Plastic is a material consisting of any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organics

that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects of diverse shapes. Plastics are
typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other substances.
They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many are
partially natural.[2] Plasticity is the general property of all materials that are able to
irreversibly deform without breaking, but this occurs to such a degree with this class of
moldable polymers that their name is an emphasis on this ability.
Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water,
plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to
spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone,
horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. In
developed countries, about a third of plastic is used in packaging and another third in
buildings such as piping used in plumbing or vinyl siding.[3] Other uses include automobiles
(up to 20% plastic[3]), furniture, and toys.[3] In the developing world, the ratios may be
different - for example, reportedly 42% of India's consumption is used in packaging.[3]
Plastics have many uses in the medical field as well, to include polymer implants, however
the field of plastic surgery is not named for use of plastic material, but rather the more
generic meaning of the word plasticity in regards to the reshaping of flesh.

Plastics: Composition, Classification &

Environmental Disadvantages of Plastic
by V.Shalem Pravas
The word Plastic is in a sense, the antonym of the word Elastic. An elastic material
regains its original shape on being stretched or elongated. The plastic nature of the material
does not permit the body to come back to its original phase once it has been deformed. All
materials show both elastic and plastic properties. The difference arises in the application of
the material and the amount of loads it can withstand within the limits of the two properties.

Plastics are one of the most widely used materials now

days. We recognize plastic by its unique nature of flexibility and lightness. It can adapt into
the most complex shapes possible. Plastics are used in almost every field we can think of.
Even its production is cheap. Most of our common household items are made from plastic
like chairs, plastic containers, plastic bottles, plastic covers, stationary, plastic glasses etc.
Plastics are very good insulators of heat. Therefore they are also used widely for offering
protection from hot objects.

In the early 19th century people used egg membranes, cellulose of plants and other such
naturally occurring polymers as plastics. These are natural and therefore are decomposable.
Later, technologies were made to bind or strengthen plastics from inorganic material. These
are stronger and more tensile. But the inorganic plastics such as polystyrene and Poly Vinyl
Chloride are hard to decompose and take thousands of years to do so. But what is this raw
material made of? What makes it so popular? Is it environment friendly?
How is Plastic Formed?

Plastic is not one single material. There are many types of plastics which are made of
synthetic and organic compounds. Several molecules of the same compound form inter
linkages with each other to form long chains. These chains are called polymers (poly
meaning many and meros meaning parts). The basic compound that is repeated in
the polymer is called the base unit of the polymer. Polymers which possess high molecular
mass or which are made up of a large number of base molecules are called plastics.
Composition of Plastic

The chain of the polymer is formed by multiple linkages of certain atoms of the compound,
usually being carbon, oxygen or nitrogen. The property to form these chain linkages
between similar atoms is called catenation. The polymeric linkage forms the Backbone
of the polymer. The other functional groups hang from the backbone.

Examples of plastics

Polyethylene (commonly referred to as polythene and popularly used as carry bags in

grocery stores and plastic bottles)

Poly Vinyl Chloride (commonly referred to as PVC and are used to make pipes and
insulation material of wires)

Poly Tetra-Fluoro Ethylene (commonly known as Teflon and is popularly used as a

coating for non-stick cookware)

Polyester (used in making fibres for textile industry)

Poly Ethylene Terephthalate (commonly referred to as PET and used to make bottles for
carbonated drinks)

Poly Styrene (commonly used to make packaging foam material and plastic containers).
Classification of Plastics

There are many ways of classifying plastics. We can classify them depending on the scientific
property which we desire. Suppose if we want to study the densities of the polymers, we must
classify them based on their linkage type. They are classified into condensation polymers and
addition polymers. We can classify them based on their thermal properties as
Thermoplastics and Thermo-setting plastics. Basically thermo plastics are the ones which
can be re-moulded once they take their initial shape unlike the thermo setting plastics which
are set to maintain their desired shape resisting any changes. Environmental classification
of plastics classifies it as bio degradable and non-bio degradable.
Environmental Disadvantages of Plastic

Plastics are tough to decompose or destroy by natural processes. They take thousands of
years to decompose. So, when they are dumped on the ground, they settle there and block the
passage of water and nutrients into soil making the place infertile. Most people try to dispose
of plastic by trying to burn it. When it burns, it seems to be breaking down but it never does.
It actually shrinks in size while being heated but never disintegrates and in addition, burning
plastic releases a black smoke that consists of a highly carcinogenic chemical (cancer
causing chemical). Another hazard arises even before plastic is manufactured. Plastics are

manufactured from tiny pellets called nurdles. This causes a loss of life of birds and fishes
which mistake it for food.
Recycle and Reuse

So, while plastic lasts for such a long period of time, why not use it rather than wasting it?
Plastics can be used for a long time by Recycling it. Thermo plastics can be re-shaped and
reused. Therefore by recycling plastic, we save the world and ourselves too in the process.
Recycling technologies are still at its young ages. It is a laborious process to separate out so
many different types of plastics. So, automation of recycling would save a lot of man force,
avoid environmental pollution and loss of life.
Biodegradable Plastics

Another option till then is to use biodegradable plastics. They are the plastics which
disintegrate upon the action of natural decomposition methods like being disintegrated by
bacteria, enzymes and environmental sources. They are totally environment friendly but not
friendly to the pocket. Biodegradable packaging also in its child stages is quite an expensive
option when large scale production is required.

