Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

8.

Chapter 8

Availability & Irreversibility

Some Important Notes

1.

Available Energy (A.E.)

T
T
T

Wmax = Q1 1 0 = m cP 1 0 dT
T
T1

T0
= (T1 T0) S
= u1 u2 T0 ( s1 s2 )
(For closed system), it is not (1 2) because change of volume is present there.
= h1 h 2 T0 ( s1 s2 )
(For steady flow system), it is (A1 A2) as in steady state no change in volume is
CONSTANT VOLUME (i.e. change in availability in steady flow)

2.

Decrease in Available Energy

= T0 [S S]

Take S & S both +Ve Quantity

T
Q1
S

3.

Availability function:
V2
A = h T0s +
+ gZ
2
Availability = maximum useful work
For steady flow

Availability = A1 A0 = (h1 h0) T0 ( s1 s0 ) +

= u T0s + p 0 V

V12
+ gZ
2

(V0 = 0, Z0 = 0)

For closed system

Availability = 1 0 = u1 u 0 T0 ( s1 s 0 ) + p 0 (V1 V0 )
Available energy is maximum work obtainable not USEFULWORK.
4.

Unavailable Energy (U.E.)

= T0 (S1 S2)

5.

Increase in unavailable Energy = Loss in availability

= T0 (S) univ.
Page 95 of 265

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

6.

Irreversibility
I = Wmax Wactual
= T0(S) univ.

7.

Irreversibility rate = I rate of energy degradation

Sgen =

m dS
1

= rate of energy loss (W lost )

= T0 Sgen

8.

for all processes

Wactual dQ = du + d Wact
h1 +

this for closed system

dWact
V12
V2
dQ
+ g Z1 +
= h 2 + 2 + g Z2 +
this for steady flow
2
dm
2
dm

9.

Helmholtz function, F = U TS

10.

Gibbs function, G = H TS

11.

Entropy Generation number (NS) =

Sgen

m cP

12.

13.

Second law efficiency

Minimum exergy intake to perform the given task (X min )
= 1 /Carnot
II =
Actual exergy intake to perform the given task (X)
Xmin = W, if work is involved
T

= Q 1 0 if Heat is involved.

T
To Calculate dS
p
V

i) Use S2 S1 = m cv ln 2 + cP l n 2
p1
V1

For closed system

TdS = dU + pdV
dT p
+ dV
or
dS = m c v
T
T
dT
dV
+ mR
= m cv
T
V
2
2
2
dT
dV
dS
=
m
c
+
mR
v
1

T
V
1
1
For steady flow system
TdS = dH Vdp
dT V
dp
or
dS = m c p
T
T
2
2
2
dT
dp
m
c
mR
dS
=
p
1

T
p
1
1
But Note that

pV = mRT

V
mR
=
T
p
Page 96 of 265

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal
And

Chapter 8

TdS = dU + pdV
TdS = dH Vdp

Both valid for closed system only

14.

In Pipe Flow Entropy generation rate

1

kg/s
m

p, T1

Due to lack of insulation it may be

T1 > T2 for hot fluid T1 < T2 for cold fluid

Sgen = Ssys

T0

= m(S2 S1 )

15.

m c p (T2 - T1 )

T0

Rate of Irreversibility (I) = T0 Sgen

Flow with friction

Decrease in availability = m RT0

p
p1

Page 97 of 265

p, T2

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

Questions with Solution P. K. Nag

Q8.1

What is the maximum useful work which can be obtained when 100 kJ
are abstracted from a heat reservoir at 675 K in an environment at 288
K? What is the loss of useful work if
(a) A temperature drop of 50C is introduced between the heat source
and the heat engine, on the one hand, and the heat engine and the
heat sink, on the other
(b) The source temperature drops by 50C and the sink temperature
rises by 50C during the heat transfer process according to the linear
dQ
= constant?
law
dT
(Ans. (a) 11.2 kJ, (b) 5.25 kJ)

Solution:

Entropy change for this process

S =

100
kJ/ K
675

= 0.14815 kJ/K
Wmax = (T T0) S
= (675 288) S = 57.333 kJ
(a) Now maximum work obtainable
338

Wmax
= 100 1

625

= 45.92 kJ
Loss of available work = 57.333 45.92
= 11.413 kJ
dQ
= constant
(b) Given
dT
Let dQ = mc P dT
When source temperature is (675 T) and
since temperature (288 + T) at that time if dQ
heat is flow then maximum. Available work
from that dQ is dW .

288 + T

dWmax . = dQ 1
675 T

288 + T

m cP dT
= 1
675 T

50

288 + T

Wmax = m cP 1
dT
675 T
0
288 T
963 + 675 T
=

675 T
675 T

Page 98 of 265

675 K
Q = 100 kJ
H.E.

T = 50 K
T1 = 625 K
W
T2 = 338 K
T = 50 K

288 K

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8
50

963

= m c p 1 + 1
dT
T
675
0

675 50
m c p 2(50 0) + 963 ln

675 0

= 25.887 mc P kJ

(675 T)
Q1
W

H.E.

m c p 50 = 100 kJ
= 51.773 kJ

(288 + T)

mc p = 2 kJ/K

Loss of availability = (57.333 51.773) kJ

= 5.5603 kJ

Q 8.2

Solution:

In a steam generator, water is evaporated at 260C, while the combustion

gas (cp = 1.08 kJ/kg K) is cooled from 1300C to 320C. The surroundings
are at 30C. Determine the loss in available energy due to the above heat
transfer per kg of water evaporated (Latent heat of vaporization of
water at 260C = 1662.5 kJ/kg).
(Ans. 443.6 kJ)
Availability decrease of gas
Agas = h1 h2 T0 ( s1 s2 )

T1

T2

= mc p ( T1 T2 )

