UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

CHRISTIANITY AND THE WORLDVIEW OF THE KELABIT SOCIETY,

SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

HEE CHAN JUNG

FEM 2009 9

CHRISTIANITY AND THE WORLDVIEW OF THE KELABIT SOCIETY,

SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

By

HEE CHAN JUNG

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia,

in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

September 2009

DEDICATION
To My GOD, Wife, Three Daughters and the Kelabits

ii

Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment

of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

CHRISTIANITY AND THE WORLDVIEW OF THE KELABIT SOCIETY,

SARAWAK, MALAYSIA

By
HEE CHAN JUNG
September 2009

Chairman:

Jayum Anak Jawan, PhD

Faculty:

Human Ecology

The purpose of this study was to examine Christianity and the worldview of Kelabit
society, which is one of the small indigenous groups in Sarawak, East Malaysia.
There were four objectives outlined in this study. Firstly, the study examined the
spread of Christianity in the Kelabit highlands, Sarawak and Malaysia. Secondly, it
was carried out to determine the religiosity of the Kelabit. Thirdly, it was done to
identify the worldview of the Kelabit, and finally it was aimed at analyzing the social
changes experienced by the Kelabit society and their worldview.

Both qualitative and quantitative research methods were applied for this study. Data
from the qualitative research were collected through in-depth interview with fortyone respondents who were selected from among social, religious and educational
leaders of the Kelabit society. Participant observation was also conducted by the
researcher in the villages in Bario, Sarawak. Meanwhile, qualitative data were
arranged by encoding them into thirteen topics. The topics were classified by three
iii

important themes, which included religiosity of Christianity, worldview and social

changes of the Kelabit. The qualitative data were analyzed by interpreting according
to the three main themes. In addition, the quantitative data were also obtained by
distributing one hundred questionnaires among the Kelabits who are residing in
Kelabit Highlands, Miri, Kuching and Kuala Lumpur. The quantitative data were
analyzed using SPSS version 15.0.

There are four findings yielded in this research. Firstly, the Kelabit society has been
influenced by the spread of Christianity through the Australian and American
missionaries in the early stage. As a result, the Kelabits converted to Christianity and
experienced the Christian revival. Secondly, the Kelabit has unique religious
practices which include various church activities such as early morning prayers and
worships. Moreover, their religiosity is strongly related to their social lifestyles.
Thirdly, the present worldview of the Kelabits is influenced through the years by
animism, Christianity and Christian revival. Finally, the study also revealed that the
worldview of the Kelabits has shaped their society.

In conclusion, it can be said that the present worldview of the Kelabit has been
strongly influenced by Christianity. More importantly, their Christianized worldview
has brought positive changes and improvement in the life of the Kelabits.

iv

Abstract tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai
memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

KRISTIANITI DAN PANDANGAN DUNIA MASYARAKAT KELABIT,

SARAWAK, MALAYSIA
Oleh
HEE CHAN JUNG
September 2009

Pengerusi :

Jayum Anak Jawan, PhD

Fakulti :

Ekologi Manusia

Tujuan kajian ini adalah untuk mengkaji Kristianiti dan pandangan orang Kelabit
terhadap dunia. Masyarakat Kelabit merupakan salah satu kaum peribumi yang
terkecil yang terdapat di Sarawak, Malaysia Timur. Terdapat empat objektif dalam
kajian ini. Objektif yang pertama ialah untuk mengkaji penyebaran Kristianiti di
Dataran Tinggi Kelabit, Sarawak dan Malaysia. Objektif yang kedua adalah untuk
mengenalpasti amalan keagamaan orang Kelabit. Objektif yang ketiga adalah untuk
mengenal pasti pandangan dunia orang Kelabit. Objektif yang akhir ialah untuk
menentukan perubahan sosial yang dipengaruhi oleh pandangan dunia masyarakat
Kelabit.