Plastics have revolutionized the technology of mankind over the years from the transition
from the metal ages. Still a lot of research is being carried out to make plastic the ultimate
material which will have no side effects as well. Genetically engineered bacteria are under
development which can disintegrate certain plastics. All said, plastics are certainly a
fascinating material with wide usage field.

Plastics classification

Elastomers
Elastomers are characterized by wide-meshed crosslinking of the "knotted" molecular chains.
This type of crosslinking means that the materials have a high level of dimensional stability
but are still elastically malleable. By applying load (for instance tensile load) the chains
become disentangled, but after removal of the load they relax again. Like thermoset
polymers, elastomers are not meltable.

Structure of elastomers

Thermoset plastics
The individual molecular chains of thermoset polymers are characterized by threedimensional closely-meshed crosslinking. This property means that they can no longer be
shaped after hardening. They also cannot be melted. However, because of their strong
crosslinking, thermoset polymers do offer good chemical resistance and a high level of
thermal stability, as well as being hard and brittle.

Structure of thermoset plastics

Thermoplastics
Thermoplastic polymers are plastics in which, unlike elastomers and thermoset plastics, the
molecular chains are not crosslinked. They consequently demonstrate plastic elastic
behaviour and are thermoformable (meltable, weldable). This formability is reversible, in
other words can be repeated as often as required as long as the material is not thermally
damaged by overheating.

Strucure of thermoplastics

back to b

Construction

Plastics are used in a growing range of applications in the construction

industry. They have great versatility and combine excellent strength to
weight ratio, durability, cost effectiveness, low maintenance and
corrosion resistance which make plastics an economically attractive
choice throughout the construction sector.

Electrical and Electronic Applications

Electricity powers almost every aspect of our lives, at home and in our
jobs, at work and at play. And everywhere that we find electricity, we also
find plastics.

About Plastics Packaging

Plastics is the perfect material for use in packaging goods. Plastics is

versatile, hygenic, lightweight, flexible and highly durable. It accounts
for the largest usage of plastics world wide and is used in numerous
packaging applications including containers, bottles, drums, trays, boxes,
cups and vending packaging, baby products and protection packaging.

Transport

The cost-effective and safe transportation of people and goods is vital to

our economy, cutting the weight of cars, aeroplanes, boats and trains can
cut fuel consumption dramatically. The lightness of plastics therefore
makes them invaluable to the transport industry.

Plastic recycling
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Plastic recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste plastic and reprocessing the
material into useful products, sometimes completely different in form from their original

state. Since plastic is not normally biodegradable, recycling it is part of global efforts to
reduce plastic in the waste stream, especially the approximately eight million metric tonnes of
waste plastic that enter the earth's ocean every year.[1][2]
Plastic recycling includes melting down soft drink bottles and then casting them as plastic
chairs and tables. However, this kind of "recycling" is rather a misnomer since plastic
beverage bottles (soda, juice, milk) are never truly reformed into new beverage bottles, as this
requires virgin plastic. So there is actually no true cycle in the "recycling" of plastic beverage
containers, which actually and more precisely should be referred to as "downcycling".
Plastics are also recycled during the manufacturing process of plastic goods such as
polyethylene film and bags. A percentage of the recycled pellets are then re-introduced into
the main production operation. This closed-loop operation has taken place since the 1970s
and has made the production of some plastic products amongst the most efficient operations
today.
Polyethylene terephthalate (sometimes written poly(ethylene terephthalate)), commonly
abbreviated PET, PETE, or the obsolete PETP or PET-P, is the most common thermoplastic
polymer resin of the polyester family and is used in fibers for clothing, containers for liquids
and foods, thermoforming for manufacturing, and in combination with glass fiber for
engineering resins.
It may also be referred to by the brand name Dacron; in Britain, Terylene;[4] or, in Russia and
the former Soviet Union, Lavsan.
The majority of the world's PET production is for synthetic fibers (in excess of 60%), with
bottle production accounting for about 30% of global demand.[citation needed] In the context of
textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the acronym
PET is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world
polymer production and is the third-most-produced polymer; polyethylene (PE) and
polypropylene (PP) are first and second, respectively.
PET consists of polymerized units of the monomer ethylene terephthalate, with repeating
C10H8O4 units. PET is commonly recycled, and has the number 1 as its recycling symbol.
Depending on its processing and thermal history, polyethylene terephthalate may exist both
as an amorphous (transparent) and as a semi-crystalline polymer. The semicrystalline
material might appear transparent (particle size < 500 nm) or opaque and white (particle size
up to a few micrometers) depending on its crystal structure and particle size. Its monomer
bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate can be synthesized by the esterification reaction between
terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol with water as a byproduct, or by transesterification
reaction between ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate with methanol as a byproduct.
Polymerization is through a polycondensation reaction of the monomers (done immediately
after esterification/transesterification) with water as the byproduct.
PET is polyethylene terephthalate.