T0 mc p ln

= m cP (T1 T2 ) T0 ln 1
T2

T1 = 1573 K; T2 = 593 K; T0 = 303 K

= m 739.16 kJ
Availability increase of water
= (T1 T0) S
Aw
mL
= (T1 T0 )
T1

= 1 1662.5 1

303
533

= 717.4 kJ
For mass flow rate of gas (m)
mg cPg (T2 T1 ) = mw L

mg 1.08 (1300 320) = 1 1662.5

mg = 1.5708 kg/ of water of evaporator

Agas = 1161.1 kJ
Loss of availability

= A gas A w
= (1161.1 717.4) kJ
= 443.7 kJ
Page 99 of 265

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal
Q 8.3

Solution:

Chapter 8

Exhaust gases leave an internal combustion engine at 800C and 1 atm,

after having done 1050 kJ of work per kg of gas in the engine (cp of gas =
1.1 kJ/kg K). The temperature of the surroundings is 30C.
(a) How much available energy per kg of gas is lost by throwing away
the exhaust gases?
(b) What is the ratio of the lost available energy to the engine work?
(Ans. (a) 425.58 kJ, (b) 0.405)
Loss of availability
1073

(a) =

m c p dT 1 0
T

303

1073
= 1 1.1 (1073 303) 303 ln

303

= 425.55 kJ
425.55
(b) r =
= 0.40528
1050

Q 8.4

Solution:

A hot spring produces water at a temperature of 56C. The water flows

into a large lake, with a mean temperature of 14C, at a rate of 0.1 m3 of
water per min. What is the rate of working of an ideal heat engine which
uses all the available energy?
(Ans. 19.5 kW)
Maximum work obtainable
329

287

Wmax = m c p 1
dT
T

287

= V c p (329 287) 287 ln

Solution:

0.1
329
kW
1000 4.187 (329 287) 287 ln
60
287
= 19.559 kW
0.2 kg of air at 300C is heated reversibly at constant pressure to 2066 K.
Find the available and unavailable energies of the heat added. Take T0 =
30C and cp = 1.0047 kJ/kg K.
(Ans. 211.9 and 78.1 kJ)
Entropy increase
2066
dT
2066
S = S2 S1 = m c p
= 0.2 1.0047 ln
= 0.2577 kJ/K
T
573
573
Availability increases
A increase = h2 h1 T0 ( s2 s1 )
=

Q8.5

329
287

= mc p ( T2 T1 ) T0 0.2577

= 1250.24 78.084
= 1172.2 kJ
Heat input = m c p (T2 T1) = 1250.24 kJ
Unavailable entropy = 78.086 kJ

Page 100 of 265

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal
Q8.6

Solution:

Chapter 8

Eighty kg of water at 100C are mixed with 50 kg of water at 60C, while

the temperature of the surroundings is 15C. Determine the decrease in
available energy due to mixing.
(Ans. 236 kJ)
m1 = 80 kg m2 = 50 kg
T1 = 100 = 373 K T2 = 60 C = 333 K
T0 = 288 K
m T + m2 T2
= 357.62 K
Let final temperature ( Tf ) = 1 1
m1 + m2
Availability decrease of 80 kg
373
T

Adec = m c p dT 1 0
T

357.62

373
= m cP (373 357.62) 288 ln

357.62

= 1088.4 kJ
Availability increase of 50 kg water
357.62
T

Ain = m c p 1 0 dT
T

333

357.62
= m c p (357.62 333) 288 ln

333

= 853.6 kJ
Availability loss due to mixing
= (1088.4 853.6) kJ
= 234.8 kJ

Q8.7

Solution:

A lead storage battery used in an automobile is able to deliver 5.2 MJ of

electrical energy. This energy is available for starting the car.
Let compressed air be considered for doing an equivalent amount of
work in starting the car. The compressed air is to be stored at 7 MPa,
25C. What is the volume of the tank that would be required to let the
compressed air have an availability of 5.2 MJ? For air, pv = 0.287 T,
where T is in K, p in kPa, and v in m3/kg.
(Ans. 0.228 m3)
Electrical Energy is high Grade Energy so full energy is available

A electric = 5.2 MJ = 5200 kJ

Availability of compressed air
= u1 u0 T0 ( s1 s0 )
A air

= m cv (T1 T0) T0 ( s1 s0 )

( s1

s0 ) = cv ln

W=

T0 R ln

p1
v
+ cp ln 1
p0
v0

= c p ln

T1
p
R ln 1
p0
T0

p1
p0

7000
= 298 0.287 ln

100
= 363.36 kJ/kg

Here T1 = T0 = 25 C = 298 K
Let atm

Given p1 = 7 MPa = 7000 kPa

Page 101 of 265

pr = 1 bar = 100 kPa

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

5200
kg = 14.311 kg
363.36
Specific volume of air at 7 MPa, 25C then
RT
0.287 298 3
v=
=
m /kg = 0.012218 m3/kg
7000
p
Required storage volume (V) = 0.17485 m3

Q8.8

Solution:

Required mass of air =

Ice is to be made from water supplied at 15C by the process shown in

Figure. The final temperature of the ice is 10C, and the final
temperature of the water that is used as cooling water in the condenser
is 30C. Determine the minimum work required to produce 1000 kg of ice.

Take cp for water = 4.187 kJ/kg K, cp for ice = 2.093 kJ/kg K, and latent
heat of fusion of ice = 334 kJ/kg.
(Ans. 33.37 MJ)
Let us assume that heat rejection temperature is (T0)
(i) Then for 15C water to 0 C water if we need WR work minimum.
Q
T2
Then (COP) = 2 =
WR
T0 T2
(T T2 )
or WR = Q2 0
T2

= Q2 0 1
T2

When temperature of water is

T if change is dT
Then dQ 2 = mc P dT

(heat rejection so ve)

T

dWR = m cP dT 0 1
T

273
T

WRI = m cP 0 1 dT
T

288
288

(288 273)
= m cP T0 ln
273

288

= 4187 T0 ln
15 kJ
273

(ii) WR required for 0 C water to 0 C ice

Page 102 of 265

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

WRII = Q2 0 1
T2

= mL 0 1
T2

= 1000 335 0 1
273

= 335000 0 1 kJ
273

(iii) WR required for 0 C ice to 10 C ice.