Kedua-dua kaedah kajian kualitatif dan kuantitatif telah digunapakai di dalam kajian
ini. Data kajian kualitatif diperolehi melalui temu bual yang mendalam dengan empat
puluh satu orang responden yang telah dipilih dalam kalangan pemimpin sosial,
agama dan pendidikan masyarakat Kelabit. Pemerhatian penyelidik juga telah
v

dilakukan di kampung-kampung di Bario, Sarawak. Data kualitatif berkenaan

disusun dengan mengekodkan data tersebut ke dalam tiga belas topik. Topik tersebut
telah diklasifikasikan oleh tiga tema yang penting iaitu amalan keagamaan Kristian,
pandangan dunia dan perubahan sosial orang Kelabit. Data kualitatif telah dianalisis
melalui pentafsiran berdasarkan ketiga-tiga tema utama itu. Data kajian kuantitatif
pula diperolehi melalui seratus borang soal selidik yang dikumpul daripada orang
Kelabit yang menetap di Dataran Tinggi Kelabit, Miri, Kuching dan Kuala Lumpur.
Data kuantitatif ini telah dianalisis dengan menggunakan perisian window SPSS 15.0.
untuk memperoleh hasil kajian.

Terdapat empat penemuan kajian ini. Penemuan yang pertama ialah masyarakat
Kelabit telah dipengaruhi oleh penyebaran agama Kristian melalui dari Australia dan
Amerika pada peringkat awal. Kesannya, masyarakat Kelabit telah memeluk agama
Kristian dan mengalami pembangunan rohani. Penemuan yang kedua ialah Kelabit
yang mempunyai keunikan beragama yang dipraktikkan dalam beberapa aktiviti
gereja seperti doa pada waktu pagi awal dan beberapa penyembahan. Keagamaan
sangat berkait rapat dengan cara hidup social masyarakat Kelabit. Penemuan yang
ketiga ialah pandangan dunia Kelabit pada masa ini telah dipengaruhi oleh animisme,
pertukaran kepada Kristianiti dan kebangunan rohani Kristian. Penemuan yang
terakhir pula menunjukkan bahawa pandangan dunia suku kaum Kelabit telah
membentuk masyarakat mereka.

Kesimpulannya, bolehlah dikatakan bahawa pandangan dunia Kelabit pada masa ini
sangat dipengaruhi oleh Kristianiti. Pandangan dunia berasaskan Kristianiti ini telah
membawa perubahan dan peningkatan tahap kehidupan masyarakat Kelabit.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Foremost, I would like to thank God who has given me the opportunity and wisdom
to conduct research and complete PhD. I would also like to express my gratitude to
supervisor, Prof. Jayum Anak Jawan, who never failed to encourage and guide me in
the field of Sarawak studies. I am deeply grateful to other supervisors, Dr. Nurdeng
Deuraseh and Dr. Sarjit Singh, who have helped me with their thoughtful advice and
invaluable research insight.

This work would not have been possible without the help and support of the Kelabit
community who had helped me to conduct research in their villages such as Bario
Asal and Bued Main Beruh. I would especially thank Tama Ngimat Ayu, the former
Chief of the Kelabit, who shared his love, information, and life with me. Besides
these individuals, I would like to thank all the people who had completed the
questionnaires and participated in the in-depth-interviews; these include Rev.
Solomon Bulan, Lucy Bulan, Datuk Robert Saging Lian, Datuk Seri Idris Jala, Prof.
Son Radu, Ivy Lian and Jasmine. I would like to thank the librarians of UPM, UKM,
USM, UNIMAS, Sarawak Museum, and STM for their co-operation and help.