It's a plastic resin and the most common type of polyester. Two monomersmodified
ethylene glycol and purified terephthalic acidare combined to form the polymer called
polyethylene terephthalate. PET was discovered and patented in England in 1941.

Polystyrene (PS) /plistarin/ is a synthetic aromatic polymer made from the monomer
styrene. Polystyrene can be solid or foamed. General purpose polystyrene is clear, hard, and
rather brittle. It is an inexpensive resin per unit weight. It is a rather poor barrier to oxygen
and water vapor and has a relatively low melting point.[4] Polystyrene is one of the most
widely used plastics, the scale of its production being several billion kilograms per year.[5]
Polystyrene can be naturally transparent, but can be colored with colorants. Uses include
protective packaging (such as packing peanuts and CD and DVD cases), containers (such as
"clamshells"), lids, bottles, trays, tumblers, and disposable cutlery.[4]
As a thermoplastic polymer, polystyrene is in a solid (glassy) state at room temperature but
flows if heated above about 100 C, its glass transition temperature. It becomes rigid again
when cooled. This temperature behavior is exploited for extrusion, and also for molding and
vacuum forming, since it can be cast into molds with fine detail.
Polystyrene is very slow to biodegrade and is therefore a focus of controversy. It is often
abundant as a form of litter in the outdoor environment, particularly along shores and
waterways, especially in its foam form.
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing,[1] is a fundamental materials
science test in which a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.
The results from the test are commonly used to select a material for an
application, for quality control, and to predict how a material will react under
other types of forces. Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are
ultimate tensile strength, maximum elongation and reduction in area.[2] From
these measurements the following properties can also be determined: Young's
modulus, Poisson's ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening characteristics.[3]
Uniaxial tensile testing is the most commonly used for obtaining the
mechanical characteristics of isotropic materials. For anisotropic materials, such
as composite materials and textiles, biaxial tensile testing is required.

Process
The test process involves placing the test specimen in the testing machine and slowly
extending it until it fractures. During this process, the elongation of the gauge section is
recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated so that it is not specific to the

geometry of the test sample. The elongation measurement is used to calculate the engineering
strain, , using the following equation:[4]

where L is the change in gauge length, L0 is the initial gauge length, and L is the final
length. The force measurement is used to calculate the engineering stress, , using the
following equation:[4]

where F is the tensile force and A is the nominal cross-section of the specimen. The machine
does these calculations as the force increases, so that the data points can be graphed into a
stressstrain curve.[4]
Moisture Content ASTM D789, ISO 15512

Moisture Content by Karl Fischer ASTM D789, ISO 15512

Scope:
Karl Fischer is used to determine the water content of samples. It can be more accurate than
simple weight loss because in the weight loss method volatiles other than water can be lost
which is translated into artificially high water content. Knowledge of the moisture content
can be important since some polymers degrade when molded wet resulting in reduced
properties. Also, hygroscopic materials like nylon absorb moisture and knowledge of the
water content can be important in understanding performance.
Test Procedure:
A small weighed sample is placed into the Karl Fischer drying oven at a predetermined
temperature for a predetermined period of time. The time and temperature values are arrived
at by testing a similar material and varying the temperature and bake time independently to
determine optimal conditions for removal of all water in the sample. If the temperature is too
low or the retention time too short all of the water might not be driven off. A temperature
value too high can degrade the polymer and actually generate water in some cases.
The water in the sample is vaporized and carried by dry oxygen free nitrogen into a reaction
vessel with methanol. The methanol traps the water which is titrated to an end point with a
Karl Fischer reagent to determine the amount present.
Specimen size:
One to three grams.
Data:
Water content percent or parts per million.

**Please note that this test description is intentionally generic in nature and aimed at
providing a descriptive summary to enhance test understanding. Standards can be obtained
from appropriate standard authorities.