When temperature is T if dT temperature decreases
dQ 2 = mc p ice dT

T0

1
T

dWR = m c p ice dT

WRII = m c p ice

273

1
4.187
kJ/kg
c p,water =
2
2
4.187
273

= 1000
10
T0 ln

2
263

273

10 kJ
= 2093.5 T0 ln
263

Total work required

273

T0 ln 263 (273 263)

c p,ice

Solution:

263

1 dT = m c p ice

Let

Q8.9

T0

WR = (i) + (ii) + (iii)

= [1529.2 T0 418740] kJ
WR and T0 has linear relationship
15 + 30
T0 =
C = 22.5C = 295.5 K
2
WR = 33138.6 kJ = 33.139 MJ

A pressure vessel has a volume of 1 m3 and contains air at 1.4 MPa, 175C.
The air is cooled to 25C by heat transfer to the surroundings at 25C.
Calculate the availability in the initial and final states and the
irreversibility of this process. Take p0 = 100 kPa.
(Ans. 135 kJ/kg, 114.6 kJ/kg, 222 kJ)
Given Ti = 175C = 448 K
Tf = 25C = 298 K
Vf = 1 m3
Vi = 1 m3
pi = 1.4 MPa = 1400 kPa
p f = 931.25 kPa
Calculated Data:
p 0 = 101.325 kPa,

T0 = 298 K

c p = 1.005 kJ/kg K, cV = 0.718 kJ/kg K; R = 0.287 kJ/kg K

Mass of air (m) =

pi Vi
1400 1
= 10.8885 kg
=
RTi
0.287 448
Page 103 of 265

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Final volume (V0) =

Chapter 8
mRT0
p0

10.8885 0.287 298

= 9.1907 m3
101.325

Initial availability
Ai = 1 0
= u1 u0 T0 ( s1 s0 ) + p0 (V1 V0)
V
p

= mc v (T1 - T0 ) - T0 mc p ln 1 + mc v ln 1 + p0 (V1 - V0 )
V
p
0
0

1
= m 0.718(448 298) 298 1.005 ln
9.1907

1400
+ 0.718 ln
+ 101.325 (1 9.1907) kJ
101.325

= 1458.58 kJ = 133.96 kJ/kg

Final Availability
Af = f 0
V
p

= m cv (Tf T0 ) T0 m cP ln f + m cv ln f + p0 (Vf V0 )
V0
p0

mRTf

pf = V = 931.25 kPa and Tf = T0

f

V
p

= 0 T0 m cP ln f + cv ln f + p0 (Vf V0 )
V0
p0

= (2065.7 829.92) kJ
= 1235.8 kJ = 113.5 kJ/kg
Irreversibility = Loss of availability
= (1458.5 1235.8) kJ = 222.7 kJ

Q8.10

Air flows through an adiabatic compressor at 2 kg/s. The inlet conditions

are 1 bar and 310 K and the exit conditions are 7 bar and 560 K. Compute
the net rate of availability transfer and the irreversibility. Take T0 = 298
K.
(Ans. 481.1 kW and 21.2 kW)

Solution:

Mass flow rate (m) = 2 kg/s

pi = 1 bar = 100 kPa

p f = 7 bar = 700 kPa

Ti = 310 K
Calculated data:

Tf = 560 K

m RTi
m RTf
Vi =
= 1.7794 m3/s V f =
= 0.4592 m3/s
pi
pf
Availability increase rate of air= B2 B1

= h2 h1 T0 ( s2 s1 )
v
p

= m cP (T2 T1 ) T0 m cP ln 2 + m cv ln 2
p1
v1

Page 104 of 265

T0 = 298 K

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

v
p

= m cP (T2 T1 ) T0 cP ln 2 + cv ln 2
p1
v1

= 2[251.25 10.682] kW
= 481.14 kW
i

Actual work required= m(h2 h1 )

W = 2 251.25 kW = 502.5 kW

Q8.11

Solution:

Irreversibility = Wact. Wmin.

= (502.5 481.14) kW
= 21.36 kW

An adiabatic turbine receives a gas (cp = 1.09 and cv = 0.838 kJ/kg K) at 7

bar and 1000C and discharges at 1.5 bar and 665C. Determine the
second law and isentropic efficiencies of the turbine. Take T0 = 298 K.
(Ans. 0.956, 0.879)

T1 = 1273 K
R = c P c v = 0.252

p1 = 7 bar = 700 kPa

T1
T

( c cv ) T1
RT1
v1 =
= p
p1
p1
0.252 1273 3
m /kg
=
700
= 0.45828 m3/kg

T2 = 938 K

T2
T2

T0 = 298 K

RT2
= 1.57584 m3/kg
p2

Wactual = h1 h2 = mc P ( T1 T2 )
= 1 1.09 (1273 938) kW = 365.15 kW
p
V

S2 S1 = m cv ln 2 + c p ln 2
V1
p1

S2

150
1.57584
+ 1.09 ln
kW/ K
700
0.43828
= 0.055326 kW/K
T
S2 = m c p ln 2 = S2 S1 = 0.055326
T2
T
1 1.09 ln 2 = 0.055326
T2
T2
= 1.05207
T2
T2
938
= 891.6 K
T2 =
=
1.05207
(1.05207 )
Page 105 of 265
= 1 0.838 ln

