3 shows the volume
fraction time evolution during the test.
Table 1. Model parameters for TRIP analysis based on experimental results by Lagoudas et al. (2003).
EA (GPa)

EM (GPa)

A (MPa/K)

72
$ r
0.1
) %
307.5
Q (MPa.tu)
0.04
mL
0.2

28.2
$ r
41.5
 %
423
Q( (MPa.tu)
(MPa.tu)
0.1
\
0.45

0.74
)$ r
0.63
 %
330
Q( (MPa.tu)
(MPa.tu)
0.04
\
0.007

M (MPa/K)
) r
152
Q (MPa.tu)
(MPa.tu)
0.1
( (GPa-1)

0.17

0.063
\c
0.12

e

0.038
 %
291.4
1U (MPa.tu)
0.04
( (GPa-1)


0.063
N
2

(MPa)

200
$ %
323
Q (MPa.tu)
0.1
mM
0.12

Figure 2. Numerical-experimental comparison to cyclic loading (Lagoudas et al., 2003).

Figure 3. Temporal evolution of volume fractions to cyclic loading.

Phase transformation, plasticity and TRIP are now concerned by considering model parameters presented in Table 2.
Initially, a cyclic loading with constant maximum stress of 1.3 GPa is imposed (Figure 4). Figure 4a shows the loading
history while Figure 4b presents the stress-strain curve. Note the saturation effect due to TRIP occurs before the plastic
behavior is reached. Figure 5 presents a different situation where loading history has maximum stress values that vary
progressively from 1.0 GPa to 1.3 GPa. Figure 5a shows the loading history while Figure 5b presents stress-strain
curve. Under this new condition, a different evolution occurs and the plastic behavior is preponderant during the first
cycles and then the TRIP becomes more important.

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A (GPa)
54

$ r
0.15
TA (K)
307.5
KA (GPa)
1.4

Q (MPa.tu)
(MPa.tu)
1
( (GPa-1)

0.009
\
0.2
) \
0.44

October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

 r
42

$ r
41.5
TF (K)
423
KM (GPa)
0.4

Q (MPa.tu)
2.7
( (GPa-1)

0.003
\
0.03
\

Table 2. Model parameters.

#) (MPa/K)
0.74
)
$ r
0.63
TTRIP (K)
330
HA (GPa)
4

Q (MPa.tu)
1
( (GPa-1)

0.009
\
0.1
\

M (MPa/K)
0.17
)
r
185

T r
0.5
- (GPa)
1.1

Q (MPa.tu)
2.7
( r
 

0.003
\c
0.1
\c

e

0.0463
 %
291.4

T),
r
1.5


-0.01

Q( (MPa.tu)
1
(, r
 

0
\
0.1
\

(MPa)
330
$ %
307

T),
r
1.0


-0.01

Q( (MPa.tu)
2.7
,( r
 

0

0.3


a
b
Figure 4. Pseudoelastic and plastic behaviors - TRIP and plastic evolution.
(a) Loading history; (b) Stress-strain curve.

a
b
Figure 5. Pseudoelastic and plastic behaviors - Plastic and TRIP evolution.
(a) Loading history; (b) Stress-strain curve.
In order to consider a multiaxial test, we now analyze the pure shear test that is used to compare pure shear loading
with biaxial loading. Therefore, two different loading are of concern defined by the following stress tensors:

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0.5
T = 0
0

0
0.5
0

0
0 GPa
0

October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

0
T = 0.5
0

0.5
0
0

0
0 GPa
0

(56)

It is assumed a pseudoelastic behavior and therefore, the yield surface is not reached being performed with  = $ .
This test is interesting to verify the coordinate invariance. Figure 6 shows a comparison between the stress-strain curve
for the two loadings considered (  and   ). Both curves are identical, representing a typical
pseudoelastic behavior with a TRIP strain at the end of the test. Figure 8 illustrates the evolution of volume fractions
involved in the process. These phenomena are similar in both cases showing the main characteristics of the model
where phase transformations are induced by the inductor that includes either volumetric and deviatoric strains. It should
be highlighted that both loading histories induce the same volume fraction and besides, the coordinate system
invariance.

Figure 6. Comparison of loading T and T .

Figure 7. Volume fraction time history for the pseudoelastic effect.

4. CONCLUSIONS
A three dimensional macroscopic constitutive model is proposed to describe SMA thermomechanical behavior
including plasticity and TRIP. Numerical simulations are carried out showing different aspects of SMA behavior. TRIP
phenomenon is described and compared with experimental data, presenting a good agreement. The occurrence of both
TRIP and classical plasticity together can induce interesting behaviors of the SMA. Saturation effect is of special
interest due to its importance to training of SMAs. Concerning multiaxial tests, the proposed model is able to capture
the general thermomechanical behavior of SMAs. This paper presents a pure shear test showing the coordinate system
invariance.
5. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the Brazilian Research Agencies CNPq, CAPES and FAPERJ
and through the INCT-EIE (National Institute of Science and Technology - Smart Structures in Engineering) the CNPq
and FAPEMIG. The Air Force Office of Scientific Research (AFOSR) is also acknowledged.
6. REFERENCES
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Memory Alloy Helical Springs, Smart Materials & Structures, v.19, n.2, Article Number: 025008.

Proceedings of COBEM 2011

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21st Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering

October 24-28, 2011, Natal, RN, Brazil

Bata-Neves, A. P.; Savi, M. A. & Pacheco, P. M. C. L., 2004, On the Fremonds Constitutive Model for Shape
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7. RESPONSIBILITY NOTICE
The authors are the only responsible for the printed material included in this paper.