Last but certainly not least, I would have not made this possible without my family
who have constantly supported me with prayers and encouragement. My wife and
three beautiful daughters are particularly supportive in my endeavour. I wish to thank
all the others whose names I did not have the opportunity to record, but who had
supported me in various ways during my PhD studies.

vii

I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 10 September 2009 to

conduct the final examination of Hee Chan Jung on his thesis entitled Christianity
and the Worldview of the Kelabit Society, Sarawak, Malaysia in accordance with
Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti
Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the
student be awarded the Doctor of Philosophy.
Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:

Adlina Binti AB Halim, PhD

Senior Lecturer
Faculty Human Ecology
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)

Zaid Bin Ahmad, PhD

Associate Professor
Faculty Human Ecology
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Internal Examiner)

Zahid Bin Emby, PhD

Senior Lecturer
Faculty Human Ecology
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Internal Examiner)

Azizan Binti Baharuddin, PhD

Professor
Centre for Civilizational Dialogue
Universiti Malaya
Malaysia
(External Examiner)

BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Deputy Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 15 January 2010

viii

This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been
accepted as a fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
Members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Jayum Anak Jawan, PhD

Professor and Deputy Dean
Faculty Human Ecology
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Chairman)

Nurdeng Deuraseh, PhD

Associate Professor
Faculty Human Ecology
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)

Sarjit Singh a/l Darshan Singh, PhD

Senior Lecturer
Faculty Human Ecology
Universiti Putra Malaysia
(Member)

HASANAH MOHD GHAZALI, PhD

Professor and Dean
School of Graduate Studies
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 14 February 2010

ix

DECLARATION
I declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations which
have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously, and is
not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia or at
any other institutions.

HEE CHAN JUNG

Date: 8th January 2010

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ii
iii
v
vii
viii
x
xiv
xv
xvi

DEDICATION
ABSTRACT
ABSTRAK
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
APPROVAL
DECLARATION
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER
1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background of the Study
1.3 Statement of the Problem
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.5 Significance of the Study
1.6 Limitations of the Study
1.7 Definition of Terms
1.8 Organization of the Study
1.9 Conclusion

1
1
1
9
10
11
12
14
20
25

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition, Concepts and Approaches of Religion
2.3 Religion and Society
2.4 Worldview and Society
2.5 Christianity and the Kelabit Society
2.5.1 Spread of Christianity in the Kelabit highlands
2.5.2 Religiosity of the Kelabit
2.5.3 Worldview of the Kelabit
2.5.4 Kelabit Worldview and Social Changes
2.6 Theoretical Framework of the Study
2.7 Conclusion

26
26
27
29
39
44
46
48
55
58
62
65

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Conceptual Framework
3.4 Description of the Study Area

66
66
67
68
70

xi

3.5

Measurement of Factors
3.5.1 General Factors of the Respondents Social
Background
3.5.2 Factors of the Kelabit Religiosity
3.5.3 Factors of the Kelabit Worldview
3.5.4 Factors of Social Change
Scales Reliability Test
Data Collection
3.7.1 Qualitative Data Collection
3.7.2 Quantitative Data Collection
Data Analysis
3.8.1 Qualitative Data Analysis
3.8.2 Quantitative Data Analysis
Conclusion

75
75

SPREAD OF CHRISTIANITY IN THE KELABIT

HIGHLANDS, SARAWAK, MALAYSIA
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Spread of Christianity in Malaysia
4.2.1 Introduction of Christianity in Malaysia
4.2.2 Response towards Christianity in Malaysia
4.2.3 Progress of Christianity in Malaysia
4.3 Spread of Christianity in Sarawak
4.3.1 Introduction of Christianity in Sarawak
4.3.2 Response towards Christianity in Sarawak
4.3.3 Progress of Christianity in Sarawak
4.4 Spread of Christianity in the Kelabit Highlands
4.4.1 Introduction of Christianity in the Kelabit
Highlands
4.4.2 Response towards Christianity in the Kelabit
Highlands
4.4.3 Progress of Christianity in the Kelabit Highlands
4.5 Conclusion