2
2

p 2 = 1.5 bar = 150 kPa

v2 =

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

Isentropic work = h1 h2 = m c p (T1 T2 )

= 3 1.09(1273 891.6) kW = 415.75 kW
365.15
= 87.83%

Isentropic efficiency =
415.75
Change of availability
A = A1 A2
= h1 h2 T0(S1 S2 )
= mc P ( T1 T2 ) + T0 ( S2 S1 )
= 1 1.09 (1273 938) + 298(0.055326) kW= 381.64 kW
Minimum exergy required to perform the task
Actual availability loss
365.15
= 95.7%
=
381.64

II =

Q8.12

Air enters an adiabatic compressor at atmospheric conditions of 1 bar,

15C and leaves at 5.5 bar. The mass flow rate is 0.01 kg/s and the
efficiency of the compressor is 75%. After leaving the compressor, the air
is cooled to 40C in an after-cooler. Calculate
(a) The power required to drive the compressor
(b) The rate of irreversibility for the overall process (compressor and
cooler).
(Ans. (a) 2.42 kW, (b) 1 kW)

Solution:

p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa

T1 = 288 K
2S

m = 0.01 kg/s
RT
v1 = 1 = 0.82656 m3/kg
p1

313 K

p 2 = 5.5 bar = 550 kPa

288 K

T
1

For minimum work required

to compressor is isentropic
( p2 V2 p1 V1 )
Wisentropic =
1
1

=
RT1
1
p1

0.4

1.4
550 1.4

kJ/kg
0.287 288

1
=

0.4
100

40C

Actual work required

Page 106 of 265

= 181.55 kW/kg

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

181.55
= 242 kJ/kg
0.75
Power required driving the compressor

Wact =
(a)

= m Wact = 2.42 kW
Extra work addede in 2 to 2 is (242 181.55) = 60.85 kJ/kg

If C p (T2 T2 ) = 60.85
60.85
= 529.25 K
1.005
Availability loss due to cooling

T2 = T2 +

or

529.25

313

288

1 1.005 1
dT
T

529.25
= 1.005 (529.21 313) 288 ln
kJ/kg
313

= 65.302 kJ/kg

Total available energy loss

= (60.85 + 65.302) kJ/kg = 126.15 kJ/kg

Power loss due to irreversibility = 1.2615 kW

Q8.13

In a rotary compressor, air enters at 1.1 bar, 21 C where it is

compressed adiabatically to 6.6 bar, 250C. Calculate the irreversibility
and the entropy production for unit mass flow rate. The atmosphere is at
1.03 bar, 20C. Neglect the K.E. changes.
(Ans. 19 kJ/kg, 0.064 kJ/kg K)

Solution:

p1 = 1.1 bar = 110 kPa

p2

T1 = 294 K
p 2 = 6.6 bar = 660 kPa
T2 = 523 K
p 0 = 103 kPa

p1
T

2
2S

T0 = 293 K

p0

s = s2 s1 =

d p
dh
v

T
T
1

T
p

= CP ln 2 R ln 2
T1
p1

523
660
0.287 ln
= 1.005 ln

294
110

= 0.064647 kJ/kg K = 64.647 J/kg K

1
S

Minimum work required

Wmin = Availability increase
= h2 h1 T0 ( s2 s1 )

= mc P ( T2 T1 ) T0 s

= 1 1.005 (523 294) 293 0.064647= 211.2 kJ/kg

Page 107 of 265

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

Actual work required (Wact ) = 230.145 kJ/kg

Irreversibility = T0 s
= 293 0.064647 = 18.942 kJ/kg

Q8.14

Solution:

In a steam boiler, the hot gases from a fire transfer heat to water which
vaporizes at a constant temperature of 242.6C (3.5 MPa). The gases are
cooled from 1100 to 430C and have an average specific heat, cp = 1.046
kJ/kg K over this temperature range. The latent heat of vaporization of
steam at 3.5 MPa is 1753.7 kJ/kg. If the steam generation rate is 12.6 kg/s
and there is negligible heat loss from the boiler, calculate:
(a) The rate of heat transfer
(b) The rate of loss of exergy of the gas
(c) The rate of gain of exergy of the steam
(d) The rate of entropy generation. Take T0 = 21C.
(Ans. (a) 22096 kW, (b) 15605.4 kW
(c) 9501.0 kW, (d) 20.76 kW/K)
(a) Rate of heat transfer = 12.6 1752.7 kW = 22.097 MW

If mass flow rate at gas is mg

Then mg cPg (1100 430) = 22097

or

mg = 31.53 kg/s
1373

Loss of exergy of the gas =

Q8.15

Solution:

294

mg cPg 1
dT
T

703

1373

= mg cPg (1373 703) 294 ln

703

= 15606 kJ/s = 15.606 MW

294

Gain of exergy of steam = m w L w 1

= 9.497 MW
515.4

Irriversibility
Rate of entropy gas =
T0
= 20.779 kW/K
An economizer, a gas-to-water finned tube heat exchanger, receives 67.5
kg/s of gas, cp = 1.0046 kJ/kg K, and 51.1 kg/s of water, cp = 4.186 kJ/kg K.
The water rises in temperature from 402 to 469 K, where the gas falls in
temperature from 682 K to 470 K. There are no changes of kinetic energy
and p0 = 1.03 bar and T0 = 289 K. Determine:
(a) Rate of change of availability of the water
(b) The rate of change of availability of the gas
(c) The rate of entropy generation
(Ans. (a) 4802.2 kW, (b) 7079.8 kW, (c) 7.73 kW/K)
T

(a) Rate of charge of availability of water = Q 1 0

T
469

289

= m w c p w dT 1

402
469

= 51.1 4.186 (469 402) 289 ln

kW
402

Page 108 of 265

Availability & Irreversibility

By: S K Mondal

Chapter 8

= 4.823 MW (gain)
(b) Rate of availability loss of gas
682

289

= mg cPg 1
dT
T

470
682

= 67.5 1.0046 (682 470) 289 ln

470

= 7.0798 MW
(c)

