Cells

Cells make up every living thing around us, whether it be an as complex as a

human or as simple as a amoeba. Cells are the building blocks of life, without
them, there is no us or they. The Cell Theory states that all living things are
made of cells, which are the basic units of life, and that cells come from other
cells.
Cells are divided into two groups; Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic. Eukaryotic
(multicellular) cells have a nucleus and organelles that are surrounded by
membranes. Each organelle does a specific cell function. All species in the
Eukaryota domain (protists, fungi, plants, and animals) have eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic (unicellular) cells are simple in structure, with no recognizable
organelles. They have an outer cell wall
that gives them shape. Just under the rigid
cell wall is the more fluid cell membrane.
Each cell has a job to do, it needs to
survive on its own, and maintain itself to
carry out its specialized function. It needs
to take in nutrients and convert that to
energy, carry out special functions, and
reproduce when necessary. All cells share
these abilities:
o Reproduction by cell division
o Use of enzymes and proteins coded by
the DNA and carry out instructions
from RNA
o Metabolism, including taking in raw
materials, building cell components,
converting energy, and releasing by-
products (waste)
o Response to internal and external
stimuli e.g. temperature
o And that cell contents are contained
within a cell membrane
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across from a semi-permeable
membrane from a region of low concentration to an area of high solute potential.
Many plant cells perform osmosis. This is because the osmotic entry of water is
opposed and eventually equaled by the pressure exerted by the cell wall,
creating a steady state. In fact, osmotic pressure is the main cause of support in
plant leaves. In other words, it takes in the water so it can stay alive.
If we put an animal or a plant cell in a solution of sugar or salt in water
o If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration
than the cell, the cell will gain water through osmosis. Such a solution is
called a hypotonic solution.
o If the medium has exactly the same water concentration, there will be
no net movement of water across the cell membrane. Such a solution is
called a isotonic solution.
o If the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell, meaning
that it is a very concentrated solution the cell will lose water by
osmosis. Such a solution is called a hypertonic solution.
Cell division is the biological base of life. For simple unicellular organisms such
as the Amoeba, one cell division makes an entire organism. On a larger scale,
cell division can create children from multicellular organisms, such as plants that
grow from cuttings. But most importantly, cell division enables sexually
reproducing organisms to develop from the one-celled zygote, which was
produced by cell division from gametes. And after growth, cell division allows for
renewal and repair of the organism.
The human body consists of cells, and each of its cells contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, i.e. a total of 46 chromosomes (gr. chroma: color und soma:
body). They are thread-like parts of the cell’s nucleus, which can be dyed and
thus made visible under a microscope. They carry the genetic information, and
they play a important role in determining a person’s sex. There are different
forms of gene called alleles. These different forms of gene are what cause
variation amongst living things. There are two types of allele: dominant and
recessive. One type of gene is for eye colour. The allele for brown is dominant
and thus represented as 'B' (capital letter). The allele for blue eyes is recessive
and represented as 'b'.
Mrs Science has brown eyes and
the genotype Bb
Mr Science has blue eyes and the
genotype bb.
They are having a baby
Because the baby gets an allele
from each parent, you can work
out the possible outcomes by
representing it in a 'punnet
square'.

Two of the outcomes are Bb. This

means the baby has a 50% chance
of having brown eyes. As, even
though it has a b (blue eye) allele, it has one B allele, and as this is dominant the
baby will have this characteristic. In order to have blue eyes, the baby must have
two recessive blue alleles (bb).
Chromosomes need to carry information accurately and it needs to be exact
every time. The roles of chromosomes are quite simple; tell the cells what to do
and what to produce. Without it, we would be nothing but humans. If one part of
the chromosome is damaged, the whole body is affected. For example, Down
syndrome is common and is a result of damaged chromosomes. Genes also tell
the body what to chemicals to produce and determine our sexuality, if anything
is altered the DNA tells things to the body that its not supposed to.
Mitosis is a process of cell division which results in the production of two
daughter cells from a single parent cell. The daughter cells are identical to one
another and to the original parent cell.