Testlopedia - The Plastics Testing Encyclopedia

Analytical Testing of Polymers

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Content ASTM D789, ISO 15512.
Ash Content ASTM D2584, D5630, ISO 3451

Ash Content analysis of plastics ASTM D2584, ASTM D5630,

ISO 3451
Scope:
An Ash test is used to determine if a material is filled. The test will identify the total filler
content. It cannot identify individual percentages in multi-filled materials without additional
test procedures being performed. An ash test cannot be used to determine the percent carbon
fiber or percent carbon black since carbon burns off during the Ash test.
Procedure:
An Ash test involves taking a known amount of sample, placing the weighed sample into a
dried / pre-weighed porcelain crucible, burning away the polymer in an air atmosphere at
temperatures above 500C, and weighing the crucible after it is has been cooled to room
temperature in a desiccator. Ash residue remaining in the crucible is considered filler unless
the residue is less than 1%. Residues of less than 1% are typically the result of additives that
did not burn off.
Data:
The Ash test result is expressed as % ash. A magnified optical examination of the ash residue
is performed to determine if the ash is glass, mineral, or a combination of both. The total ash
content equals the weight of the ash divided by the weight of the original sample multiplied
by 100%.
Specimen size:
Six grams of sample is typically used, which represents three crucibles each containing two
grams of sample. Smaller sample weights can be tested but accuracy diminishes with smaller
sample sizes.
Typically the average of 3 crucibles is reported.

Further Analysis:

Identification of Filler
If the supplied material has mineral filler an FTIR analysis of the ash residue can help to
further identify the type of mineral.
Smaller sample sizes:
TGA (Thermogravimetric Analysis) is an alternative method to determine filler content with
smaller samples sizes.

**Please note that this test description is intentionally generic in nature and aimed at
providing a descriptive summary to enhance test understanding. Standards can be obtained
from appropriate standard authorities.

ASTM Testing for Plastics and Polymers

Analytical Testing of Polymers

Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) ASTM E1131, ISO 11358

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ASTM D2584, D5630, ISO 3451

Biodegradation of polymers
Some types of plastics have been shown to be biodegradable, and their degradation
mechanisms have progressively become clearer. Very small variations in the chemical
structures of polymer could lead to large changes in their biodegradability. The
biodegradability depends on the molecular weight, molecular form and crystalline. It
decreases with increase in molecular weight, while monomers, dimmers and repeating units
degrade easily. Two categories of enzymes are involved in the process, namely extracellular
and intracellular depolymerises. Exoenzymes from the microorganisms first breakdown the
complex polymers giving short chains that are small enough to permeate through the cell
walls to be utilized as carbon and energy sources. The process is called depolymerisation.
When the end products are carbon dioxide, water or methane, the process is called
mineralization. Different end products are formed depending upon the degradation pathway

Mechanism of Biodegradation
Biodegradation of polymers involves following steps:
Attachment of microorganism to the surface of the polymer
Growth of microorganism utilising the polymer as the carbon source
Primary degradation of the polymer and
Ultimate degradation
Microorganisms can attach to the surface, if the polymer surface is hydrophilic.
Initial physical or chemical degradation leads to the insertion of hydrophilic groups on the
polymer surface making it more hydrophilic. Once the organism gets attached to the surface,
it starts growing by using the polymer as the carbon source. In the primary degradation, the
main chain cleaves, leading to the formation of low-molecular weight fragments, dimmers or
monomers. The degradation is due to the extra cellular enzymes secreted by the organism.
These low molecular weight compounds are further utilised by the microbes as carbon and
energy sources. Small oligomers may also diffuse into the organism and get assimilated. The
ultimate products of degradation are CO2, H2O and biomass under aerobic conditions.
Anaerobic microorganisms can also degrade these polymers under anoxic conditions. The
primary products then are CO2, H2O, CH4 and biomass under methanogenic condition or
H2S, CO2 and H2O under sulfidogenic condition. The environmental conditions decide the
group of microorganisms and the degradative pathway involved. Ultimate degradation of
recalcitrant synthetic polymers may take several hundred years . Additives, antioxidants and
other stabilisers added to commercial polymers may be toxic to the organisms or may slow
down the rate of biodegradation.
Strategies used to Characterize Biodegradability of Polymers As mentioned before,
the high molecular weight polymers are degraded first into oligomers, some of which might
be water soluble and then they are further broken down into organic intermediates. The
intermediate products may be acids, alcohols, ketones, etc.
The following strategies are used to assess and monitor the biodegradation of the
polymers:
Accumulation of biomass
Oxygen uptake rate
Carbon dioxide evolution rate
Products of reaction using chemical analysis

Surface changes
Changes in the mechanical and physical properties of the polymer