Rate of irreversibility (I) = 2.27754 MW

I
= 7.8808 kW/K

Entropy generation rate Sgas =

T0
The exhaust gases from a gas turbine are used to heat water in an
adiabatic counter flow heat exchanger. The gases are cooled from 260 to
120C, while water enters at 65C. The flow rates of the gas and water are
0.38 kg/s and 0.50 kg/s respectively. The constant pressure specific heats
for the gas and water are 1.09 and 4.186 kJ/kg K respectively. Calculate
the rate of exergy loss due to heat transfer. Take T0 = 35C.
(Ans. 12.5 kW)
Tgi = 260 C = 533 K
Tw i = 65C = 338 K
Tw o = 365.7 K (Calculated)
Tgo = 120C = 393 K

Q8.16

Solution:

mg = 0.38 kg/s
cpg = 1.09 kJ/kg K

m w = 0.5 kg/s
c Pw = 4.186 kJ/kg K

To = 35 C = 308 K
To calculate Two from heat balance

mg cPg (Tgi Tgo ) = m w cPw (Two Twi )

Two = 365.7 K

Loss rate of availability of gas

533
= mg c p g (533 393) 308 ln
= 19.115 kW
393

Rate of gain of availability of water

365.7
= m w c p w (365.7 338) 308 ln
= 7.199 kW
338

Rate of exergy loss = 11.916 kW

Q8.17

The exhaust from a gas turbine at 1.12 bar, 800 K flows steadily into a
heat exchanger which cools the gas to 700 K without significant pressure
drop. The heat transfer from the gas heats an air flow at constant
pressure, which enters the heat exchanger at 470 K. The mass flow rate
of air is twice that of the gas and the surroundings are at 1.03 bar, 20C.
Determine:
(a) The decrease in availability of the exhaust gases.
(b) The total entropy production per kg of gas.
(c) What arrangement would be necessary to make the heat transfer
reversible and how much would this increase the power output of
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Solution:

Chapter 8

the plant per kg of turbine gas? Take cp for exhaust gas as 1.08 and
for air as 1.05 kJ/kg K. Neglect heat transfer to the surroundings and
the changes in kinetic and potential energy.
(Ans. (a) 66 kJ/kg, (b) 0.0731 kJ/kg K, (c) 38.7 kJ/kg)
T

(a) Availability decrease of extra gases = Q 1 0

T
800

293

800
= m c p 1
dT = 1 1.08 (800 700) 293 ln

700

700
= 65.745 kJ/kg

H.F.

Gas
T
H.F.
Water
S
(b)

Exit air temperature Texit

2 m c pa ( Te 470 ) = m c pg ( 800 700 )
or

Te = 521.5 K
Availability increases
521.5

= 2 1.05 (521.5 470) 293 ln

= 44.257 kJ/kg
470

Sgas = 73.336 J/K of per kg gas flow

For reversible heat transfer
(S) univ = 0
(S) Gas = (S) water
800
m 1.08 ln
700
470
= 2 m 1.05 ln

To
To
= 0.068673
470

To = 503.4 K

Q1 = m 1.08(800 700) = 108 kJ/kg

Q2 = 2m 1.05 (503.4 470) = 70.162 kJ/kg of gas
[i.e. extra output]
W = Q1 Q2 = 37.84 kJ/kg of gas flow
or

Q8.18

ln

An air preheater is used to heat up the air used for combustion by

cooling the outgoing products of combustion from a furnace. The rate of
flow of the products is 10 kg/s, and the products are cooled from 300C to
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Solution:

Chapter 8

200C, and for the products at this temperature cp = 1.09 kJ/kg K. The
rate of air flow is 9 kg/s, the initial air temperature is 40C, and for the
air cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
(a) What is the initial and final availability of the products?
(b) What is the irreversibility for this process?
(c) If the heat transfer from the products were to take place reversibly
through heat engines, what would be the final temperature of the
air?
What power would be developed by the heat engines? Take To = 300 K.
(Ans. (a) 85.97, 39.68 kJ/kg, (b) 256.5 kW,
(c) 394.41 K, 353.65 kW)
To calculate final air temperature ( Tf )

mg c p g (573 473) = ma c p a (Tf 313)

10 1.09 (573 473) = 9 1.005 (Tf 313)
Tf = 433.5 K

Or
(a)

Initial availability of the product

573

= c p g (573 300) 300 ln

300

= 85.97 kJ/kg of product

Final availability
473

= c p g (473 300) 300 ln

= 39.68 kJ/kg of product
300

Loss of availability = 46.287 kJ/kg of product

Availability gain by air

433.5
= c p g (433.5 313) 300 ln
= 22.907 kJ/kg of air
313

(b)

Rate of irreversibility

I = (10 46.287 22.907 9) kW= 256.7 kW

(c)

For reversible heat transfer

(S) Univ = 0

Gas

(S) gas + (S) air = 0

or

(S) gas = (S) air

T1
T

T
or mg c p g ln f
Ti

T
= ma c p a ln f
Ti

Air
T2
S

473

or 10 1.09 ln

(
)
10
1.09
ln
73
573

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Chapter 8

Tf
313
Tf = 394.4 = 399.4 K
= 9 1.005 ln

or

Q1 = mg c p g (Ti Tf ) = 1090 kJ

Q2 = ma c p a (394.4 313) = 736.263 kJ

Q8.19

Solution:

W = Q1 Q2 = 353.74 kW output of engine.