In a typical animal cell, mitosis can be divided into four principals stages:
o Prophase: The chromatin, diffuse in interphase, condenses into
chromosomes. Each chromosome has duplicated and now consists of
two sister chromatids. At the end of prophase, the nuclear envelope
breaks down into vesicles.
 o Metaphase: The chromosomes align at the equitorial plate and are
held in place by microtubules attached to the mitotic spindle and to part
of the centromere.
o Anaphase: The centromeres divide. Sister chromatids separate and
move toward the corresponding poles.
o Telophase: Daughter chromosomes arrive at the poles and the
microtubules disappear. The condensed chromatin expands and the
nuclear envelope reappears. The cytoplasm divides, the cell membrane
pinches inward ultimately producing two daughter cells (phase:
Cytokinesis).
Meiosis is the type of cell division by which germ cells (eggs and sperm) are
produced. Meiosis involves a reduction in the amount of genetic material.

Meiosis comprises two successive nuclear divisions with only one round of DNA
replication.
Four stages can be
described for each
nuclear division.
o Interphase: Before
meiosis begins,
genetic material is
duplicated.
o First division of
meiosis
o Prophase 1:
Duplicated
chromatin
condenses.
Each
chromosome
consists of
two, closely
associated
sister
chromatids.
Crossing-over
can occur
during the
latter part of
this stage.
o Metaphase 1:
Homologous
chromosomes
align at the equatorial plate.
o Anaphase 1: Homologous pairs separate with sister chromatids
remaining together.
o Telophase 1: Two daughter cells are formed with each daughter
containing only one chromosome of the homologous pair.
o Second division of meiosis: Gamete formation
o Prophase 2: DNA does not replicate.
o Metaphase 2: Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate.
 o Anaphase 2: Centromeres divide and sister chromatids migrate
separately to each pole.
o Telophase 2: Cell division is complete. Four haploid daughter cells are
obtained.
One parent cell produces four daughter cells. Daughter cells have half the
number of chromosomes found in the original parent cell and with crossing over,
are genetically different.
Meiosis differs from mitosis because there are two cell divisions in meiosis,
resulting in cells with a haploid number of chromosomes.
"Normal" cells contain two full sets of chromosomes and are described as diploid.
Diploid is often abbreviated as 2n to remind us that it is "double".
Most of your cells are diploid - they contain two sets of chromosomes. Each set
(n) of human chromosomes contains 23 chromosomes so most cells in your body
have 46 chromosomes.

However, there is one kind of cell that is not diploid and that you must
completely understand. Mature gametes, the sex cells (sperm and egg), have
only one full set of chromosomes. Cells with only one set of chromosomes are
called haploid. Haploid is a single set of chromosomes, not a half set. Haploid is
often abbreviated as 1n to remind us there's only one set of chromosomes in
that cell. Meiosis has some similarities to mitosis and that will make it easier to
learn meiosis. But meiosis has some very important differences too and they
make meiosis very special.
During meiosis and the cytokinesis that follow, one diploid mother cell (2n)
makes four unique daughter cells and they are all haploid (1n)!

Meiosis is often called "reduction division" because

the genetic material is reduced - by half.
Meiosis is extremely important not only for sexual
reproduction, but also for creating the diversity upon
which natural selection operates.
Sexual reproduction combines the genetic information from two different cells
that are usually from two different individuals. Each parent contributes a haploid
(n) gamete (sex cell). These two gametes, a female egg and a male sperm, fuse
to produce a genetically unique single cell called a zygote.
The zygote is diploid (2n) having combined the genetic
information provided by the gametes (n) of both parents.
In a very real genetic sense, all offspring of sexual
reproduction are "half identical" to each parent!

Note that if diploid (2n) cells were fused the "zygote"

would have FOUR sets of chromosomes. It would be 4n!
Although this sometimes happens among plants, it is
deadly for humans. [Why? Well, it has to do with the
genetic regulation and management of all the extra
materials. Just think of it as too much of a good thing.]
If it were not for meiosis, sexual reproduction would double
chromosome sets every generation! That's deadly and
that's why meiosis is important.
Meiosis is also important because it creates unique gametes that go on to make
unique zygotes - and the unique individuals that grow from unique zygotes.