99

3.6
3.7

3.8

3.9
4

77
79
80
81
82
83
89
93
93
95
97

99
99
100
102
104
104
105
109
110
112
112
116
119
122

KELABIT RELIGIOSITY
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Social Background of the Respondents for the
Questionnaires
5.3 Background of the Respondents for In-depth Interview
5.4 Religiosity of the Kelabit Christians
5.5 Conclusion

125
125
125

KELABIT WORLDVIEW
6.1 Introduction
6.2 View of God
6.3 View of Man
6.4 View of the Universe
6.5 View of the Society
6.6 Conclusion

154
154
155
172
185
193
208
xii

133
139
151

KELABIT WORLDVIEW AND SOCIAL CHANGES

7.1 Introduction
7.2 General Factors for the Social Changes
7.3 Christian-Related Factors for the Social Changes
7.4 The Areas Influenced by the Kelabit Worldview in the
Society
7.5 Conclusion

212
212
213
220
226

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Summary
8.3 Conclusion
8.4 Recommendations for Future Research

236

235

236
236
244
247
249
269
294

REFERENCES
APPENDICES
BIODATA OF STUDENT

xiii

LIST OF TABLE
Table

Page

2.1

Worldview of the Church History

42

3.1

Population of Each Village in the Bario District

73

3.2

Scores of the Kelabit Religiosity and Worldview

78

3.3

Number of Items and Reliability Coefficients of Factors

81

3.4

Name List for the In-depth Interview

85

3.5

Breakdown of the Sample Pilot Test

90

3.6

Total Respondents for Quantitative Research

92

4.1

Church Denominations in Malaysia

103

4.2

Brief Time Line of the Bario Revival

120

5.1

Respondents Social Background

126

5.2

Kelabit Religiosity

139

6.1

View of God

156

6.2

View of Man

173

6.3

View of the Universe

185

6.4

View of the Society

194

7.1

General Factors for the Social Changes among Kelabits

214

7.2

Christian-related Factors for the Social Changes among Kelabits

221

7.3

Areas of the Social Change by the Kelabit Worldview

227

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure

Page

2.1

Theoretical Framework of the Study

64

3.1

Conceptual Framework of the Study

69

3.2

Map of Malaysia

71

3.3

Map indicating the distribution of the main ethnic groups in

Sarawak

72

3.4

Map of Bario

74

3.5

Model of the Qualitative Date Analysis

94

xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

APPS

Assistance for Padi Planters Scheme

BEM

Borneo Evangelical Mission

C&MA

Christian and Missionary Alliance

CCM

Council of the Churches of Malaysia

EIC

East India Company

LMS

London Missionary Society

MAS

Malaysian Airlines System

MBS

Malaysia Bible Seminary

MEC

Malaysia Evangelical College

NECF

National Evangelical Christian Fellowship

SIB

Sidang Injil Borneo or Evangelical Church of Borneo

SMK

Sekolah Menengah Kebangsaan

SPSS

The Statistical Package for the Social Science

UM

Universiti Malaya

UPM

Universiti Putra Malaysia

USM

Universiti Sains Malaysia

UNIMAS

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

xvi

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This study researched Christianity and the worldview of Kelabit that affected the
society. The first chapter illustrates the general direction of the study by presenting
the background of the study, statement of problem, objectives of the study,
significance of the study, limitations of the study, definition of terms, and
organization of the study.

1.2 Background of the Study

Society has been built upon the foundation of religions throughout human history.
Therefore, whenever a societys religions were changed by any influence from
outside or from within, the society itself would change. There are various societies
which are influenced by different religious views; the western countries are
influenced by the Christianity, while the Islamic countries are impacted by the