A mass of 2 kg of air in a vessel expands from 3 bar, 70C to 1 bar, 40C,

while receiving 1.2 kJ of heat from a reservoir at 120C. The environment
is at 0.98 bar, 27C. Calculate the maximum work and the work done on
the atmosphere.
(Ans. 177 kJ, 112.5 kJ)
Maximum work from gas
= u1 u2 T0 ( s1 s2 )
= m cv (T1 T2 )
T
p

T0 m cP ln 1 mR ln 1
T2
p2

343
3
= 2 0.718(343 313) 300 1.005 ln
0.287 ln
313
1

= 177.07 kJ
Work done on the atmosphere = p0 (V2 V1)

T
T

= 98 mR 0 mR 1
p2
p1

T
T
= 98 mR 2 1
p2 p1
= 111.75 kJ

Q8.20

Q = 1.2 kJ/kg

2
2S
S

Air enters the compressor of a gas turbine at 1 bar, 30C and leaves the
compressor at 4 bar. The compressor has an efficiency of 82%. Calculate
per kg of air
(a) The work of compression
(b) The reversible work of compression
(c) The irreversibility. For air, use

T2 s

p
= 2
T1 p1

1/

Where T2s is the temperature of air after isentropic compression and =

1.4. The compressor efficiency is defined as (T2s T1) / (T2 T1), where T2
is the actual temperature of air after compression.
(Ans. (a) 180.5 kJ/kg, (b) 159.5 kJ/kg (c) 21 kJ/kg)
Solution:

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Chapter 8
2

p1 = 1 bar = 100 kPa

T1 = 30 C = 303 K

2S
T

p2 = 4 bar = 400 kPa

T2 = ? com = 6.82

1
S

(b) Minimum work required for compression is isentropic work

1

p2
WR =
mRT
1
1
p1

0.4

1.4 1 0.287 303 400 1.4

= 147.92 kJ/kg
=

(1.4 1)
100

147.92
= 180.4 kJ/kg
(a)
Actual work =
0.82
Extra work 32.47 kJ will heat the gas from T2 to T2
1

Q8.21

Solution:

p
T2
= 2
T1
p1
32.47 = mc P (T2 T2 )

(c)

T2 = 482.6 K
Irreversibility (I) = (180.4 147.92) kJ/kg = 32.48 kJ/kg

T2 = 450.3 K

A mass of 6.98 kg of air is in a vessel at 200 kPa, 27C. Heat is transferred

to the air from a reservoir at 727C. Until the temperature of air rises to
327C. The environment is at 100 kPa, 17C. Determine
(a) The initial and final availability of air
(b) The maximum useful work associated with the process.
(Ans. (a) 103.5, 621.9 kJ (b) 582 kJ)
mRT2
p1 = 200kPa
p2 =
= 400 kPa
V2
po = 100 kPa
T1 = 300 K
mRT1
V1 =
= 3.005 m3
P1
Vo = 5.8095 m3

(a)

T2 = 600 K

To = 290 K

V2 = V1 = 3.005 m3
m = 6.98 kg

Initial availability
Ai = u1 u0 T0 ( s1 s0 ) +

p0 (V1 V0)

T
p

= m cv (T1 T0 ) mT0 m c p ln 1 R ln 1 + p0 (V1 V0 )

T0
p0

= 6.98 0.718 (300 290) 6.98 290

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Chapter 8

300
200
6.98 290 1.005 ln
0.287 ln
+ 100(3.005 5.8095)
290
100

= 103.4 kJ

Final availability
T2
p
R ln 2 + p0 (V2 V0 )
T0
p0

= 6.98 0.718(600 290) 6.98 290

600
400
0.287 ln
1.005 ln
+ 100 (3.005 5.8095)
290
100

= 599.5 kJ

Af = m

(b)

c v (T2 T0) mT0 cP ln

Maximum useful work

= u2 u1 T0 ( s2 s1 ) + p 0 (V2 V1)
T
p

= m cv (T2 T1 ) T0 m c p ln 2 R ln 2 + p0 (V2 V1 )
T1
p1

= 6.98 0.718(600 300) 300

600
400
6.98 1.005 ln
0.287 ln
+ p0 0
300
200

V2 = V1

= 461.35 kJ

Heat transfer to the vessel

mRT
V
= m cv (T2 T1) = 6.98 0.718 (600 300) kJ

Q=

m c

dT

p=

= 1503.402 kJ
T

Useful work loss of reservoir = Q 1 0

T

290

= 1503.402 1

1000

= 1067.47 kJ

Q8.22

Solution:

Air enters a compressor in steady flow at 140 kPa, 17C and 70 m/s and
leaves it at 350 kPa, 127C and 110 m/s. The environment is at 100 kPa,
7C. Calculate per kg of air
(a) The actual amount of work required
(b) The minimum work required
(c) The irreversibility of the process
(Ans. (a) 114.4 kJ, (b) 97.3 kJ, (c) 17.1 kJ)
Minimum work required
T2 = 127C = 400 K
T1 = 290 K
T0 = 280 K
2
2
V V1
w = h 2 h1 T0 (s2 s1 ) + 2
2000
T
V 2 V12
p

= m cP (T2 T1 ) mT0 cP ln 2 R ln 2 + 2
T1
2000
p1

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Chapter 8

400
350

0.287 ln
= 1 1.005(400 290) 1 280 1.005 ln
290
140

+
= 110.55 16.86 + 3.6 = 97.29 kJ/kg

1.1102 702
kJ
2000

Actual work required

V22 V12
h
h
= 2 1+
= (110.55 + 3.6) kJ = 114.15 kJ
2000

Irreversibility of the process

= T0 ( s2 s1 ) = T0(S) univ = 16.86 kJ/kg
Q8.23

Solution:

Air expands in a turbine adiabatically from 500 kPa, 400 K and 150 m/s to
100 kPa, 300 K and 70 m/s. The environment is at 100 kPa, 17C. Calculate
per kg of air
(a) The maximum work output
(b) The actual work output
(c) The irreversibility
(Ans. (a) 159 kJ, (b) 109 kJ, (c) 50 kJ)
Maximum work output
V 2 V22
w = h1 h 2 T0 (s1 s2 ) + 1
2000
T1
p V 2 V22

= CP (T1 T2 ) T0 CP ln
R ln 1 + 1
T2
p2
2000

= 1.005(400 300) 290 1.005 ln

400
500 1502 702
0.287 ln
+
200
100
2000

= 159.41 kJ/kg
V12 V22
= 100.5 + 8.8 = 109.3 kJ/kg
2000
The irreversibility (I) = T0(S) univ = 50.109 kJ/kg
Calculate the specific exergy of air for a state at 2 bar, 393.15 K when the
surroundings are at 1 bar, 293.15 K. Take cp = 1 and R = 0.287 kJ/kg K.
(Ans. 72.31 kJ/kg)
Exergy = Available energy
= h1 h2 T0 ( s1 s2 )
Actual output = h1 h 2 +

Q8.24
Solution:

Q8.25

T
p

= C p (T1 T0 ) T0 C p ln 1 R ln 1
T0
p0

393.15
2
0.287 ln kJ/kg
= 1 (393.15 293.15) 293.15 1 ln
293.15
1

= 72.28 kJ/kg
Calculate the specific exergy of CO2 (cp = 0.8659 and R = 0.1889 kJ/kg K)
for a state at 0.7 bar, 268.15 K and for the environment at 1.0 bar and
293.15 K.
(Ans. 18.77 kJ/kg)

Solution:

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Chapter 8
Emin

Exergy = Available energy

h1 h0 T0 ( s1 s2 )
T
p

= C p (T1 T0 ) T0 C p ln 1 R ln 1
T0
p0

= 0.8659 (268.15 293.15) 293.15

0.8659 ln

p0 = 100 kPa
T0 = 293.15 K
p

268.15
70
0.1889 ln
kJ/ kg
293.15
100

p1 = 70 kPa, T1 = 68.15 K

= 18.772 kJ/kg

Q8.26

A pipe carries a stream of brine with a mass flow rate of 5 kg/s. Because
of poor thermal insulation the brine temperature increases from 250 K at
the pipe inlet to 253 K at the exit. Neglecting pressure losses, calculate
the irreversibility rate (or rate of energy degradation) associated with
the heat leakage. Take T0 = 293 K and cp = 2.85 kJ/kg K.
(Ans. 7.05 kW)

Solution:

T.dT

m = 5 kg/s

p, 250 K

p, 253 K
T0 = 293 K

cp = 2.85 kJ/kg K
Entropy generation rate

Sgas = Ssys

T0

= m (S2 S1 )

m cP (253 250)
T0

3
T
= m cP ln 2 kW/ K
T1 T0
= 0.0240777 kW/K

Where, Q = m c p (253 250)

ve because Q flux from surroundings.

T
S2 S1 = c p ln 2
T1

I = rate of energy degradation

= rate of exergy loss

To Sgen = 293 0.0240777 kW = 7.0548 kW

Q8.27

In an adiabatic throttling process, energy per unit mass of enthalpy

remains the same. However, there is a loss of exergy. An ideal gas
flowing at the rate m is throttled from pressure p1 to pressure p2 when
the environment is at temperature T0. What is the rate of exergy loss due
to throttling?
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Chapter 8
i
i
p1

Ans. I = m RT0 ln

p2

Solution:

Adiabatic throttling process h1 = h2

Rate of entropy generation (Sgen )

Sgen = ( S)sys + ( S)surr.

= ( S)sys + 0

= m(S2 S1 )

p
= m R ln 1
p2
(as no heat interaction with surroundings)
TdS = dh Vdp
dh
dp
V
mR
or dS =
V
=
p
T
T
T
dp
dS = 0 mR
p
2

or

S2 S1 = mR
1

kg/s
m

p1, T1

p2, T2

p
p
dp
= mR ln 2 = mR ln 1
p
p1
p2

Irreversibility rate (I)

= T0 Sgen

p
= T0 mR ln 1
p2
p
= mR T0 ln 1
p2
Q8.28.

Solution:

Air at 5 bar and 20C flows into an evacuated tank until the pressure in
the tank is 5 bar. Assume that the process is adiabatic and the
temperature of the surroundings is 20C.
(a) What is the final temperature of the air?
(b) What is the reversible work produced between the initial and final
states of the air?
(c) What is the net entropy change of the air entering the tank?
(d) Calculate the irreversibility of the process.
(Ans. (a) 410.2 K, (b) 98.9 kJ/kg,
(c) 0.3376 kJ/kg K, (d) 98.9 kJ/kg)
If m kg of air is entered to the tank then the enthalpy of entering fluid is equal to
internal energy of tank fluid.
(a)
h=v
CpT1 = CvT2
C
or T2 = p T1 = T1
Cv
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Chapter 8

=1.4 293 K = 410.2 K

V1

(b) Reversible work

W = pdV work
= p (V2 V1)
= p (0 V1)
= pV1

Q8.29

v1 =

RT1
= 0.168182 m3/kg
p1

A Carnot cycle engine receives and rejects heat with a 20C temperature
differential between itself and the thermal energy reservoirs. The
expansion and compression processes have a pressure ratio of 50. For 1
kg of air as the working substance, cycle temperature limits of 1000 K
and 300 K and T0 = 280 K, determine the second law efficiency.
(Ans. 0.965)

Solution:

Let Q1 amount of heat is in input. Then actual Carnot cycle produces work
360

W = Q1 1
= 0.7 Q1
1000

If there is no temperature differential between inlet and outlet then from Q1 heat
input Carnot cycle produce work.
280

Wmax = Q1 1
= 0.72549 Q1
1020

W
0.7
=
= 0.965

Second law efficiency ( II ) =

0.72549
Wmax

Q8.30

Solution:

Energy is received by a solar collector at the rate of 300 kW from a

source temperature of 2400 K. If 60 kW of this energy is lost to the
surroundings at steady state and if the user temperature remains
constant at 600 K, what are the first law and the second law efficiencies?
Take T0 = 300 K.
(Ans. 0.80, 0.457)
First law efficiency
300 60
=
= 0.8
300
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Chapter 8

300

(300 60) 1

600 = 0.457

Second law efficiency =

300

300 1

2400

Q8.31

For flow of an ideal gas through an insulated pipeline, the pressure

drops from 100 bar to 95 bar. If the gas flows at the rate of 1.5 kg/s and
has cp = 1.005 and cv = 0.718 kJ/kg-K and if T0 = 300 K, find the rate of
entropy generation, and rate of loss of exergy.
(Ans. 0.0215 kW/K, 6.46 kW)

Solution:

= 1.5 kg/s
m

p1 = 100 bar

T0 = 300 K
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K

Rate of entropy generation

Sgen = ( S)sys

p2 = 95 bar

T0

As it is insulated pipe so Q = 0

= ( S)sys

TdS = dh Vdp

= m(S2 S1 )

Here h1 = h2 so dh = 0

p
= m R ln 1
p2

100
= 1.5 0.287 ln
kW/K
95

TdS = Vdp
V
dp
T
2
2
p
dp
mR
dS
=

1
1 p = mR ln p12

dS =

= 0.022082 kW/K

Rate of loss of exergy = Irreversibility rate (I)

To Sgen = 300 0.22082 = 6.6245 kW

Q8.32

The cylinder of an internal combustion engine contains gases at 2500C,

58 bar. Expansion takes place through a volume ratio of 9 according to
pv1.38 = const. The surroundings are at 20C, 1.1 bar. Determine the loss of
availability, the work transfer and the heat transfer per unit mass. Treat
the gases as ideal having R = 0.26 kl/kg-K and cv = 0.82 kJ/kg-K.
(Ans. 1144 kJ/kg, 1074 kJ/kg, 213 kJ/kg)

Solution:

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Chapter 8

1
T

2
2
V
p1 = 58 bar = 5800 kPa
v1 = 0.1243 m3/kg (calculating)
T1 = 2500C = 2773 K
RT
v1 = m 1 = 0.1243 m3/kg
p1
p0 = 1.1 bar = 110 kPa

S
p2 = 279.62 kPa (calculated)
v 2 = 9 v1 = 1.11876 m3/kg
T2 = 1203.2 K (calculated)

T0 = 20C = 293 K
c P = c v + R = 1.08 kJ/kg

W = 0.82 kJ/kg K

R = 0.26 kJ/kg K

1.38

p
v
v
2 = 1 or p2 = p1 1
p1 v 2
v2

p1
91.38

n 1

T2
1
v
= 1
= 0.38
9
T1
v2
T1
T2 = 0.38
= 1203.2 K
9

Loss of availability
1 2
= (u1 u2 ) T0 ( s1 s2 ) + p0 ( v1 v 2 )
T
p

= Cv (T1 T2 ) T0 C p ln 1 R ln 1 + p0 (v1 v 2 )
T
p
2
2

2773
5800
= 0.82(2773 1203.2) 293 1.08 ln
0.26 ln

1203.2
279.62

+ 110(0.1243 1.11876) kJ/kg

= 1211 kJ/kg
p v p2 v 2
Work transfer (W) = 1 1
= 1074 kJ/kg
n 1
dQ = du + dW
Q1 2 = Cv (T2 T1) + W1 2

= 1287.2 + 1074 = 213.2 kJ/kg

Q8.33

In a counterflow heat exchanger, oil (cp = 2.1 kJ/kg-K) is cooled from 440
to 320 K, while water (cp = 4.2 kJ/kg K) is heated from 290 K to
temperature T. The respective mass flow rates of oil and water are 800
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Chapter 8

and 3200 kg/h. Neglecting pressure drop, KE and PE effects and heat loss,
determine
(a) The temperature T
(b) The rate of exergy destruction
(c) The second law efficiency
Take T0 = I7C and p0 = 1 atm.
(Ans. (a) 305 K, (b) 41.4 MJ/h, (c) 10.9%)
Solution:

440 K

c p = 2.1 kJ/kg K
0

From energy balance

800 kg/K

(a) m P c P (440 320)

= m w c Pw (T 290)

cp

= 4.2 kJ/kg K
3200 kg/K

320 K

T = 290 + 15 = 305 K

200 K

T0 = 17C = 290 K
p0 = 1 m = 101.325 kPa

(b) Sgen = ( S)0 + ( S)

= mo c p o ln

Tfo
T
+ m wc p w ln fw
Tio
Tiw

320 3200
305
800
3600 2.1 ln 440 + 3600 4.2 ln 290
= 0.039663 kW/K = 39.6634 W/K

Rate of energy destruction = To Sgen = 290 0.039663 kW

= 11.5024 kW = 41.4 MJ/K

(c)

Availability decrease of oil

= A1 A2 = h1 h2 T0 ( s1 s2 )

= m0 c p0 (T1 T2 ) T0 ln 1
T2

800
440

=
2.1 (440 320) 290 ln
3600
320

= 12.903 kW
Availability decrease of water
A1 A2 = h1 h2 T0 ( s1 s2 )

= m w c p w (T1 T2 ) T0 ln 1
T2

3200
305

=
4.2 (305 290) 290 ln
kW = 1.4 kW
3600
290

Gain of availability
1.4
Second law efficiency ( II ) =
=
= 10.85%
Loss for that
12.903

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