Islamic view. Historically, countries in Asia had been mostly influenced by

Buddhism, Hinduism, and Confucianism. Huntington (2003) suggested how to live
in peace in his work entitled, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World
Order. In his writing, Huntington insisted that nations, especially strong governments,
should refrain from intervening in conflicts by involving other civilizations.
Obviously, every religion needs to be respected by each other. Similarly, each
civilization needs to learn from others in order to develop into a better society. Max
Weber, a well-known sociologist, insisted that economy is strongly related to
religions. In The Protestant Ethics and the Spirit of Capitalism which was written in
1904, Weber (1967) argued that capitalism was formed by the Christian doctrines.
Weber also argued that China was influenced by Confucianism and Taoism (1968),
while India was impacted by Hinduism and Buddhism (1958). The lifestyle of people
cannot be separated from their religions since their behaviours are governed by their
worldviews which are influenced by their own religions. In specific, Christian view
was deeply embedded by the Christian history and the Bible which included both the
Old and the New Testaments. The Christian view can influence the beliefs, values,
and behaviour of individuals and societies.

Malaysia is a country which has been developed on the multi-ethnic society. Thus,
the country needs to play a crucial role in managing the tension and reconciliation
among the different ethnic groups. M. Shamsul Haque (2003) described the
formation of the country as basically found upon ethnic politics and characterized as
an ethnocratic state, or ethnic democracy. Thus, Tunku, who was the first Prime
Minister called as the Father of Malaysias Independence, which set a pattern of
administration to achieve political stability and multi-racial harmony for the
countrys survival until 1969 (Kheng, 2002). However, the country continued to face
political tensions, particularly among the different ethnicities. Therefore, various
efforts were donewith the hope to achieve unity and harmony in Malaysia. Later, Dr.
Mahathir Bin Mohamad developed several terms such as Bangsa Malaysia,
Wawasan 2020, and Melayu Baru (Beng, 2006). He presented a vision or direction to
move forward for a better Malaysia by working together, although Malaysia comes
with plural-societal nature in life and in politics. As a result, Malaysia could achieve
the needed economic growth which could help to achieve general satisfaction and
narrow down the ethnic divisions. The inter-ethnic relations were being redefined by
the Islamic perspective from Bangsa Malaysia or United Malaysian Race to Islam
Hadhari or Civilisational Islam so as to propose a model for modernizing Islamic
nations (Beng, 2006). In addition, Beng also described that while Bumiputera

involved ethnic exclusion and Bangsa Malaysia suggested ethnic inclusion, Islam
Hadhari focused on the relationship of Islam and the Malays with other ethnic
groups, as well as economic growth, urbanism and scientific thought. In relation to
Islam Hadhari, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi (2006) stated that:

Inter-civilisation dialogues can take place at the official level between governments as well
as along the second track, in other words, at the non-governmental level. This is possible
because the subject of the dialogue concerns human relations between peoples of different
creeds and religions (Badawi, 2006, p. 126).

Badawi had an assurance that Islam Hadhari seemed to have been entirely consistent
with peace and harmony since Islam Hadhari was all about living peacefully and
respecting each other. Moreover, the approach of Islam Hadhari would bring
excellence, distinction and glory to all Malaysians, including Muslims and nonMuslims (Badawi, 2006). This study is relatable to the inter-civilisational dialogues
Badawi stated about Islam Hadhari. Even though Malaysia is an Islamic country,
there are several other religions which have existed in the society such as Buddhism,
Hinduism and Christianity. Malaysia has a multi-cultural society which comprises
various races, tribes, culture, languages, and embraces different religions. Therefore,
it is extremely significant to have a national identity for the whole Malaysians. This
identity could be accomplished by the developments of education, economy, politics
and culture. However, one of important issues for the people would be their religions.

Therefore, it is important for the people to respect other religions by knowing and
understanding them. Moreover, they could learn some valuable thoughts and
practices, to develop the society by having good and balanced relationship with other
religions.

The aforementioned considerations specifically presented a case to introduce the

influence of Christianity and the worldview for social development. For this case, the
Kelabit tribe was chosen since the tribe had already experienced considerable social
changes caused by Christianity and the worldview in the society. The Kelabit, a tribe
of more than 6,000 people, whose settlers were located 3,280 feet above sea level, is
one of the minor ethnic groups in Sarawak, Malaysia. Prior to the ruling of James
Brookes Government in Sarawak, the Kelabit had been involved in animism and
head hunting raids. They lived under the fear of spirits, omens, taboos and head
hunting raids of other tribes.

However, they had significantly changed ever since they were converted to
Christianity during a mass conversion in the 1940s. After their conversion, the
community started to change dramatically in various areas such as in education,
economy, politics and culture.

Although they have been living in the remote areas of the highlands in Sarawak, the
Kelabits are successful in education. In 1946, the first school was opened in the
Kelabit society. At present, approximately 90 percent of the Kelabits are literate,
with ten percent having various qualifications such as diplomas, degrees, postgraduate degrees and professional qualifications. Furthermore, the Bario community
was chosen by the World Teleport Association as one of the top seven intelligent
communities in 2001, together with the Ennis in Ireland, LaGrange in Georgia,
Nevada in Missouri, New York City in New York, Singapore and Sunderland in
England (Bulan and Bulan-Dorai, 2004).

The economy of the Kelabit has also been well developed since they were converted
to Christianity, i.e. from the traditional lives which were controlled by their taboos,
omens and spirits. In the past, they drank large quantities of rice-wine or borak and
this caused them not being able to harvest their crops properly, due to the lack of
working hours. After this society accepted Christianity, the people have become
liberated from the burdens of spirits, taboos, omens, and rice-wine. As expected,
their economy has also been improved as they started to achieve higher levels of
efficiency in work by releasing themselves from destructive traits and beliefs.

The political patterns of the Kelabit have also been advancing since their conversion
to Christianity. According to the Kelabit interviewees, the majority of the Kelabits
became Christians in the 1940s. At the moment, 99 percent of the Kelabits remain
Christians. The political leaders of the society such as the Pemanca, Penghulu, Ketua
Kampung have also embraced Christianity. Even though they have their own laws
such as Adat Kelabit, they are able to reconcile some matters in church. However, if
these matters cannot be reconciled in church, Ketua Kampung or Penghulu or
Pemanca will solve them according to their laws or Adat. Among the Kelabit
community, there is no significant gap between religion and the social leadership
because they have been cooperating together for the development of the society by
having the same religion, i.e. Christianity.

It is important to note that the Kelabits also have unique rituals and culture, such as
having tattoos, extended earlobes, dances, foods, songs and games. During the preChristian period in particular, the people practiced the traditional rituals for head
hunting, changing names, and funerals. However, they forbid all the rituals and
culture which are related to spirits, taboos, and omens ever since they converted to
Christianity. Interestingly, they have also modified some of their traditional cultural
practices by adapting them to suit the teachings of Christianity such as in the

changing names ceremony. Besides, they managed to develop their own traditional
customs such as dances, games, beaded hats, beaded necklaces and clothes. At the
same time, they have completely accepted some new rituals such as wedding
ceremonies and other religious practices which are commonly conducted by the
western people or in the Christian ways. The Kelabits have also been successful in
adapting and working together in the multi-cultural society of Malaysia by producing
educated Kelabits such as medical doctors, highly-placed government officers,
professors and businessmen. They cooperate with with the people of other races and
believers of other religions while engaging themselves in the Malaysian multi-ethnic
society. Even though the population is exceptionally small, their community has been
increasing because a number of the Kelabits have inter-marriages with people of
other races such as Malaysian Chinese, Malaysian Indians, other neighbouring tribes,
and westerners. Nonetheless, they have successfully been maintaining their identity
and community by accepting the non-Kelabits into their family fold. Therefore, this
study focused to identifying Christianity among the Kelabit, their worldview, and the
causes of their social change in order to understand their society. Thus, this research
will present some insights or ideas for other societies to develop into a better society.